THE INFANT

I. Definition: The child from 1 to 12 months of age.

II. Psychosexual Stage (Freud): Oral
III. Psychosocial Stage (Erickson): Trust vs. Mistrust
IV. Cognitive Stage (Piaget): Sensorimotor = 0-2 yrs
V. Play
A. Purposes:
1. To practice motor skills
2. To gain coordination
3. To relate to objects and people
B. Type: Solitary - they love to play with their own bodies.
C. Age-appropriate toys:
1. Mobiles
2. Rattles
3. Musical box
4. Squeeze toys
5. Teething rings
6. Textured balls
7. Large, soft cuddly toys
VI. Greatest Fear: Stranger anxiety - after 6 months of age.
VII. Growth and Development
Over the first 2 years of a human’s life, growth occurs at a rapid pace!
The greatest height & weight increases occur during the 1st year of life, but children continue
to grow through infancy & toddlerhood.
Measurements.
At birth, the head is ¼ of the neonate’s body. By adulthood, it is only 1/8th the size of the
body.
Birthwt: 8 lbs. = By age 5-6 months, the average infant's birthweight has doubled to about 16
pounds.
Birthwt: 8 lbs. = By age 1, the infants' birthweight has tripled to approximately 24 pounds.
By the end of its second year, the average child weighs four times their birthweight.
By age 1, the average baby stands 30 inches tall.
By the end of the second year the average child is three feet tall.
Average birthweights (progression through the 1st 2 years)
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

A. Definitions
1. Growth = an increase in physical size of the whole body or any of its parts
and can be measured by inches or centimeters and in pounds or kilograms.
2. Development = progressive increase in skill and capacity of function.
B. General principles
1. Children are competent – they are well endowed with the qualities and
abilities needed to ensure their survival and promote their development.
2. Children resemble one another – the physical and behavioral
characteristics of each age and the changes that occur with increasing age
are similar from child to child.
3. Each child is unique – the differences from child to child are due to a
combination of;
a. Hereditary and constitutional make-up
b. Racial and national characteristics
c. Sex
d. Environment
4. Growth and development are directional
a. Cephalocaudal- growth is more advanced at the near the head and
gradually progresses downward to the neck, the trunk and the
extremities.
b. Proximo-distal- growth proceeds outward from the central axis of the
body toward the periphery.
c. General to specific- e.g., from crying at birth to complete sentences at
preschool age.
d. Simple to complex- e.g., from walking at 12 months of age to pedaling
the trike at 3 years of age.
5. Asynchronous growth – the whole body does not grow at once; different
regions and subsystems develop at different rates and times.
6. Discontinuity of growth rate- there are only two periods of very rapid
growth; the fetal- infancy period and adolescence.
7. Development is timely – the notion of readiness or maturation states that
learning would come quickly and effortlessly once the child is ready. (That
is why the most common reason for failure in toilet training is that the
child is not yet ready to be trained)
8. New skills tend to predominate- the current development issue becomes a
preoccupation for the child.
9. The many aspects of development (personal)- social, fine motor-adaptive,
gross motor and language) are interrelated. They act upon and react with
one another extensively and inseparably.
The Neuron The basic element of the nervous system
Neurons increase in size.
Neurons become coated with MYELIN, a fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and
speeds transmission of nerve impulses.
The brain is made up of neurons, and triples its weight in the first two years of life.
The infant's brain is 3/4 its adult size by age two

As they grow, neurons become arranged by function.

 Some move into the CEREBRAL CORTEX,the upper layer of the brain.
 Others move to subcortical levels, which regulate fundamental activities such as
breathing and heart rate (and are below the cerebral cortex).
 Networks of neurons become more complex over the first few years of life. Neuron
Networks

PLASTICITY is the degree to which a developing structure (e.g., the brain) or behavior is
susceptible to experience Brain development occurs because of genetic patterns and
environmental influences. 
The brain is relatively plastic
Infants who grow up in severely restricted environments are likely to show differences in
brain structure and weight.
Research with non-humans reveals that a SENSITIVE PERIOD exists which is a specific
but limited time span, usually early in an organism's life, during which the organism is
particularly susceptible to environmental influences relating to some particular facet of
development.

Development of Body Rhythms

• Behavior (sleeping, eating, crying, attending to the world) becomes integrated through the
development of various body RHYTHMS (repetitive, cyclic patterns of behavior)
• Some rhythms are obvious/easy to notice
• The change from being asleep to being awake/breathing patterns
• Some rhythms are more subtle
• Jerking suddenly while sleeping
*Some are apparent right after birth, others emerge over the course of the 1st year as the
nervous system becomes more integrated
One of the major body rhythms is an infants state.
An infant's STATE is the degree of awareness it displays to both internal and external
stimulation.
Includes various levels of wakeful behaviors (alertness, crying, etc.) and various levels of
sleep (active, quiet)
Changes in state are reflected in brain waves measured by a device called an EEG, or
electroencephalogram.
The major state occupying the infant is sleep.
• On average, newborns sleep 16-17 hours daily, ranging from 10-20 hours a day.
• Sleep stages are fitful and "out of sync" during early infancy.
• By the end of the first year most infants are sleeping through the night.

The Infant’s Cycle of Sleep

• Infants have a cycle of sleep similar to but different than REM - RAPID EYE
MOVEMENT, (the period of sleep found in adults and children and is associated with
dreaming).
• Brain waves are different than the dreaming sleep of adults.
• This active REM-like sleep takes up half an infants sleep at first.
• Researchers think the function of REM sleep in infants is to provide a means for the brain
to stimulate itself (autostimulation).
REM Sleep Through the Lifespan
REM sleep increases & the total amount of sleep falls as we age.

For a small % of infants, the rhythm of sleep is interrupted by a deadly occurrence:

SIDS
• SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS) is a disorder in which seemingly healthy
infants die in their sleep.
• affects 7,000 children in U.S. annually
• no cause found
• The leading cause of death in children under 1 year old
• Boys, African-Americans, and low birthweight and low Apgar scorers, and babies whose
mothers smoked during pregnancy are at higher risk.

Declining Rates of SIDS US rates have dropped 38% since 1992 as parents have learned to
have babies sleep on their backs.
Motor Development 
Basic REFLEXES, unlearned, organized, involuntary responses that occur automatically in
the presence of certain stimuli, represent behavior that has survival value for the infant. •
swimming reflex • eye blink reflex

More about reflexes in motor development… • Some reflexes stay throughout life; others
disappear over time. • Some researchers believe reflexes stimulate the brain toward
development. • Reflexes are genetically determined and universal and may be remnants from
the past. • Reflexes can serve as helpful diagnostic tools for pediatricians because they appear
and disappear on a regular timetable

Gross Motor Skills (rolling over, sitting upright, walking) • By 6 months infants can move by
themselves. • Most can sit unsupported by 6 months • Crawling appears between 8-10
months. • Infants can walk holding on to furniture by 9 months and most can walk alone by 1
year.

Fine Motor Skills(coordination, sophistication) • By 3 months infants can coordinate

movements of limbs. • Infants can grasp an object by 11 months. • By age 2, infants can drink
from a cup without spilling.

Milestones of Motor Development 50% of children are able to perform each skill at the
month indicated, but the specific timing varies widely!

It is important to keep in mind that developmental

NORMS are the average performance of a large sample of individuals of a certain age and
mask substantial individual differences! (Norms are based on scales developed by
developmental psychologists & pediatricians)

C. Specific behaviors
1. Newborn – when on prone, avoids suffocation by turning his head from
side to side.
2. One month
a. Lifts head intermittently when on prone
b. Momentary visual fixation on human faces and objects
3. Two months
a. “social smile”
b. Responds to familiar voices by moving the whole body
c. No head control yet; head lags when pulled to sitting (Implications:
support head and neck when carrying the baby).
d. Sheds tears
4. Three months
a. Can raise head, but not chest, when on prone.
b. Head in bobbing motion; some head control when pulled to sit.
 c. Babies and coos
d. 180° visual arc
5. Four months
a. Can raise head and chest when on prone
b. When on supine, head maintained in the midline, arms and legs are
asymmetrical and hands brought together in the midline.
c. May have bald occiput.
d. Grasps objects within reach and brings to mouth ( Implication: diaper
pin, clips, etc., should be kept out of reach)
e. Head control when pulled to sit, no lag; no more bobbing, head steady
when upright.
f. Sustains part of own weight when helped to standing position.
g. Laughs aloud
6. Five months
a. Rolls over (Implication: raise side rails of cribs to prevent accidental
falls) anticipatory guidance
b. Raking grasp

7. Six months
a. Doubles birth weight
b. Eruption of first tooth (usually lower central incisor)
c. Sits with minimal support
d. Can be pulled from sitting to standing position
8. Seven months
a. Plays with feet
b. Says dada or mama but nonspecific
c. Pivots (creeps) when on prone (implication: keep rails on stairs
secured)
d. Thumb-finger grasp
9. Eight months: sits alone steadily without support for an indefinite period.
10. Nine months
a. Can hold bottle with good hand-mouth coordination
b. Crawls
c. Understands simple gestures and requests (bye-bye or pat-a-cake)
d. Take some steps when held
e. Neat pincer grasp
11. Ten months
a. Pulls self to stand
b. Responds to own name
12. Eleven months
a. Stands with assistance
b. Attempts to walk with help
13. Twelve months
a. Walks with help
b. Triples birth weight
c. Drinks from cup
d. Can say 2 words

D. Developmental screening – by means of standardized tools e.g., the Metro

Manila Developmental Screening Test (MMDST). It is a screening instrument
 1
for children aged 0-6 years to detect developmental delays early, thereby
2
preventing further delays.
 ANTICIPATORY GUIDANCE
Promoting safety and preventing injuries is a continuing task for parents during the
first year of their child’s life. Although suffocation and motor vehicle crashes are the most
common causes of unintentional injury and death during this age, the infant also is at risk of
other injuries, including falls, fires and burns, poisoning, choking, and drowning. Each of
these tragedies is preventable, and appropriate counseling can provide parents with the
knowledge and strategies for reducing the likelihood that these injuries will occur.
•Always put your baby down to sleep on his back, not on his tummy or side.
•Always use a rear-facing car safety seat to transport your baby in all vehicles.
•It is very important for your baby’s health that your home, vehicle, and other places the baby
stays are smoke-free.
• Do not drink hot liquids while holding the baby.
•Always keep one hand on your baby when changing diapers or clothing on a changing table,
couch or bed, especially as she begins to roll over. Falls are the most common reason for
emergency room visits for injury.
INFANCY- The development of emotional and social bonds
Emotional Development
The Role of Emotional Competence
Emotion. The physiological changes, subjective experiences and expressive behaviors that are
involved in such feelings as love, joy, grief, and anger.

Emotional Development in Infancy

Social Referencing
An inexperienced person relies on a more experienced persons interpretation of event to regulate
subsequent behavior.
Functions of Emotions
1. Help humans survive and adapt to environment
2. Guide and motivate human behavior
3. Support communication with others
4.
Stages in Childrens Emotional Development
1) Self-regulation and interest in world
2) Falling in love
3) Developing intentional communication
4) Emergence of organized sense of self
5) Creating emotional ideas
6) Emotional thinking
Stability of Emotional Expression
Emotions and Cultural Norms
Emotional Intelligence (Goleman)
1) The ability to motivate oneself
2) Persist in the face of frustrations
3) Control impulses
4) Delay gratification
5) Empathize, hope
6) Regulate ones moods to keep distress from overwhelming ones ability to think

Attachment
An affectional bond that one individual forms for another and that endures cross time and space.

What is the Course of Attachment?

 First stage arousal from all parts of environment
 Second stage indiscriminate attachment
 Third Stage specific attachment

How Do Attachments Form?

 Ethological Adaptive. ( for survival)
 Learning. Mother and baby are rewarded for closeness

Who are the Objects of Attachment?

1. Mother
2. Father
3. Grandparent
4. Mother and another person

What are the Functions of Attachment?

1) Attachment behavioral system
2) Fear-wariness behavioral system
3) Affiliative behavioral system
4) Exploratory behavioral system
Temperament
Refers to the relatively consistent, basic disposition that underlie and modulate much of a persons
behavior.

Individuality in Temperament
 Difficult babies
 Slow-to-warm-up babies
 Easy babies

Theories of Personality Development

The Psychoanalytic View (Freud)

For healthy personalities
1. Breast-feeding
2. Prolonged period of nursing
3. Gradual weaning
4. On-demand nursing schedule
5. Delayed and patient potty training
6. Freedom from punishment

Eriksons Psychosocial View

Development of basic trust in others First social achievement willingness to let
mother move out of sight.

The Behavioral (Learning) View

 Concerned with outward display of emotions
 Rewards appropriate behaviors
 Extinguishes inappropriate behaviors

The Cognitive View and Information Processing

How children reason and solve problems
Examine cognitive, information-processing
Mechanisms that link affect to thinking and behavior
The Ecological View
Environmental influences contribute to development

Social Development
 The Changing Demographics of Childhood
 Increasing diversity of family structures
 More single parents

The Art of Becoming Human

 Case studies of severe early deprivation
 Prolonged neglect, abuse, and isolation
 Abandonment and emotional-social deprivation
 Institutionalization and severe deprivation
 Reactive Attachment Disorder

Early Relationships and Social Development

Maternal Responsiveness and the Strange Situation
Securely attached infants
Insecure/avoidant infants
Insecure/resistant infants
Disorganized/disoriented infants
Stranger Anxiety and Separation Anxiety

Goodness of Fit
Match between characteristics of infants and their families
Good match =optimal development
Poor fit =stormy household, maladaptive functioning

Cultural Differences in Child Rearing

Child-rearing practices differ from one society to another
Greater contrast between industrialized and non-industrialized countries
Quality of caregivers sensitivity and emotional availability is critical
Child Care for Infants and Toddlers
 Parent -Infant Interaction
 The mother as caretaker
 The father as caretaker
 Absentee fathers
Is it Good, Better, Best?

Sibling-Infant Interaction
Older siblings serve as models for younger siblings
Many cultures require older siblings to care for younger siblings

Grandparents and Extended Family Interaction

Reasons why grandparents are caretakers
1. drug abuse
2. child abuse
3. abandonment
4. teenage pregnancy
5. parent unable
6. death of parent
7. other
Presence of:
 Early Child-Care Practices
 Child Day-Care Centers
 Multiple Mothering
Choosing a Child-Care Provider
1. Interview Caregivers
2. Visit the Center
3. Ask Questions of the Center
4. Check References
5. Check the Licensing and/or Referral Program
6. Choose Quality Care
7. Stay Involved