[6] Progressions

or, Sn(1 – r) = a +
dr(1  r n 1 )
1 r
– [a + (n – 1)d].rn Matrices
a dr(1  r ) [a + (n  1)d] n
n-1

or, Sn = 1- r + (1  r)2 - 1 r
.r
DEFINITION

SUMMATION OF INFINITE TERMS SERIES : A rectangular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, is called a matrix. Such a rectangular arrangement
of numbers is enclosed by small ( ) or big [ ] brackets. Generally a matrix is represented by a capital latter A, B,
S = a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r2 + ......................  C......... etc. and its element are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y etc.
rS = a r + (a + d) r2 + .............................to  Following are some examples of a matrix :
---------------------------------------------------------- a b  1 5 3  2
On subtraction A =  c d  , B = 4 0 2 C =  0  , D = [1, 5, 6], E = [5]
     
S (1 – r) = a + d (r + r2 + r3 + ..................  )
a dr ORDER OF MATRIX
S= +
1 r (1  r)2 A matrix which has m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n, and its represented by
Am×n or A = [aij]m×n
DIFFERENCE METHOD
It is obvious to note that a matrix of order m × n contains mn elements. Every row of such a matrix contains n
Let T1, T2, T3 ...... Tn are the terms of sequence, then elements and every column contains m elements.

TYPES OF MATRICES
(i) If (T2 – T1), (T3 – T2)............... (Tn – Tn – 1) are in A.P. then, the sum of the such series may be
obtained by using summation formulae in nth term, Row matrix
If in a matrix, there is only one row, then it is called a Row Matrix.
(ii) If (T2 – T1), (T3 – T2) ................ (Tn – Tn – 1) are found in G.P. then the sum of the such series may Thus A = [aij]m×n is a row matrix if m = 1
be obtained by using summation formulae of a G.P. Column Matr ix
If in a matrix, there is only one column, then it is called a column matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a column matrix if n = 1.
Squar e matr ix
If number of rows and number of columns in a matrix are equal, then it is called a square matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a square matrix if m = n.
Note : (a) If m  n then matrix is called a rectangular matrix.
(b) The elements of a square matrix A for which i = j i.e., a11, a22, a33,......ann are called principal diagonal
elements and the line joining these elements is called the principal diagonal or leading diagonal of
matrix A.
(c) Tr ace of a matrix : The sum of principal diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called the trace of
matrix A which is denoted by trace A. Trace A = a11  a 22  ....a nn
Singleton matr ix
If in a matrix there is only one element then it is called singleton matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a singleton matrix if m = n = 1.
Null or zero matrix
If in a matrix all the elements are zero then it is called a zero matrix and it is generally denoted by O.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a zero matrix if aij = 0 for all i and j.
Diagonal matr ix
If all elements except the principal diagonal in a square matrix are zero, it is called a diagonal matrix.
Thus a square matrix A = [aij] is a diagonal matrix if aij = 0, when i  j.

[1]
[2] Matrices and Determinants Progressions [5]

Note : (a) No element of principal diagonal in diagonal matrix is zero. HARMONIC MEANS
(b) Number of zero is a diagonal matrix is given by n2 – n where n is a order of the matrix.
If a, H1, H2 ......... Hn, are in H.P., then H1, H2............Hn are the n H.M.’s between a and b. If d is the common
Scalar Matrix
difference of the corresponding A.P. then
If all the elements of the diagonal in a diagonal matrix are equal, it is called a scalar matrix.
1 1 ab
Thus a square matrix A [aij] is a scalar matrix is 
b a
+ (n + 2 – 1) d d = ab(n  1)
0 i  j
aij = k i  j where k is a constant. 1 1 1 ab bn  a
  + d =  =
H1 a a ab(n  1) ab(n  1)
Unit matr ix
If all elements of principal diagonal in a diagonal matrix are 1, then it is called unit matrix. A unit matrix of order 1 1 1 2(a  b) b(n  1)  2a
 + 2d =  =
n is denoted by In. H2 a a ab(n  1) ab(n  1)
Thus a square matrix
1 1 1 3(a  b) b(n  2)  3a
 + 3d =  =
1 i  j H3 a a ab(n  1) ab(n  1)
A = [aij] is a unit matrix if aij = 0 i  j
 : : : :
Note : Every unit matrix is a scalar matrix. : : : :
Tr iangular matrix
1 1 1 n(a  b) b(1)  na
A square matrix [aij] is said to be triangular if each element above or below the principal diagonal is zero. It is of  + nd =  =
Hn a a ab(n  1) ab(n  1)
two types -
(a) Upper tr iangular matrix : A square matrix [aij] is called the upper triangular matrix, if aij = 0 when i > j.
RELATION BETWEEN A, G AND H
(b) Lower triangular matrix : A square matrix [aij] is called the lower triangular matrix, if
aij = 0 when i < j If A, G and H are A. M., G.M. and H.M. of two positive numbers a and b, then
(i) G2 = AH, (ii) A  G  H
n(n  1)
Note : Minimum number of zero in a triangular matrix is given by where n is order of matrix. Note :
2
(1) For given n positive numbers a1, a2, a3,.......... an, A.M.  G.M.  H.M. . The equality holds when the
Equal matrix numbers are equal.
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if they are of same order and their corresponding elements are equal. (2) If sum of the given n positive numbers is constant then their product will be maximum if numbers are equal.
Singular matrix ARITHMETICO–GEOMETRIC SERIES
Matrix A is said to be singular matrix if its determinant |A| = 0, otherwise non-singular matrix i.e.,
The series whose each term is formed by multiplying corresponding terms of an A.P. and G.P. is called the
If det |A| = 0  singular and det |A|  0  non-singular Arithmetico–geometric series.
For Examples
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES
· 1 + 2x + 4x2 + 6x3 + .......................
If A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]m×n are two matrices of the same order then their sum A + B is a matrix whose each · a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r2 + ...............
element is the sum of corresponding elements.
i.e., A + B = [aij + bij ] m×n SUMMATION OF n TERMS OF ARITHMETICO–GEOMETRIC SERIES
A – B is defined as A – B = [aij – bij]m×n
Let S = a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r2 + .............
Note : Matrix addition and subtraction can be possible only when matrices are of same order.
(i) tn = [a + (n - 1)d].rn –1
Proper ties of matr ices addition (ii) Sn = a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r2 + ............. + [a + (n – 1)d]rn – 1
If A, B and C are matrices of same order, then- Multiply by ‘r’ and rewrite the series in following way.
(i) A + B = B + A (Commutative Law) rSn = ar + (a + d)r2 + (a + 2d)r3 + ..............+ [a + (n – 2)d]rn – 1 + [a + (n – 1)d]rn
(ii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (Associative law) On subtraction,
(iii) A + O = O + A = A, where O is zero matrix which is additive identity of the matrix. Sn(1 – r) = a + d (r + r2 + ................. + rn – 1) – [a + (n – 1)d]rn
(iv) A + (–A) = 0 = (–A) + A where (–A) is obtained by changing the sign of every element of A which is
additive inverse of the matrix
[4] Progressions Matrices and Determinants [3]

· For five terms A  B  A  C

1 1 1 1 1 (v) B  A  C  A   B = C (Cancellation law)
, , , , 
a  2d a  d a a  d a  2d
(vi) Trace (A ± B) = trace (A) ± trace (B)
INSERTION OF MEANS BETWEEN TWO NUMBERS
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
If a and b are two given numbers.
Let A = [aij]m×n be a matrix and k be a number then the matrix which is obtained by multiplying every element of
ARITHMETIC MEANS A by k is called scalar multiplication of A by k and it denoted by kA.
Thus A = [aij]m×n  kA = [kaij]m×n
Let a, A1, A2, .... An, b be in A.P. then A1, A2, .... An are n A.M. ‘s between a and b. If d is common difference,
then Pr oper ties of scalar multiplication
ba If A, B are matrices of the same order and m, n are any numbers, then the following results can be easily
b = a + (n + 2 – 1) d  d=
n 1 established.
(i) m(A + B) = mA + mB (ii) (m + n)A = mA + nA (iii) m(nA) = (mn)A = n(mA)
ba an  b
A1 = a + d = a + =
n 1 n 1
MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
ba a  n  1  2b
A2 = a + 2d = a + 2 = If A and B be any two matrices, then their product AB will be defined only when number of column in A is equal
n 1 n 1 to the number of rows in B. If A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]n×p then their product AB = C = [cij], will be matrix of order
ba a  n  2   3b m × p, where
A3 = a + 3d = a + 3 =
n 1 n1 n
: : : : (AB)ij = Cij  a b
r 1
ir rj

: : : :
(b  a) a  nb Pr oper ties of matr ix multiplication
An = a + nd = a + n =
n1 n 1 If A, B and C are three matrices such that their product is defined, then
n (i) AB  BA (Generally not commutative)
Note : The sum of n A.M’s, A1 + A2 + ... + An = (a + b).
2 (ii) (AB) C = A (BC) (Associative Law)
GEOMETRIC MEANS (iii) IA = A = AI I is identity matrix for matrix multiplication
(iv) A (B + C) = AB + AC (Distributive law)
Let a, G1, G2...... Gn, b be in G.P., then G1, G2 .......Gn are n G.M.s between a and b. If r is a common ratio, then (v) If AB = AC   B = C (cancellation Law is not applicable)
1
 b  (n 1) (vi) If AB = 0 It does not mean that A = 0 or B = 0, again product of two non-zero matrix may be zero
b = ar n +1
r =   matrix.
a
(vii) trance (AB) = trance (BA)
1
 b  n 1
n 1
Note : (i) The multiplication of two diagonal matrices is again a diagonal matrix.
G1 = ar = a    a n 1 b n1
a (ii) The multiplication of two triangular matrices is again a triangular matrix.
2
n 1 (iii) The multiplication of two scalar matrices is also a scalar matrix.
 b  n 1
2

G2 = ar2 = a    a n1 b n 1 (iv) If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then
a
3
n2
(a) (A + B)2 = A2 + B2 + AB + BA
 b  n 1
3

G3 = ar3 = a   a n 1 b n 1 (b) (A – B)2 = A2 + B2 – AB – BA

a  
(c) (A – B) (A + B) = A2 – B2 + AB – BA
: : : :
(d) (A + B) (A – B) = A2 – B2 – AB + BA
: : : :
n
(e) A (–B) = (–A) B = –(AB)
 b  n 1
1 n

Gn = arn = a   a n 1 b n 1 Positive Integr al power s of a matr ix

a 
The positive integral powers of a matrix A are defined only when A is a square matrix.
 
n
Note : The product of n G.M’s G1 G2 ........ Gn = ab Also then A2 = A.A A3 = A.A.A = A2A
[4] Matrices and Determinants Progressions [3]

Also for any positive integers m, n (e) If terms are given in G.P. and their product is known, then the terms must be picked up in following
(i) Am An = Am+n (ii) (Am)n = Amn = (An)m way.
n m a
(iii) I = I, I = I (iv) A° = In where A is a square matrices of order n. · For three terms , a, ar
r
TRANSPOSE OF MATRIX a a
· For four terms , , ar, ar3
r3 r
If we interchange the rows to columns and columns to rows of a matrix A, then the matrix so obtained is called
a a
the transpose of A and it is denoted by · For five terms 2 , , a, ar, ar2
r r
AT or At or A'
From this definition it is obvious to note that USEFUL PROPERTIES
(i) Order of A is m × n  order of AT is n × m
(a) The product of the terms equidistant from the beginning and end is constant. And it is equal to the product of
(ii) (AT)ij = (A)ji, " i, j) first and last terms.
Proper ties of Tr anspose (b) If every term of G.P. is increased or decreased by the same non–zero quantity, the resulting series may not
be in G.P.
If A, B are matrices of suitable order then
(c) If every term of G.P. is multiplied or divided by the same non–zero quantity, the resulting series is in G.P.
(i) (AT)T = A
(d) If a 1, a 2, a 3 ..... and b 1, b 2, b3 ..... be two G.P.’s of common ratio r 1 and r 2 respectively, then
(ii) (A + B)T = AT + BT
r
(iii) (A – B)T = AT – BT a1b1, a2b2,....... and a1 , a2 , a3 ........ will also form G.P. common ratio will be r1r2 and 1 respectively..
b1 b 2 b3 r2
(iv) (kA)T = kAT
(v) (AB)T = BTAT (e) If a1, a2, a3, ........ be a G.P. of positive terms, then loga1, loga2, loga3, ..... will be in A.P. and conversely.
(vi) (A1A2.....An)T = AnT.....A2TA1T Let b  ar,c  ar 2 and d  ar 3 . Then, a, b, c, d are in G.P..
(vii) (An)T = (AT)n, n  N
HARMONIC PROGRESSION (H.P.)
SYMMETRIC AND SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX
A sequence is said to be a harmonic progression, if and only if the reciprocal of its terms form an arithmetic
progression.
(a) Symmetr ic matrix : A square matrix A = [aij] is called symmetric matrix if aij = aji for all ˆi  ˆj or AT = A.
Note : (i) Every unit matrix and square zero matrix are symmetric matrices. SOME USEFUL FORMULAE & PROPERTIES
n(n  1)
(ii) Maximum number of different element in a symmetric matrix is 1
2 (a) n th term of H.P. = n th termof AP
(b) Skew-symmetr ic matrix : A square matrix A = [aij] is called skew-symmetric matrix if
aij = – aji for all i, j or AT = –A (b) Harmonic mean H of any two numbers a and b is given by
Note : (i) All principal diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are always zero because for 2 2ab
any diagonal element - aii = – aii  aii = 0 H= 1 1 = where a, b are two non–zero numbers.
ab

(ii) Trace of a skew symmetric matrix is always 0 a b

Pr oper ties of symmetr ic and skew-symmetr ic matr ices n n

Also H = 1  n
1 1 1
a
T T T T
(i) If A is a square matrix, then A + A , AA , A A are symmetric matrices while A–A is skew-symmetric   ... 
a1 a2 an j1
matrices. j

(ii) If A, B are two symmetric matrices, then- for the harmonic mean of n non–zero numbers a1, a2, a3,....., an.
(a) A ± B, AB + BA are also symmetric matrices. (c) If terms are given in H.P. then the terms could be picked up in the following way
(b) AB – BA is a skew-symmetric matrix. · For three terms
(c) AB is a symmetric matrix when AB = BA 1 1 1
, ,
(iii) If A, B are two skew-symmetric matrices, then- ad a ad
(a) A ± B, AB – BA are skew-symmetric matrices. · For four terms
(b) AB + BA is a symmetric matrix. 1 1 1 1
, , ,
a  3d a  d a  d a  3d
[2] Progressions Matrices and Determinants [5]

(j) If terms are given in A.P., and their sum and product are known, then the terms must be picked up in (iv) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix and C is a column matrix, then CT AC is a zero matrix.
following way in solving certain problem. (v) Every square matrix A can be uniquely be expressed as sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric matrix i.e.,
· For three terms (a – d), a, (a + d)
1  1 
A =  2 ( A  A )   2 ( A  A )
T T
· For four terms (a – 3d), (a – d), (a + d), (a + 3d)
   
· For five terms (a – 2d), (a – d), a (a + d), (a + 2d)

USEFUL PROPERTIES DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX

(a) If tn = an + b, then the series so formed is an A.P. a11 a12 a13 

(b) If Sn = an2 + bn + c, then series so formed is an A.P.  
If A = a 21 a 22 a 23  be a square matrix, then its determinant, denoted by |A| or det. (A) is
(c) If every term of an A.P. is increased or decreased by the same quantity, the resulting terms will also be in a 31 a 32 a 33 
A.P.
(d) If every term of an A.P. is multiplied or divided by the same non-zero quantity, the resulting terms will also a11 a12 a13 
be in A.P.  
defined as |A| = a 21 a 22 a 23 
(e) If terms a 1 , a 2,....., a n, a n + 1,....., a 2n + 1 are in A.P. Then sum of these terms will be equal to a 31 a 32 a33 
(2n + 1)an+1. Here total number of terms in the series is (2n + 1) and middle term is an+1.
(f) In an A.P. the sum of terms equidistant from the beginning and end is constant and equal to sum of Pr operties of the deter minant of a matr ix
first and last terms.
(i) |A| exist  A is a square matrix
(g) Sum and difference of corresponding terms of two A.P.’s will form a series in A.P.
(ii) |AB| = |A| |B|
 an  an 1  (iii) |AT| = |A|
(h) If terms a1, a2, ..., a2n – 1, a2n are in A.P. The sum of these terms will be equal to (2n)  ,
 2  (iv) |kA| = kn |A|, if A is a square matrix of order n.
an  an 1
where = A.M. of middle terms. (v) If A and B are square matrices of same order then |AB| = |BA|
2
(i) nth term of a series is an = Sn – Sn – 1 (n  2) (vi) If A is skew symmetric matrix of odd order then |A| = 0
(vii) If A = diag (a1, a2, .....an) then |A| = a1a2....an
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (G.P.) (viii) |A|n = |An|, n  N
The sequence {an} in which a1  0 is termed a geometric progression if there is a number r  0 such that
ADJOINT OF A MATRIX
an
= r for all n, then r is called common ratio.
an 1 If every element of a square matrix A be replaced by its cofactor in |A|, then the transpose of the matrix so
obtained is called the adjoint of A and it is denoted by adj A
Useful For mulae
Thus if A = [aij] be a square matrix and Cij be the cofactor of aij in |A|, then
If a = first term, r = common ratio and n is the number of term, then adj A = [Cij]T
(a) nth term denoted by tn is given by
 (adj A)ij = Cij
tn = arn–1
T
(b) Sum of first n terms denoted by Sn is given by  C11 C12 .... C1n   C11 C 21 .... C n1 
 a 11 a 12 .... a 1n 
a C .... C 2n  C .... Cn 2 
a(1  r ) a(r  1) a  rl .... a 2 n  C 22 C 22
n n
Sn = or corresponding to r < 1 (or) r > 1, (or) Sn =  21 a 22  21    12 
1 r r 1 1 r Hence if A =  .... .... .... ....  , then adj A =  .... .... .... ....   .... .... .... .... 
     
where l is the last term in the series.  a n1 a n2 .... a nn 
 C n1 Cn 2 .... C nn  C1n C 2n .... Cnn 
(c) Sum of infinite terms  S 
Pr oper ties of Adjoint Matr ix
a
Sn = (For |r| <1) If A, B are square matrices of order n and In is corresponding unit matrix, then
1 r
(d) Geometric mean (G) (i) A (adj A) = |A| In = (adj A) A
(Thus A (adj A) is always a scalar matrix)
(i) G= ab where a, b are two positive numbers.
(ii) |adj A| = |A|n–1
(ii) G = (a1 a2 ...... an)1/n is geometric mean of n positive numbers a1, a2, a3,...... an.
(iii) adj (adj A) = |A|n–2 A
[6] Matrices and Determinants

(iv) |adj (adj A)| = | A |(n1)

(vi) adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A)
2
(v)
(vii)
adj (AT) = (adj A)T
adj (Am) = (adj A)m, m  N
PROGRESSIONS
(viii) adj (kA) = kn–1 (adj A), k  R (ix) adj (In) = In
(x) adj 0 = 0 (xi) A is symmetric  adj A is also symmetric. SEQUENCE
(xii) A is diagonal  adj A is also diagonal. (xiii) A is triangular  adj A is also triangular.. A succession of numbers a1, a2 , a3 , ..., an formed according to some definite rule is called a sequence.
(xiv) A is singular  |adj A| = 0
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (A.P.)
INVERSE MATRIX
A sequence of number {a n} is called an arithmetical progression, if there is a number d, such that
If A and B are two matrices such that d = an – an–1 for all n; and d is called as common difference (c.d).
AB = I = BA Useful For mulae
then B is called the inverse of A and it is denoted by A–1. Thus
If a = first term, d = common difference and n is the number of terms, then
A–1 = B  AB = I = BA
(a) nth term is denoted by tn and is given by
Further we may note from above property (i) of adjoint matrix that if |A|  0, then
tn = a + (n – 1)d.
adj ( A ) (adj A ) 1 (b) Sum of first n terms is denoted by Sn and is given by
A  A  A–1 = | A | adj A
|A| |A|
n
Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d]
Thus A–1 exists  |A|  0. 2
Note : n
or Sn = (a + l ), where l = last term in the series i.e. l = tn = a + (n – 1)d.
(i) Matrix A is called invertible if A–1 exists. 2
(c) Arithmetic mean A of any two numbers a and b is given by
(ii) Inverse of a matrix is unique.
ab
Pr oper ties of Inver se Matr ix A=
2
(i) (A–1)–1 = A 1
Also A = (a1 + a2 + ... + an) is arithmetic mean of n numbers a1, a2, ..., an
(ii) (AT)–1 = (A–1)T n
(iii) (AB)–1 = B–1A–1 (d) Sum of first n natural numbers (  n)
(iv) (An)–1 = (A–1)n, n  N
n(n  1)
(v) adj (A–1) = (adj A)–1 n 
2
where, n  N.
1
(vi) |A–1| = | A | = |A|–1 (e) Sum of first n odd natural numbers   2n  1

  2n  1  1  3  5  ...   2n  1  n2
(vii) A = diag (a1,a2, ...., an)  A–1 = diag (a1–1 , a2–1, ....., an–1)
(viii) A is symmetric  A–1 is also symmetric. (f) Sum of first n even natural numbers  2n 
(ix) A is diagonal |A|  0  A–1 is also diagonal.
2n  2  4  6  .....  2n  n  n  1
(x) A is scalar matrix  A–1 is also scalar matrix.
(xi) A is triangular |A|  0  A–1 is also triangular.. (g) Sum of squares of first n natural numbers (  n2)

n(n  1)(2n  1)
SOME IMPORTANT CASES OF MATRICES  n2 
6

Or thogonal Matr ix (h) Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers (  n3)

2
A square matrix A is called orthogonal if  n(n  1) 
n 3   
AAT = I = ATA ; i.e., if A–1 = AT  2 

Idempotent matr ix (i) Sum of fourth powers of first n natural numbers  n4 

A square matrix A is called an idempotent matrix if A2 = A

n4  14  24  ....  n4 
 
n  n  1 2n  1 3n2  3n  1
30
[1]
[2] Mathematical Induction Matrices and Determinants [7]

e x  e x 
x 2n Involutor y Matr ix

2 n 0 (2n)! A square matrix A is called an involutory matrix if A2 = I or A–1 = A
1
ee 1 1 Nilpotent matr ix
(v) 1   ....
2 2! 4!
A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix if there exist a p  N such that AP = 0
e1  e 1  1
 Her mition matr ix
2 n  0 (2n)!

3. Logarithmic Series : If ( |x | < 1 ), then A square matrix A is skew-Hermition matrix if Aq = A ; i.e., aij = – aji " i, j
2 3 4  n
x x x x
log e (1  x)  x     ....   ( 1) n 1 . is called as logarithmic series. Skew her mitian matr ix
2 3 4 n 1 n
A square matrix A is skew-hermition is A = –Aq i.e., aij = – aji " i, j
Some standar d deductions from logar ithmic ser ies :

Period of a matrix
x2 x3 x 4 xn
(i) log(1  x)   x     ....   If for any matrix A Ak+1 = A
2 3 4 n 1 n
then k is called period of matrix (where k is a least positive integer)
1 x   x 3 x5 
(ii) log(1  x)  log(1  x)  log  x    ....  Differ entiation of matr ix
 1  x   3 5 
 f ( x ) g( x )
If A = h( x ) l ( x )
 x 2 x 4 x6   
(iii) log(1  x)  log(1  x)  log(1  x )  2  2  4  6  .... 
2

  dA  f ' ( x ) g' ( x )
then dx  h' ( x ) l ' ( x ) is a differentiation of matrix A
 
Note :
(i) Naperian or Natural log can be converted into common by using following relation : Submatr ix
log10 N = loge N × 0.43429448 Let A be m × n matrix, then a matrix obtained by leaving some rows or columns or both of a is called a sub matrix
of A
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(ii) log 2  1       ....     .... .
2 3 4 5 6 2.1 3.4 5.6 Rank of a matrix
A number r is said to be the rank of a m × n matrix A if
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
(a) every square sub matrix of order (r + 1) or more is singular and
Mathematical statement: (b) there exists at least one square submatrix of order r which is non-singular.
Statements invovling mathematical reations are known as the mathematical statements. For example: 2 divides Thus, the rank of matrix is the order of the highest order non-singular sub matrix.
16, (x + 1) is a factor of x2–3x+2.
5 6 
The pr iciple of mathematical induction: We have |A| = 0 therefore r (A) is less then 3, we observe that 4 5  is a non-singular square sub matrix of
 
(i) Fir st pr inciple of mathematical induction:- order 2 hence r (A) 2.
Let P(x) be a statement involving the natural number in such that Note :
(i) P(1) is true i.e. P(n) is true for n = 1. (i) The rank of the null matrix is zero.
(ii) P(m+1) is true whenever P(m) is true. (ii) The rank of matrix is same as the rank of its transpose i.e., r(A) = r(AT)
then P(n) is true for all natural numbers n. (iii) Elementary transformation of not alter the rank of matrix.
(ii) Second pr inciple of mathematical induction:
Let P(n) be a statement involving the natural number n such that
(i) P(1) is true
(ii) P(m+1) is true, whenever P(n) is true n , where 1  n  m .
then P(n) is true for all natural numbers.
[8] Matrices and Determinants

DETERMINANTS
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC
DEFINITION
SERIES & MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
When an algebraic or numerical expression is expressed in a square form containing some rows and columns, this
square form is named as a determinant of that expression. For example when expression a1b2 – a2 b1 is expressed
in the form EXPONENTIAL & LOGARITHMIC SERIES
a1 b1
a2 b2
, 1. The number e
then it is called a determinant of order 2, Clearly a determinant of order 2 contains 2 rows and 2 columns. 1 1 1
Similarly The sum of the infinite series 1     ....   is denoted by the number e.
1! 2! 3!
a1 b1 c1 n
 1 1 1 1
a2 b2 c2
is a determinant of order 3. i.e., e  lim 1    1     ....  
a3 b3 c3
n 
 n 1! 2! 3!
 n
Obviously in every determinant, the number of rows and columns are equal and this number is called the order of 1  1
 e  lim 1  
that determinant. n 0 n!
n 
 n

REPRESENTATION OF A DETERMINANT Note :

Generally we use  or |A| symbols to express a determinant and a determinant of order 3 is represented by (i) The number lies between 2 and 3. Approximate value of e = 2.718281828.

a11 a12 a13 (ii) e is an irrational number. (i.e., e Q)

a21 a22 a23
2. Exponential Ser ies
a31 a32 a33
th th Expansion of any power x to the number e is the exponential series.
It should be noted that the ( i, j)th element ( i.e., the element of the i row and j column) of the determinant has
been expressed by aij , i = 1 , 2 , 3 ; j = 1,2,3 . The elements for which i = j are called diagonal elements and the x x2 x3 
xn
diagonal containing them is called principal diagonal or simply diagonal of the determinant. For the above determinant i.e., e  1 
x
   ....   (where x  R)
1! 2! 3! n 0 n!
a11 , a22 , a33 are diagonal elements.
A determinant is called a triangular determinant if its every element above or below the diagonal is zero. For (i) Exponential theor em :
example Let a > 0 then for all real value of x,

x2 x3 (x log e a) n
a 0 0 (log e a) 2  (log e a)3  ....  
a x  1  x(log e a) 
2! 3! n 0 n!
b c 0
d e f (ii) Some standar d deductions fr om exponential ser ies :
x x 2 x3 (1) n n
is a triangular determinant. In particular when all the elements except diagonal elements are zero, then it is called (i) e x  1     ....  x  .... {Replace x by – x)
a diagonal determinant. For example 1! 2! 3! n!

xn
a 0 0 e  x   ( 1) n .
n0 n!
0 b 0
1 1 1
0 0 c (ii) e  1     .... {Putting x = 1 in (ex)}
1! 2! 3!
is a diagonal determinant. 
1
e
We generally use R1, R2, R3, ........ to denote first, second, third .... row and C1, C2 , C3 ......... to denote first, n  0 n!
second, third ..... column of a determinant. 1 1 1 1
(iii) e  1     .... {Putting x = –1 in (ex)}
1! 2! 3!
VALUE OF A DETERMINANT 
1
e 1   ( 1) n . x = –1
The expression which has been expressed in a determinant form is called the value of that determinant. n0 n!
To find the value of a thir d or der determinant e e
x x
x x x 2 4 6

(iv)  1    ....
2 2! 4! 6!
[1]
Binomial Theorem [3] Matrices and Determinants [9]

7. BINOMIAL THEOREM FOR ANY INDEX

a11 a12 a13
If n  Q , x < 1, then Let   a 21 a 22 a 23
n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3 n(n  1)(n  2).....(n  r  1) r a 31 a 32 a 33
n
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + x  x  .......  x  .........
2! 3! r!
be a third order determinant. To find its value we expand it by any row or column as the sum of three determinants
Note : In this case there are infinite terms in the expansion. of order 2. If we expand it by first row then
Some Impor tant Expansions : a 22 a 23 a a 23 a a 22
  ( 1)11a11  ( 1)1 2 a12 21  (1)13 21
a 32 a 33 a 31 a33 a 31 a 32
If x < 1 and n  Q then
a 22 a 23 a a 23 a 21 a 22
–n n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3 n(n  1).....(n  r  1) r  a11  a12 21 
(a) (1 – x) = 1 + nx + x  x  ....  x  ..... a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33 a 31 a 32
2! 3! r!
n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3 n(n  1).....(n  r  1)
(b) (1 + x)
–n
= 1 – nx + x  x  ....  (x )r  .....
2! 3! r! MINOR AND COFACTOR OF AN ELEMENT
By putting n = 1, 2, 3 in the above results, we get the following results-
–1 2 3 r
MINOR OF AN ELEMENT
· (1 – x) = 1 + x + x + x + ...... + x + .......
Minor of an element of the determinants is obtain by leaving the row and column containing that element and
–1 2 3 r
· (1 + x) = 1 – x + x – x + ...... + (–x) + ...... retaining rest of elements.
–2 2 3 r
· (1 – x) = 1 + 2x + 3x + 4x + ..... + (r + 1) x + ..... a11 a12 a13
–2 2 3 r
a22 a23 a21 a23
· (1 + x) = 1 – 2x + 3x – 4x + ....... + (r + 1) ( –x) + ...... If   a21 a22 a23 , then minor of a11 is M11 = a a33
. Similarly M12 = a a
32 31 33
a31 a32 a33
–3 2 3 (r  1)(r  2) r
· (1 – x) = 1 + 3x + 6x + 10x + ...... + x  ....
2! Using this concept the value of Determinant can be
–3 2 (r  1)(r  2)
3  = a11 M11 – a12 M12 + a13 M13
· (1 + x) = 1 – 3x + 6x – 10x + ......... + ( x )r  ........
2! or  = – a21 M21 + a22 M22 – a23 M23
8. SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS or  = a31 M31 – a32 M32 + a33 M33
th th th n COFACTOR OF AN ELEMENT
(i) If the coefficient of the r , (r + 1) and (r + 2) terms in the expansion of (1 + x) are in H.P. then
2 The cofactor of an element ai j is denoted by Ci j and is equal to (–1) i + j Mi j where Mi j is a minor of element ai j
n + (n – 2r) = 0
th th th n a11 a12 a13
(ii) If coefficient of r , (r + 1) , and (r + 2) terms in the expansion of (1 + x) are in A.P. then
If   a21 a22 a23
2 2
n – n (4r + 1) + 4r – 2 = 0 a31 a32 a33
n (n+r–1)
(iii) Number of terms in the expansion of (x1 + x2 +......xr) is Cr–1
a22 a23
then C11 = (–1)1 + 1 M11 = M11 = a a33
32

a21 a23
C12 = (–1)1 + 2 M12 = –M12 = – a a
31 33

Note :- (i) The sum of products of the element of any row with their corresponding cofactor is equal to the value
of determinant i.e.  = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13
(ii) The sum of the product of element of any row with corresponding cofactor of another row is equal to
zero i.e. a11 C21 + a12 C22 + a13 C23 = 0
(iii) If order of a determinant (  ) is 'n' then the value of the determinant formed by replacing every
element by its cofactor is  n–1
[10] Matrices and Determinants [2] Binomial Theorem

n–1
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS (3) C0 + C2 + C4 +.............= C1 + C3 + C5 +....... = 2
If the elements of a determinant are complicated expressions or numbers, then it is very difficult to find its value
2n 2n!
by expansion method. In such cases we reduce the determinant into a simple one using the following properties. (4) C0Cr + C1Cr+1 +.........+ Cn–r Cn = Cn–r = (n  r)! (n  r)!
P–1 The value of a determinant is unchanged if its rows and columns are interchanged. For example
2 2 2 2 2n!
a b c a p u (if r = 0) C0 + C1 + C2 +........+ Cn = n! n!
p q r  b q v
u v w c r w 2n 2n!
(if r = 1) C0 C1 + C1 C2 + C2 C3 +..........+ Cn–1 Cn = Cn–1 = (n  1)!(n  1)!
P–2 The interchange of any two consecutive rows or columns will simply change the sign of the value of the
n–1
determinant. For example (5) C1 + 2C2 + 3C3 +........+ nCn = n.2
n
a b c b a c p q r (6) C1 – 2C2 + 3C3–.........+ (–1) . nCn = 0
p q r  q p r  a b c n–1
u v w v u w u v w
(7) C0 + 2C1 + 3C2 +..........+ (n+1)Cn = 2 (n+2)

P–3 If any two rows or columns of a determinant are identical then its value is zero. For example C1 C C C (1  x)n 1  1
(8) C0  x  2 x 2  3 x 3  .....  n x n 
2 3 4 n 1 (n  1) x
a b c a a b
c 0  p p q C1 C 2 C 2n 1  1
a b  C0+   .........  n  (x = 1)
u v w u u v 2 3 n 1 n 1
C1 C 2 C3 ( 1) n .C n 1
P–4 If each element of a row or column of a determinant be multiplied by a number, then its value is also multiplied  C0–    .........   (x = –1)
by that number. For example 2 3 4 n 1 (n  1)
 0 if n is odd 
ka kb kc a b c ka b c (9) C02  C12  C22  C32  .....  (1) n Cx 2  (1) n / 2 n if n is even 
p q r k p q r  kp q r  Cn / 2

u v w u v w ku v w
6. NUMERICALLY GREATEST TERM OF BINOMIAL EXPANSION
P–5 If each entry in a row or column of a determinant is the sum of two numbers, then the determinant can be written
n n n–1 n
as the sum of two determinants. For example (a + x) = C0a + C1a x +...........+ Cnx .

a   b  c   a b c    a b c a b c  b c
Tr+1 n
Cr x n  r +1 x
p q r  p q r  p q r p q r  p q r   q r = =
and Tr n
Cr-1 a r a
u v w u v w u v w u  v w u v w  v w
n  r +1 x
P–6 The value of a determinant does not change if the elements of a row ( column) are added to or subtracted from
the corresponding elements of another row ( column). For example
Take
r a
 1  As Tr 1  Tn 
n +1
a b c a  b   c b c r 
a
p q r  p  q   r q r 1+
x
u v w u  v   w v w
 
P–7 If  = f (x) and f(a) = 0, then (x –a) is a factor of  . For example in the determinant  n 1 
 
1 1 1 1 1 1
So greatest term will be Tr+1 where r = 1  a 
 x 
a b c b b c =0  
 = if we replace a by b then  =
[ . ] denotes greatest integer function.
a2 b2 c2 b2 b2 c2
 ( a– b) is a factor of  . n1
Note : If itself is a natural number, then T r = Tr + 1 and both the terms are numerically greatest.
a
1
P–8 If each entry in any row (or column) of a determinant is zero, then the value of determinant is equal to zero. x
 Matrices and Determinants [11]

MULTIPLICATION OF TWO DETERMINANTS

BINOMIAL THEOREM Multipication of two second order determinants is defined as follows
a1 b1 l1 m1 a1l 1  b1l 2 a1m1  b1m2
 
1. STATEMENT OF BINOMIAL THEOREM a2 b2 l2 m2 a2 l 1  b2 l 2 a2m1  b 2m2
n n n n n–1 n n–2 2 n n Multiplication of two third order determinants is defined as follows
(x + a) = C0x + C1x a + C2 x a +..........+ Cn a (where n  N)
a1 b1 c1 l1 m1 n1 a1l 1  b1l 2  c1l 3 a1m1  b1m2  c1m3 a1n1  b1n2  c1n3
n n n n n! n a2 b2 c 2  l 2 m 2 n2  a2 l 1  b2 l 2  c 2 l 3 a2m1  b2m2  c 2m3 a2n1  b2n2  c 3 n3
· C0, C1 , C2,......., Cn are binomial coefficients Cr = r!(n  r)!
a3 b3 c3 l3 m3 n3 a3 l 1  b3 l 2  c 3 l 3 a3 m1  b3m2  c 3m3 a3 n1  b3 n2  c 3 n3
n r
General Term = Tr 1  Cr x n
a r

Note : In above case the order of Determinant is same, if the order is different then for their multiplication first
n
· There are (n+1) terms in the expansion of (x + a) . of all they should be expressed in the same order

· The sum of powers of a and x in each term of expansion is n. SYMMETRIC & SKEW SYMMETRIC DETERMINANT
n Symmetr ic deter minant
· The binomial coefficients in the expansion of (x + a) equidistant from the beginning and the end are equal.
A determinant is called symmetric Determinant if for its every element.
ai j = a j i  i , j
2. GREATEST BINOMIAL COFFICIENT
Skew Symmetr ic deter minant
n n A determinant is called skew Symmetric determinant if for its every element
· If n is even : When r = i.e. Cn/2 takes maximum value.
2 a i j = – a j i  i, j ;
n 1 n 1 n
i.e. C n 1 = C n 1 and take maximum value.
n
· If n is odd : r = or Note : (i) Every diagonal element of a skew symmetric determinant is always zero
2 2 2 2
(ii) The value of a skew symmetric determinant of even order is always a perfect square and that of
odd order is always zero.
3. MIDDLE TERM OF THE EXPANSION
i.e. (order = 2) i.e. (order = 3)
n n/2 n/2
 If n is even T n 
is the middle term. So the middle term T n 
= Cn/2 x y APPLICATIONS OF DETERMINANT
 2 1  2 1
   

CRAMMER' S RULE :
 If n is odd T n 1  and T n  3  are middle terms. So the middle terms are Let the system of equations be
 2   2 
   
a1 x + b1 y + c1z = d1
n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
T n 1   n C n 1  x 2
y 2
and T n  3   C n 1  x
n 2
y 2
 
 2 
 
 2   2   2 
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
  a2
4. TO DETERMINE A PARTICULAR TERM IN THE EXPANSION and b2 c2
, 1  d2 b2 c 2  2  a2 d2 c2
, 3  a2 b2 d2
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
n
 α 1  m
then (i) If   0 , then given system of equations is consistent i.e. has unique solution and its solution is
In the expansion of  x ± β  , if x occurs in Tr+1 , then r is given by
 x 
nα  m 1  
r= x , y  2 , z 3
α+β   
nα This is known as Crammer's rule
The term which is independent of x, occurs in Tr+1, then r is r =
α +β (ii) If  = 0 and atleast one of  1 ,  2 ,  3 is not zero, then the system of equations is inconsistent i.e. it
has no solution.
5. BINOMIAL COEFFICIENT PROPERTIES (iii) If  = 0 and  1 = 0 =  2 =  3 , then the system has infinite solutions.
n
(1) C0 + C1 + C2 +............+ Cn = 2 (iv) If  = 0 and d1 = 0 = d2 = d3 , then the system of equations has infinite solutions ( non-zero solution) i.e.
non-trivial solutions
n
(2) C0 – C1 + C2 – C3 +...........+ (–1) Cn = 0

[1]
[12] Matrices and Determinants [4] Permutations and Combinations

(v) If   0 and d1 = 0 = d2 = d3, then the system of equations has a unique solution x = 0 , y = 0 , z = 0 i.e., 8. DEARRANGEMENT THEOREM
zero solution or trivial solution.
Any change in the given order of the thing is called a Dear rangement.
DIFFERENTIATION OF A DETERMINANT : (i) If n items are arranged in a row, then the number of ways in which they can be rearranged so that no one of
them occupies the place assigned to it is
f1 (x) g1 (x) h1 (x)  1 1 1 1 1
Let (x)  f 2 (x) g 2 (x) h 2 (x) , n! 1      ....  (1)n 
f 3 (x) g3 (x) h 3 (x)  1! 2! 3! 4 ! n! 
(ii) If n things are arranged at n places then the number of ways to rearrange such that exactly r things are at
f1 '(x) g '1 (x) h '1 (x) f1 (x) g1 (x) h1 (x) f1 (x) g1 (x) h1 (x) right places is
then  '(x)  f 2 (x) g 2 (x) h 2 (x)  f '2 (x) g '2 (x) h '2 (x)  f 2 (x) g 2 (x) h 2 (x)
n!  1 1 1 1 n r 1 
f 3 (x) g 3 (x) h 3 (x) f3 (x) g3 (x) h 3 (x) f '3 (x) g '3 (x) h '3 (x) 1      ....  (1) 
r !  1! 2! 3 ! 4! (n  r ) ! 

INTEGRATION OF DETERMINATION 9. SUM OF NUMBERS

f (x) g(x) h(x) (i) For given n different digits a1, a2, a3 ......., an the sum of the digits in the unit place of all numbers fromed (if
Let (x)  p q r , where p, q, r, l, m and n are constants. numbers are not repeated) is
l m n (a1 + a2 + a3 + ...... + an) (n – 1)!
i.e. (sum of the digits) (n – 1) !
b b b

b 
a
f (x)dx 
a
g(x)dx 
a
h(x)dx

Then a
(x)dx  p q r (ii) Sum of the total numbers which can be formed with given n different digits a1, a2, a3 ....... an is
(a1 + a2 + a3 + ..... + an) (n – 1) ! . (111 ......... n times) (If nos. are not repeated)
l m n
10. IMPORTANT RESULTS ABOUT POINTS
USE OF SUMMATION
If there are n points in a plane of which m(< n) are collinear, then
 Total number of different straight lines obtained by joining these n points is C2 – C2 + 1
n m
n n n

r r r  Total number of different triangles formed by joining these n points is C3 – C3

2 3 n m
r r2 r3 n
r 1 r 1 r 1
If f (r)  p q
1 2 3
t , where p, q, t are constants, then  f (r) 
r 1
p
1
q
2
t
3
 Number of diagonals in polygon of n sides is nC2 – n i.e.
n(n  3)
2
 If m parallel lines in a plane are intersected by a family of other n parallel lines, then total number of
parallelograms so formed is mC2 × nC2 .

11. SOLUTION OF EQUATION

x1  x 2  x 3  ...  x r  n
 The number of non-negative integral solutions of
x1  x 2  x 3  ...  x r  n ...(1)
= the number of ways of distributing n identical objects among r groups  n  r 1 Cr 1
 The number of positive integral solutions of equation (1)
 n  r Cr 1

12. EXPONENT OF PRIME p IN n!

Exponent of a prime p in n! is denoted by Ep (n!) and is given by
n  n   n  n
E p  n!      2    3   ....   k 
p p  p  p 
where pk  n  p k 1 and [.] denotes the greatest integer function.
Permutations and Combinations [3]

(V) Selections fr om identical objects

 The number of combination of n identical things taking r(r < n) at a time is 1. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS &
 The number of ways of selecting r things out of n alike things is n + 1 (where r = 0, 1, 2, ....., n).
 The number of ways in which a selection of atleast one thing can be made from (p+q) things of which
p all are alike and q all are alike = (p +1) (q+1)–1
EXPRESSIONS
 The number of ways to select some or all out of (p + q + r) things where p are alike of first kind, q are
alike of second kind and r are alike of third kind is 1. QUADRATIC EQUATION
= (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) – 1
An equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (where a  0, and a,b,c  C), is called a quadratic equation. Here a, b and c are
(VI) Selection when both identical and distinct objects ar e pr esent :
called coefficients of the equation. This equation always has two roots. Let the roots be  and  .
If out of (p + q + r + t) things, p are alike of one kind, q are alike of second kind, r are alike of third kind and
t are different, then the total number of combinations is c
b
(p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) 2t – 1 Then   =  (sum of the roots)  = (product of the roots)
a a
7. DIVISION AND DISTRIBUTION OF OBJECTS
The quantity D = b2 – 4ac is called discriminant of the equation.
The number of ways in which (m + n) different things can be divided into two groups which contain m and
n things respectively is b  D
Roots of the equation are given by x =
(m  n)! 2a
m n
Cm n Cn  , mn
m! n! 2. NATURE OF ROOTS
Par ticular cases :
(i) If D > 0, roots of the equation are real and distinct.
When m = n, then total number of combination is
(ii) If D = 0, roots of the equation are real and equal.
( 2m) !
(iii) If D < 0, roots of the equation are imaginary.
 (m ! )2
when order of groups is considered.
(iv) If D is square of a rational number, roots of the equation are rational. (Provided a, b and c
( 2m) !
are rational numbers)
 2 ! (m ! ) 2
when order of groups is not considered. (v) If D >0 and D is not a perfect square, then roots are irrational

 The number of ways in which (m + n + p) different things can be divided into three groups which 3. FORMATION OF AN EQUATION WITH GIVEN ROOTS
contain m, n and p things respectively is
(m  n  p)! A quadratic equation whose roots are  and  is given by
mnp np
Cm . Cn . p Cp  , mnp
m! n ! p !
 x    x    0
 Suppose mn distinct objects are to be divided into m groups, each containing n objects and the order of
 mn !  x 2  x   x    0
groups is not important, then the number of ways of doing this is given by m! n! m
   x 2       x    0
 mn ! i.e., x 2  (Sum of roots)x + Product of roots = 0
 If, lower, the order of groups is important then the number of ways is given by
 n!
m

Par ticular cases : TRANSFORMATION OF AN EQAUTION

When m = n = p, then total number of combination is
If , are roots of the equation ax 2  bx  c  0 , then the equation whose roots are
(3m) !
 (m !)3
when order of groups is considered. 1 1
, is cx 2  bx  a  0 1
(i) (Replace x by )
  x
(3m) !
 3 ! (m !)3
when order of groups is not considered.
(ii) ,  is ax 2  bx  c  0 (Replace x by  x )
 Total number of ways to divide n identical things among r persons when there is no restriction is
k  , k   is a  x  k   b  x  k   c  0 {Replace x by  x  k  }
2
n + r–1 (iii)
Cr–1
 Total number of ways to divide n identical things among r persons so that each gets atleast one is (iv)  ,  (n  N) is a  x
n n

1/ n 2
 bx 1/ n
c0 (Replace x by x1/ n )
n–1
Cr–1
[1]
[2] Quadratic Equations & Expressions [2] Permutations and Combinations

(v) 1/ n , 1/ n (n  N) is a  x n   b  x n   c  0

2
(Replace x by x n )  Number of permutations of n different things, taken all at a time, when m specified things never come
together is n ! – ( m ! × (n – m + 1) !)
x (IV) Cir cular Per mutations :
(vi) k, k is ax 2  kbx  k 2 c  0 (Replace x by )
k (i) Arr angement ar ound a cir cular table :
  The number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time is (n – 1) !, if clockwise and
(vii) , is k 2 ax 2  kbx  c  0 (Replace x by kx) anticlockwise orders are taken as different.
k k
(ii) Arr angement of beads or flower s (all different) ar ound a cir cular necklace or gar land :
5. ROOTS IN SPECIAL CASES
1
The number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time is (n –1) !, if clockwise
ax2  bx  c  a ( x   )( x   ) (If  and  are roots of the equation) 2
and anticlockwise orders are taken as not different.
Then (iii) Number of cir cular permutations of n different things taken r at a time :
If b  4ac > 0
2

a > 0, b > 0, c > 0
a > 0, b > 0 , c < 0
a > 0, b < 0, c > 0
a > 0, b < 0, c < 0
 < 0,  > 0
 < 0,  < 0
 > 0,  > 0
 > 0,  < 0
Both roots are negative
Roots are opposite in sign. Magnitude of negative
root is more than the magnitude of positive root.
Both roots are positive
5. COMBINATION
Roots are opposite in sign.Magnitude of positive
root is more than the magnitude of negative root.
 Case I : If clockwise and anticlockwise orders are taken as different, then the required number
of circular permutations = (nPr)/r.
 Case II : If clockwise and anticlockwise orders are taken as not different, then the required
number of circular permutations = (nPr)/(2r).
(iv) Restr icted Cir cular Per mutations
When there is a restriction in a circular permutation then first of all we shall perform the restricted part
of the operation and then perform the remaining part treating it similar to a linear permutation.
Each of the different groups or selections which can be made by some or all of a number of given things without
reference to the order of the things in each group is called a combination.

6. COUNTING FORMULAE FOR COMBINATION

6. CONDITION FOR COMMON ROOT(S) (I) Selections of objects without r epetition

n
The number of combinations of n differnt things taken r at a time is denoted by nCr or C (n, r) or  
(i) Let ax 2  bx  c  0 and dx 2  ex  f  0 have a common root  (say). Then a 2  b  c  0 and r
(II) Selections of objects with r epetition :
d 2  e  f  0 . Then
The total number of selections of r things from n differents things when each thing may be repeated any
 dc  af    bf  ce  ae  bd  number of times is n + r–1Cr
2

which is the required condition for the two equations to have a common root. (III) Restr icted Selections / Ar r angements :
a b c (i) The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time,
(ii) Condition for both the roots to be common is  
 when k particular objects occur is Cr – k.
n–k
d e f
 If k particular objects never occur is n – kCr.
8. GREATEST AND LEAST VALUES OF QUADRATIC EXPRESSION (ii) The number of arrangements of n distinct objects taken r at a time so that k particular object are
4ac  b 2 b  always included = Cr–k . r !
n–k
(i) If a  0 , then the quadratic expression ax 2  bx  c has least value at x  

4a 2a n–k
never included = Cr .r !
4ac  b 2 b
(ii) If a  0 , then the quadratic expression ax 2  bx  c has greatest value at x   (iii) The number of combinations of n objects, of which p are indentical, taken r at a time is
4a 2a

n–p
Cr + n–pCr–1 + n–pCr–2 + ......... + n–pC0 if r < p.

n–p
10. LOCATION OF ROOTS (INTERVAL IN WHICH ROOTS LIE) Cr + n–pCr–1 + n–pCr–2 + ......... + n–pCr–p if r > p.
(IV) Selections from distinct objects :
In some problems we want the roots  and of the equation ax 2  bx  c  0 to lie in a given interval. For this we  The number of ways of selecting one or more out of n different things
impose conditions on a, b and c. Since a  0 , we can take f  x   ax 2  bx  c . n
C1 + nC2 + nC3 +......+ nCn = 2n – 1.

(i) A given number k will lie between the roots if f  k   0 , D > 0.

 The number of ways of selecting zero or more out of n different things
n
C0 + nC1 + nC2 + nC3 +......+ nCn = 2n .
 Quadratic Equations & Expressions [3]

(where  < )
PERMUTATIONS & COMBINATIONS
 k 
1. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING x' x
f(k)
Multiplication Pr inciple : If an operation can be performed in ‘m’ different ways; following which a second
In particular, the roots of the equation will be of opposite signs if 0 lies between the roots  f  0   0 .
operation can be performed in ‘n’ different ways, then the two operations in succession can be performed in
m × n ways. This can be extended to any finite number of operations. (ii) Both the roots are greater than given number k if the following three conditions are satisfied
Addition Pr inciple : If an operation can be performed in ‘m’ different ways and another operation, which is b
independent of the first operation, can be performed in ‘n’ different ways. Then either of the two operations can D  0,   k and f  k   0
2a
be performed in (m + n) ways. This can be extended to any finite number of mutually exlusive operations. a>0
(where)
2. FACTORIALS
If n is a natural number then the product of all natural numbers upto n is called factorial n and it is denoted by f(k)  –b/2a 
x' k x
n ! or n .
(iii) Both the roots will be less than a given number k if the following conditions are satisfied:
3. PERMUTATION a>0 (where )

Each of the different arrangements which can be made by taking some or all of a number of given things is called b
a permutation. D  0,   k and f  k   0 
2a  –b/2a f(k)
x'
k x
4. COUNTING FORMULAE FOR PERMUTATIONS
(iv) Both the roots will lie in the given interval  k1 ,k 2  if the following conditions are satisfied:
(I) Without Repetition :
b
(i) The number of permutations of n different things, taking r at a time is denoted by nPr or P(n, r) D  0, k1    k 2 and f  k1   0, f  k 2   0
2a
(ii) The number of arrangements of n different objects taken all at a time is nPn = n !
(where & k1 < k2)
(II) With Repetition :
(i) The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time when p are alike of one kind, q are alike of
second kind and r are alike of a third kind and the rest n – (p + q + r) are all different is f(k1)  –b/2a  f(k2)
n! x' k1 k2 x
p! q! r!
(ii) The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time when each thing may be repeated (v) Exactly one of the root lies in the given interval  k1 ,k 2  if f  k1  .f  k 2   0
any number of times is nr. D>0
D>0
(III) Number of per mutations under certain conditions :
 The number of permutation of n different things taken all together when r particular things are to be f(k2)
placed at some r given places f(k1)  k2   k1 
x' k1 x x' k2 x
= n–rPn–r = n  r f(k2) f(k1)
 The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time when m particular things are to be f(k1) > 0 & f(k2) < 0 f(k1) < 0 & f(k2) > 0
placed at m given places = n–mPr–m. (m < r)
 Number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is to be always
11. THEORY OF EQUATIONS
included in each arrangement, is.
r . n – 1P r – 1
(i) If p  x   anxn + an-1xn-1 + ... + a0 ,(a0, ........,an  R and an  0) then p(x) = 0 has n roots. (real /complex)
 Number of permutation of n different things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is never taken in
each arrangement is n–1
Pr (ii) A polynomial equation in x of odd degree has at least one real root ( it has odd no. of real roots).
 Number of permutations of n different things, taken all at a time, when m specified things always come (iii) If x1,.....,xn are the roots of p(x) = 0, then p(x) can be written in the form p(x)  an(x – x1)...(x – xn).
together is m ! × (n – m + 1)! (iv) If  is a root of p(x) = 0, then (x –  ) is a factor of p(x) and vice - versa.

[1]
[4] Quadratic Equations & Expressions Complex Numbers [9]

(v) If x1,....,xn are the roots of p(x)  anxn + ... + a0 = 0, an= 0.

 z  z1  
ao (b) If  2   / 2, then arg  z  z     2 represents a circle with diameter as the segment joining
n a a  2 
Then  x i   n 1 ,  x i x j  n2 , x1 x2...xn = (–1) . n
i 1 an 1 i  j n an an A(z1 ) and B(z 2 ) .
(vi) If equation f (x) = anxn + an–1xn–1 + ... + a1x + a0 = 0 has more than n distinct roots then f(x) is
identically zero.  z  z1 
(c) if    then arg     represents the straight line joining A(z1) and B(z2) but excluding
(vii) If p(a) and p(b) (a < b) are of opposite signs, then p(x) = 0 has odd number of real roots in (a, b), i.e.  z  z2 
it has at least one real root in (a, b) and if p(a) and p(b) are of same sign then p(x) = 0 has even number the segment AB.
of real roots in (a, b).
(ix) If coefficients of p(x) (polynomial in x written in descending order) have ‘m’ changes in signs, then A(z1) B(z1)
polynomial equation of nth degree p(x) = 0 have at the most ‘m’ positive real roots and if p(– x) have ‘t’
changes in sign, then p(x) = 0 have at most ‘t’ negative real roots. By this we can find maximum  z  z1 
number of real roots. (d) If   0 , then arg  z  z   (  0)
 2 
No. of complex roots = n – (m + t) where m + t < n.
(x) Imaginary roots of a quadratic equation always occur in conjugate pair. A(z1) B(z1)
(xi) Irrational roots of a quadratic equation always occur in conjugate pair. represents the segment joining A(z1) and B(z2)

12. QUADRATIC EXPRESSION IN TWO VARIABLE

The general form of a quadratic expression in two variables x, y is
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
The condition that this expression may be resolved into two linear rational factors is
abc  2fgh  af 2  bg2  ch2  0
or
a h g
  h b f  0
g f c

(i) If roots of quadratic equations a1 x 2  b1x  c1  0 and a 2 x 2  b2 x  c2  0 are in the same ratio
 1  2  b12 a 1c1
 i.e.   then 2 
 1  2  b2 a 2 c2

 k  1
2
b2
(ii) If one root is k times the other root of quadratic equation a1 x 2  b1x  c1  0 then 
k ac
[8] Complex Numbers

(vii) General equation of a line is

az  az  b  0 , where a is a complex number and b is a real number.. COMPLEX NUMBERS
(viii) Complex slope of a line joining points A(z1) and B(z2) is
z1  z 2 COMPLEX NUMBERS
given by w  z  z
1 2
If ‘a’, ‘b’ are two real numbers, then a number of the form a + ib is called a complex number
(ix) Two lines with complex slopes w 1 and w 2 are parallel if w1  w 2 and perpendicular if w 1  w 2  w Set of complex Numbers : The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C.
i.e. C = {a + ib | a,b  R }
Length of perpendicular fr om a point to a line
Equality of Complex Numbers : Two complex numbers z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 are equal if a1 = a2 and
Length of perpendicular of a point A(  ) from the line az  az  b  0 b1 = b2 i.e. Re (z1) = Re(z2) and Im (z1) = Im (z2)
| a  a  b |
p FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS
2|a |
ADDITION : Let z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 be two complex numbers. Then their sum z1 + z2 is defined as
Recongnizing some loci by Inspection : the complex number (a1 + a2) + i (b1 + b2)
(i) If z1 and z2 are two fixed points, then Pr oper ties of addition of complex number s
| z  z1 || z  z 2 | represent perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining A(z1) andB(z2). (i) Addition is commutative : For any two complex numbers z1 and z2, we have
z1  z 2  z 2  z1
| z  z1 |
(ii) If z1 and z2 are two fixed points and k >0, k  1 is a real number then | z  z |  k represents a circle. For (ii) Addition is associative : For any three complex numbers z1, z2, z3 we have
2

k = 1 it represents perpendicular bisector of the segment joining A(z1) and B(z2) (z1 + z2) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3)
(iii) Let z1 and z2 be two fixed points and k be a positive real number. (iii) Existence of additive identity : The complex number 0 = 0 + i0 is the identity element for addition i.e.
z + 0 = z = 0 + z for all z  C
(a) If k | z1  z 2 | then | z  z1 |  | z  z 2 | k represents an ellipse with foci at A(z1) and B(z2) and length
of major axis = k = CD. (iv) Existence of additive inverse : For every complex number z there exists –z such that
(b) If k = |z1 – z2| represents the line segment joining z1 and z2. z + (–z) = 0 = (–z) + z
The complex number –z is called the additive inverse of z.
(c) If k < |z1 – z2| then | z  z1 |  | z  z 2 | k does not represent any curve in the argand plane.
Substraction : Let z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 be two complex numbers. Then the subtraction of z2 from z1 is
(iv) Let z1 and z2 be two fixed points, k be a positive real number. denoted by z1 – z2 and is defined as the addition of z1 and –z2.
(a) If k < |z1 – z2|, then | z  z1 |  | z  z 2 | k represents a hyperbola with foci at A(z1) and B(z2). Thus, z1 – z2
(b) If k = (z1 – z2), then = (a1 – a2) + i (b1 – b2)
(z – z1) – (z – z2) = k Multiplication : Let z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 be two complex numbers. Then, the multiplication of z1 with
z2 is denoted by z1z2 and is defined as the complex number.
represents the straight line joining A(z1) and B(z2) excluding the segment AB.
(a1a2 – b1 b2) + i (a1b2 + a2b1)
(v) If z1 and z2 are two fixed points, then |z – z1|2 + |z – z2|2 = |z1 – z2|2 represents a circle with z1 and z2 as
extremities of a diameter. Pr oper ties of Multiplication :
(vi) Let z1 and z2 be two fixed points and  be a real number such that 0     then (a) If 0     and (i) Multiplication is commutative. For any two complex numbers z1 and z2, we have
  z  z1  z1 z2 = z2 z1
  then arg     represents a segment of the circle passing through A(z1) and B(z2)
2  z  z2  (ii) Multiplication is associative : For any three complex numbers z1, z2, z3 we have
(z1 z2) z3 = z1 (z2 z3)
P (iii) Existence of identity element for multiplication. The complex number 1 = 1 + i0 is the identity element for
 multiplication i.e. for every complex number z, we have
z.1=z
A(z1) B(z1) (iv) Exitence of multiplicative inverse : Corresponding to every non-zero complex number z = a + ib there exists
a complex number z1 = x + iy such that
1
z . z 1 = 1  z1 
z
[1]
[2] Complex Numbers Complex Numbers [7]

The complex number z1 is called the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of z and is given by  z1  z 3  z 2  z 4
a i( b)
z1 
 (ii) Rhombus :
a 2  b 2 a 2  b2 (a) The diagonads AC and BD bisect each other.
(v) Multiplication of complex numbers is distributive over addition of complex numbers : For any three complex
numbers z1, z2, z3 we have  z1  z 3  z 2  z 4

(i) z1 (z 2  z3 )  z1z 2  z1z 3 (Left distributivity) and (b) a pair of two adjacent sides are equal i.e. AD = AB.
 | z 4  z1 |  | z 2  z1 |
(ii) (z 2  z 3 )z1  z 2 z1  z3 z1 (Right distributivity)
(iii) Squar e :
Division : The division of a complex number z1 by a non-zero complex number z2 is defined as the multiplication
z1 (a) The diagonals AC and BD bisects each other
of z1 by the multiplicative inverse of z2 and is denoted by z .  z1  z3  z 2  z 4
2

z1 1 (b) a pair of adjacent sides are equal

Thus,  z1 .z 2 1  z1 .  
z2  z2  AD = AB
Conjugate : Let z = a + ib be a complex number. Then the conjugate of z is denoted by z and is equal to a – ib.  | z 4  z1 |  | z 2  z1 |
Thus, z = a + ib  z  a  ib (c) The two diagonards are equal

Pr oper ties of Conjugate : AC = BD  | z 3  z1 |  | z 4  z 2 |

If z, z1, z2 are complex numbers, then (iv) Rectangle :

(a) The diagonals AC and BD bisect each other
(i) z  z  2 Re(z)
z1  z 3  z 2  z 4
(ii) z  z  2 Im(z)
(b) The diagonalds AC and BD are equal
(iii) z  z  z is purely real
 | z 3  z1 |  | z 4  z 2 |
(iv) z  z  0  z is purely imaginary..
(v) Incentre : I (z) of the ABC is given by
(v) zz  {Re(z)}2  {(Im(z)}2
az1  bz 2  cz 3
z
(vi) z1  z 2  z1  z 2 abc
(vii) z1  z 2  z1  z 2 (vi) Cir cumcentre (z) of the ABC is given by

z1 (sin 2A)  z 2 (sin 2B)  z 3 (sin 2C)

(ix) z1 z 2  z1 z 2 z
sin 2A  sin 2B  sin 2C
 z1  z1
(x)    ,z 2  0 (v) Or thocentre (z) of the ABC is given by
 z2  z2
(a sec A)z1 (b sec B)z 2  (c secC) z 3
z
(xi) (z)  z a secA  b sec B  csecC
(vi) Area of triangle ABC with vertices A(z1), B(z2), C(z3) is given by
MODULUS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER z1 z1 1
1
Definition : the modulus of a complex number z = a + i b is denoted by |z| and is defined as  modulus of z 2 z2 1
4
z3 z3 1
| z |  a 2  b 2  {Re(z)}2  {Im(z)}2
 The multiplicative inverse of a non-zero complex number z is same as its reciprocal and is given by (vi) Equation of line passing through A(z1) and B(z2) is

z z 1
Re(z) ( Im(z)) z k
i  2 z1 z1 1  0
| z |2 | z |2 |z| A(z1) A A B(z1)
z2 z2 1
[6] Complex Numbers Complex Numbers [3]

n th ROOTS OF UNITY If b is positive

nth roots of unity are :  0  1,  ,  2 ,  3 ,...... n 1 where   ei 2 / n  cos 2 / n  i sin 2 / n then

 1
 a  ib   
 2
 
a 2  b2  a  i
1
2

{ a 2  b2  a} 


PROPERTIES OF n th ROOTS OF UNITY

If b is negative then
Pr operty 1 : nth roots of unity form a G..P. with common ratio ei 2 / n
 1 1 
Pr operty 2 : Sum of the nth rots of unity is always zero. a  ib    {| z |  Re(z)}  i {| z |  Re(z)} 
 2 2 
Pr operty 3 : Sum of pth powers of nth roots of unity is zero, if p is not a multiple of n.
Pr operty 4 : Sum of pth powers of nth roots of unity is n, if p is a multiple of n. Ar gument or (amplitude) of a Complex Number
Pr operty 5 : Product of nth roots of unity is (–1)n–1
1 y
Pr operty 6 : nth roots of unity lie on the unit circle |z| = 1 and divide its circumference into n equal parts. (i) If x and y both are positive, then the argument of z = x + iy is the acute angle given by tan
x
* PROPERTIES OF CUBE ROOTS OF UNITY AND SOME USEFUL RESULTS RELATED (ii) x < 0 and y > 0, then the argument of z = x + iy is    , where  is the acute angle given by tan–1 |y/x|.
TO THEM
y
(iii) If x < 0 and y < 0 then the argment of z = x + iy is    where  is the acute angle given by tan   .
(i) Cube roots of unity are 1,  ,  2 where x
y
1
  i
3 2 1
,    i
3 (iv If x > 0 and y <0, then the argument of z = x + iy is  where  s the acute angle given by tan  
x
2 2 2 2
(ii) arg( )  2 / 3 and Polar or Tr igonometrical For m of a Complex Number
Cube roots of –1 are –1,  , 
2
(iii) Let z = x + iy be a complex number represented by a point P (x, y) in the Argand plane. Then, by the geometrical
representation of z = x + i y, we have
(iv) 1    2  0
 z  r(cos  i sin  ), where r | z | and   arg(z)
(v) 3  1
This form of z is called a polar form of z.
* Four fourth roots of unity are –1, 1, –i, i
EULERIAN FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
1 1 
log (  i)  log(   )  i tan
2 2
*
2   i
ei  cos  i sin  and e  cos   isin 
* Condition for points A(z1), B(z2), C(z3), D(z4) to be concyclic : Pr oper ties of Argument of z
 (i) arg(z)   arg(z)
D(z4) C(z3)
 z  z4   z 2  z3  (ii) arg (z1z 2 )  arg(z1 )  arg(z 2 )
 arg  2   arg    
 z1  z 4   z1  z 3  (iii) arg (z1 z2 )  arg(z1 )  arg(z 2 )

 z  z 4 z1  z 3  (iv) arg (z1 / z 2 )  arg (z1 )  arg(z 2 )

 arg  2  0 (v) arg (zn) = n arg z.
 z1  z 4 z 2  z3  A(z1) B(z2)
(vi) | z1  z 2 |  | z1  z 2 |  arg z1  arg z 2   / 2
 (z  z 4 )(z1  z 3 ) 
 2  is purely real. (vii) | z1  z 2 || z1 |  | z 2 |  arg z1  arg z 2
 (z1  z 4 )(z 2  z 3 ) 
(viii) If arg z = 0, then z is purely real
Condition (s) for four points A(z1 ), B(z 2 ), C(z 3 ) and D(z 4 ) to r epr esent vertices of a (ix) If arg z = ±  / 2 , then z is purely imaginary
(I) Par allelogr am : D(z4) C(z 3) Pr operties of Modulus of z
(i) The diagonards AC and BD must bisect each other (i) | z1  z2 |2 | z1 |2  | z 2 |2 2 | z1 || z2 |cos(1   2 ).
1 1 or
 (z1  z 3 )  (z 2  z 4 )
2 2 | z1  z2 |2  | z1 |2  | z2 |2  2 Re (z1 z2 )
A(z1) B(z 2)
[4] Complex Numbers Complex Numbers [5]

(ii) | z1  z2 |2  | z1 |2  | z2 |2  2 | z1 | | z2 | cos(1   2 ) COMPLEX NUMBER AS A ROTATING ARROW IN THE ARGAND PLANE

or uuur
To obtain the point representing zei we rotate. OP through angle  in anticlock wise sense. Thus, multiplication
| z1  z2 |2  | z1 |2  | z2 |2  2 Re(z1 z2 ) uuur
by e to z rotates the vector OP in anticlockwise sense through an angle  .
i
(iii) | z1  z2 |2  | z1  z2 |2  2 (| z1 |2  | z 2 |2 )
Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers represented by points P and Q in the argand plane such that POQ   .

(iv) | z1  z 2 |  | z1  z 2 |  arg (z1 )  arg (z 2 )  uuur z1e i uuur
2 Then, z1ei is a vector of magnitude |z1| = OP along OQ and is a unit vector along OQ .
(v) | z1  z 2 |  | z1 |  | z 2 |  arg(z1 )  arg(z 2 ) | z1 |
y
z1 |z2| i
(vi) | z1  z 2 | | z1 |  | z 2 |  z is purely imaginary..
2 2 2
z2= ze
2 |z1 | 1
(vii) | z1  z 2 |  | z1 |  | z 2 | Q (z2)
(viii) | z1  z 2 |  | z1 |  | z 2 |
P (z)1
(ix) | z1  z 2 |  | z1 |  | z 2 |
x’ x
0
(x) | z1  z 2 |  | z1 |  | z 2 |

(xi) | z1 z 2 | | z1 | | z 2 | y
(xii) | z |  | z |
n n
SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS
(xiii) | z |2  z z I. If z1, z2, z3 are the affixes of the points A, B and C in the Argand plane, then A(z)1
(xiv) | z |  | z || z |  |  z |  z z 
(i) BAC  arg  3 1 
Distance Between Two Points : If z1 and z2 are the affixes of points P and Q respectively in the argand plane, then  z 2  z1 
B(z)2 C(z)3
PQ | z 2  z1 | z z |z z |
(ii) BAC  arg 3 1  3 1 (cos   i sin  ), where  BAC.
Section For mula : Let z1 and z2 be the affixes of two points P and Q respectively in the argand plane. Then, the affix z 2  z1 | z 2  z1 |
of a point R dividing PQ internally in the ratio m : n is If z1, z2, z3 and z4 are the affixes of the points A, B, C and D respectively in the Argand plane. Then AB is
inclined to CD at the angle.
mz 2  nz1 mz 2  nz1
but if R is external point, then affix of R is  z 2  z1 
mn mn
arg  z  z 
Mid Point For mula :  4 3
(iii) The equation of the circle having z1 and z2 as the end points of a diameter is
z1  z 2
If R be the mid-point then affix of R is (z  z1 )(z  z2 )  (z  z1 )(z  z 2 )  0
2
 If z1, z2, z3 are affixes of the vertices of a triangle, then the affix of its centroid is
DE-MOIVERE’S THEOREM
z1  z 2  z3
3 STATEMENT :
 The equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining points having affixes z1 and z2 is (i) If n  z (the set of integers), then
z(z1  z2 )  z(z1  z 2 ) | z1 |2  | z 2 |2 (cos  isin  ) n  cos n  isin n
 The equation of a circle whose centre is at point having affix z0 and radius R is
(ii) If n  Q (the set of rational numbers), then cos n  i sin n is one of the values of (cos  i sin  ) n .
| z  z0 |  R
Note :  If the centre of the circle is at the origin and radius R, then its equation is | z | = R.
(iii)
1
 cos   isin 
 General Equation of circle is cos   isin 
z z  az  az  b  0 where b  R and a is complex number (iv) (cos 1  isin  2 )(cos  2  isin  2 )  cos(1   2 )  i sin (1  2 )
represents a circle having centre at ‘–a’
and radius = | a |2  b  aa  b