GenPhysics 2 Quarter 3 Module 2023 2024

GENERAL PHYSICS 2
Level: SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Semester: SECOND

Subject Group: SPECIALIZED SUBJECT Quarter: THIRD
Course Description:
Electricity and magnetism; optics; the basics of special relativity, atomic and nuclear
phenomena using the methods and concepts of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, graphical
analysis, and basic calculus
Course Requirements:
Below is the list of activities that must be completed and submitted with their corresponding
percentage.
WEEK ACTIVITIES Date of Completion Final Grade
1 EAA 1
2 Mini PT 1
3 EAA 2
4 Mini PT 2
5 EAA 3
6 Mini PT 3
7 EAA 4
8 Final Performance Task
TOTAL
QUARTER 3 CULMINATING PERFORMANCE TASK
GOAL: Use theoretical and experimental approaches to solve multi-concept and rich-context
problems involving electricity and magnetism
ROLE: As an electrical engineer, you are tasked to create a circuit diagram of your first floor
kitchen
AUDIENCE: The result of your diagram will be presented to MERALCO for the approval of
Electrical Connection Permit
SITUATION: A young professional wants to have a simple kitchen in his pad. He only wants
simple appliances in his kitchen composed of 1500 watts electric kettle, 40 watts light bulb
and 400 watts rice cooker. Using 220 voltage source, calculate the resistance of electric kettle
(R1), bulb (R2) and rice cooker (R3). Calculate also how much current flows in each
appliances using the circuit diagram illustrated at the last page of this module
PRODUCT: Present an estimated computation and the sketch of the said diagram to a
MERALCO representative
STANDARDS: Your sketch and computations will be assessed based on accuracy of
calculation (60%), accuracy of sketch (20%) and scientific inference (20%)
Colegio de Los Baños – GENERAL PHYSICS 2 1
PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT
How is electricity related to kinematics?
LEARNING MATERIALS: Module, pen, paper, old physics books, scientific calculator,
internet (if applicable)
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Electricity and Electrical Charges
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Dimensional Analysis, Vector Analysis
TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 HRS

CONSULTATION: For inquiries and clarifications regarding the lesson, you may contact
your teacher thru his FB Messenger (Chard Pascua) or thru email
(ripascua.cdlb@gmail.com)
RUA: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe using a diagram charging by rubbing and charging by induction
• Explain the role of electron transfer in electrostatic charging by rubbing
• Describe experiments to show electrostatic charging by induction
• Calculate the net electric force on a point charge exerted by a system of point charges
• Describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a force
• Calculate the electric field due to a system of point charges using Coulomb’s law and the
superposition principle
• Calculate electric flux
• Use Gauss’s law to infer electric field due to uniformly distributed charges on long wires,
spheres, and large plates
• Solve problems involving electric charges, dipoles, forces, fields, and flux in contexts
such as, but not limited to, systems of point charges, electrical breakdown of air, charged
pendulums, electrostatic ink-jet printers
INSTITUTIONAL VALUES: Precision and Accuracy, Scientific Literacy, Excellence

Students will be able to apply
a. Precision and accuracy in explaining phenomena related to electrical charges
b. Scientific literacy in describing electric field and relation to Gauss’ Law
c. Excellence in solving problems related to electric charges, electric forces, fields and
electric flux
OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

This lesson is all about basic method electrical charges, as well as fields, forces and fluxes
that affect electricity and its relation and application using Gauss’s Law.
STUDENT’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

Electricity = form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles, such as electrons
or protons, either statically as an accumulation of charge or dynamically as a current
Electric Charge is a form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles (such as
electrons or protons), either statically as an accumulation of charge or dynamically as a
current.
Electric flux is a property of an electric field that may be thought of as the number of electric
lines of force (or electric field lines) that intersect a given area
CHARGING BY FRICTION AND INDUCTION

The procedure of rubbing a rubber balloon against your hair is quite easily performed. You
might try it now if you've never performed it. When done, you will likely notice that the rubber
balloon and your hair will attract each other. On a dry day, you
might even be able to let go of the balloon and have it adhere to
your hair This attraction between the two charged objects is
evidence that the objects being charged are charged with an
opposite type of charge. One is positively charged and the other is
negatively charged.
The triboelectic charging process (a.k.a., charging by friction) results in a transfer of electrons
between the two objects that are rubbed together. Rubber has a much greater attraction for
electrons than animal fur. As a result, the atoms of rubber pull electrons from the atoms of
animal fur, leaving both objects with an imbalance of charge. The rubber balloon has an
excess of electrons and the animal fur has a shortage of electrons. Having an excess of
electrons, the rubber balloon is charged negatively. Similarly, the shortage of electrons on the
animal fur leaves it with a positive charge. The two objects have become charged with
opposite types of charges as a result of the transfer of electrons from the least electron-loving
material to the most electron-loving material.
Coulomb's Law Equation

The quantitative expression for the effect of these three variables on electric force is known
as Coulomb's law. Coulomb's law states that the electrical force between two charged
objects is directly proportional to the product of the quantity of charge on the objects and
inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance between the two objects. In
equation form, Coulomb's law can be stated as
where
Q1 represents the quantity of charge on object 1 (in Coulombs),
Q2 represents the quantity of charge on object 2 (in Coulombs), and
d represents the distance of separation between the two objects (in meters).
The symbol k is a proportionality constant known as the Coulomb's law constant. when
substituted into the equation the units on charge (Coulombs) and the units on distance
(meters) will be canceled, leaving a Newton as the unit of force.
Electric field
To help visualize how a charge, or a collection of charges, influences the region around it, the
concept of an electric field is used. The electric field E is analogous to g, which we called the
acceleration due to gravity but which is really the gravitational field. Everything we learned
about gravity, and how masses respond to gravitational forces, can help us understand how
electric charges respond to electric forces.
The electric field a distance r away from a point charge Q is given by:
Electric field from a point charge : E = k Q / r2
The electric field from a positive charge points away from the charge; the electric field from a
negative charge points toward the charge. Like the electric force, the electric field E is a
vector. If the electric field at a particular point is known, the force a charge q experiences
when it is placed at that point is given by :
F = qE
If q is positive, the force is in the same direction as the field; if q is negative, the force is in the
opposite direction as the field.
What does an electric field look like?
An electric field can be visualized on paper by drawing lines of force, which give an indication
of both the size and the strength of the field. Lines of force are also called field lines. Field
lines start on positive charges and
end on negative charges, and the
direction of the field line at a point
tells you what direction the force
experienced by a charge will be if
the charge is placed at that point. If
the charge is positive, it will
experience a force in the same
direction as the field; if it is negative
the force will be opposite to the field.
The fields from isolated, individual

charges look like this →
When there is more than one charge in a region, the electric field lines will not be straight lines;
they will curve in response to the different charges. In every case, though, the field is highest
where the field lines are close together, and decreases as the lines get further apart.
Superposition Principle calculates the total force on a given charge due to any number of
point charges acting on it. Every charged particle creates an electric field in the universe in
the space surrounding it. The electric field created due to the charge is independent of the
presence or absence of all other charges. The electric field created can be calculated with the
help of Coulomb’s law. The principle of superposition allows for the combination of two or more
electric fields.
“The principle of superposition states that every charge in space creates an electric
field at point independent of the presence of other charges in that medium. The
resultant electric field is a vector sum of the electric field due to individual charges.”
The principle of superposition states that every charge in space creates an electric field at
point independent of the presence of other charges in that medium. The resultant electric field
is a vector sum of the electric field due to individual charges.
In 1-dimension, electric fields can be added according to the relationship between the
directions of the electric field vectors.
• Same direction: Add the magnitudes together to find the net field.
• Opposite directions: Subtract the smaller magnitude from the larger magnitude to
find the net field. The net field will point in the direction of the greater field.
Example: Three charges lie along the x-axis. The positive charge q1 = 15 mC is at x = 2.0 m,
and the positive charge q2 = 6.0 mC is at the origin. Where must a negative charge q3 be
placed on the x-axis so that the resultant electric force on it is zero?
Example 2: Consider three point charges at the corners of a triangle , where q1 = 6.00 x 1029
C, q2 = 22.00 x 1029 C, and q3 = 5.00 x 1029 C.
(a) Find the components of the force F S 23 exerted by q2 on q3.
(b) Find the components of the force F S 13 exerted by q1 on q3.
(c) Find the resultant force on q3, in terms of components and also in terms of magnitude
and direction.
Gauss's Law
The total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed divided
by the permittivity.
The electric flux through an area is defined as the electric field multiplied by the area of the
surface projected in a plane perpendicular to the field. Gauss's Law is a general law applying
to any closed surface. It is an important tool since it permits the assessment of the amount of
enclosed charge by mapping the field on a surface outside the charge distribution. For
geometries of sufficient symmetry, it simplifies the calculation of the electric field.
The concept of electric flux is useful in association with Gauss' law. The electric flux through
a planar area is defined as the electric field times the component of the area perpendicular
to the field. If the area is not planar, then the evaluation of the flux generally requires an area
integral since the angle will be continually changing.
Electric Flux on Different Gaussian Surfaces

WEEK 1 ANSWER SHEET (Please submit only the answers. Do not return the entire
module.)
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

LAST NAME, FIRST NAME MIDDLE INITIAL
ENGAGEMENT
Enabling Assessment Activity No.1. Coulomb’s Law
Problem:
Using three point charges (q0 = 3.5 μC, q1 = 4.0 μC and q4 = 2.50 μC) find the force on Q2
if the distance between Q2 and Q0 is 5 cm? (20 points)
ASSIMILATION
Answer in 3-5 sentences.
How were electric charges used in ink jet printer technology? (10pts)
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SIGNATURE OVER PRINTED NAME OF PARENT/GUARDIAN
How do electrical charges affect electrical forces?
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Electric field, charges and forces
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Calculating electrical charges and forces


• Relate the electric potential with work, potential energy, and electric field
• Determine the electric potential function at any point due to highly symmetric continuous
• charge distributions
• Infer the direction and strength of electric field vector, nature of the electric field sources, and
electrostatic potential surfaces given the equipotential lines
• Calculate the electric field in the region given a mathematical function describing its
potential in a region of space
• Solve problems involving electric potential energy and electric potentials in contexts such
as, but not limited to, electron guns in CRT TV picture tubes and Van de Graaff generators

a. Precision and accuracy in determining electric potential functions and its relation to
work, potential energy and electric field
b. Scientific literacy in inferring strengths and directions of electric field
c. Excellence in solving problems related to electric field and electric potential

This lesson is all about electric field lines and equipotential lines; its relationship to potential
energy and work, how strength and direction affects the field vectors and solving problems
related to electric potentials

Electric potential energy is the energy that is needed to move a charge against an electric
field. You need more energy to move a charge further in the electric field, but also more
energy to move it through a stronger electric field.
Imagine that you have a huge negatively charged plate, with a little positively charged
particle stuck to it through the electric force. There’s an electric field around the plate that’s
pulling all positively charged objects toward it (while pushing other negatively charged
objects away
Electric Potential Energy: Potential Difference

When a free positive charge q is accelerated by an electric field, such as shown in Figure 2,
it is given kinetic energy.
Figure 2. A charge accelerated by an electric field is

analogous to a mass going down a hill. In both cases
potential energy is converted to another form. Work is done
by a force, but since this force is conservative, we can
write W = –ΔPE.
We use the letters PE to denote electric potential energy,
which has units of joules (J). The change in potential energy,
ΔPE, is crucial, since the work done by a conservative force is
the negative of the change in potential energy; that is,
W = –ΔPE.
For example, work W done to accelerate a positive charge
from rest is positive and results from a loss in PE, or a negative
ΔPE. There must be a minus sign in front of ΔPE to make W positive. PE can be found at any
point by taking one point as a reference and calculating the work needed to move a charge to
the other point.
Calculating the work directly is generally difficult, since W = Fd cos θ and the direction and
magnitude of F can be complex for multiple charges, for odd-shaped objects, and along
arbitrary paths. But we do know that, since F = qE, the work, and hence ΔPE, is proportional
to the test charge q. To have a physical quantity that is independent of test charge, we
define electric potential V (or simply potential, since electric is understood) to be the potential
energy per unit charge
V=PE/q
Since PE is proportional to q , the dependence on q cancels. Thus V does not depend on q.
The change in potential energy ΔPE is crucial, and so we are concerned with the difference
in potential or potential difference ΔV between two points, where
ΔV = VB−VA = ΔPE/q
The potential difference between points A and B, VB − VA, is thus defined to be the change in
potential energy of a charge q moved from A to B, divided by the charge. Units of potential
difference are joules per coulomb, given the name volt (V) after Alessandro Volta.
1V = 1J/C
The familiar term voltage is the common name for potential difference. Keep in mind that
whenever a voltage is quoted, it is understood to be the potential difference between two
points. For example, every battery has two terminals, and its voltage is the potential difference
between them. More fundamentally, the point you choose to be zero volts is arbitrary. This is
analogous to the fact that gravitational potential energy has an arbitrary zero, such as sea
level or perhaps a lecture hall floor.
In summary, the relationship between potential difference (or voltage) and electrical potential
energy is given by
ΔV=ΔPE/q and ΔPE = qΔV.
The work done by the electric field in Figure to move a

positive charge q from A, the positive plate, higher potential,
to B, the negative plate, lower potential, is
W = −ΔPE = −qΔV.
The potential difference between points A and B is
−ΔV = −(VB − VA) = VA − VB = VAB.
Entering this into the expression for work yields
W = qVAB.
Work is W = Fd cos θ; here cos θ = 1, since the path is
parallel to the field, and so W = Fd. Since F = qE, we see
that W = qEd. Substituting this expression for work into the
previous equation gives
qEd = qVAB.
The charge cancels, and so the voltage between points A
and B is seen to be
VAB=Ed
(uniform E − field only)
where d is the distance from A to B, or the distance
between the plates in the Figure . Note that the above equation implies the units for electric
field are volts per meter. We already know the units for electric field are newtons per
coulomb; thus the following relation among units is valid: 1 N/C = 1 V/m.
Electrical Potential Due to a Point Charge
Point charges, such as electrons, are among the fundamental building blocks of matter.
Furthermore, spherical charge distributions (like on a metal sphere) create external electric
fields exactly like a point charge. The electric potential due to a point charge is, thus, a case
we need to consider. Using calculus to find the work needed to move a test charge q from a
large distance away to a distance of r from a point charge Q, and noting the connection
between work and potential (W = −qΔV), it can be shown that the electric potential V of a point
charge is
V = kQ/r (Point Charge),
where k is a constant equal to 9.0 × 109 N · m2/C2.
Equipotential Lines
Figure 2.1. An isolated point
charge Q with its electric field lines
in blue and equipotential lines in
green. The potential is the same
along each equipotential line,
meaning that no work is required to
move a charge anywhere along
one of those lines. Work is needed
to move a charge from one
equipotential line to another.
Equipotential lines are
perpendicular to electric field lines
in every case.
We can represent electric potentials (voltages) pictorially, just as we drew pictures to illustrate
electric fields. Of course, the two are related. Consider the Figure 2.1, which shows an isolated
positive point charge and its electric field lines. Electric field lines radiate out from a positive
charge and terminate on negative charges. While we use blue arrows to represent the
magnitude and direction of the electric field, we use green lines to represent places where the
electric potential is constant. These are called equipotential lines in two dimensions,
or equipotential surfaces in three dimensions. The term equipotential is also used as a noun,
referring to an equipotential line or surface. The potential for a point charge is the same
anywhere on an imaginary sphere of radius r surrounding the charge. This is true since the
potential for a point charge is given by
V=kQ/r
and, thus, has the same value at any point that is a given distance r from the charge. An
equipotential sphere is a circle in the two-dimensional view of Figure 2.1. Since the electric
field lines point radially away from the charge, they are perpendicular to the equipotential lines.
Figure 2.2 shows the electric field and equipotential
lines for two equal and opposite charges. Given the
electric field lines, the equipotential lines can be
drawn simply by making them perpendicular to the
electric field lines. Conversely, given the
equipotential lines, as in Figure 2.3a, the electric
field lines can be drawn by making them
perpendicular to the equipotentials, as in Figure
2.3b.
In the figure below, the electric field lines and
equipotential lines for two equal but opposite
charges. The equipotential lines can be drawn by
making them perpendicular to the electric field lines,
if those are known. Note that the potential is greatest
(most positive) near the positive charge and least (most negative) near the negative charge.
Figure 2.3. (a) These
equipotential lines might be
measured with a voltmeter in
a laboratory experiment. (b)
The corresponding electric
field lines are found by
drawing them perpendicular
to the equipotentials. Note
that these fields are
consistent with two equal
negative charges.
The Force per Charge Ratio

Electric field strength is a vector quantity; it has
both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of
the electric field strength is defined in terms of
how it is measured. Let's suppose that an
electric charge can be denoted by the symbol Q.
This electric charge creates an electric field;
since Q is the source of the electric field, we will
refer to it as the source charge. The strength of
the source charge's electric field could be
measured by any other charge placed somewhere in its surroundings. The charge that is used
to measure the electric field strength is referred to as a test charge since it is used to test the
field strength. The test charge has a quantity of charge denoted by the symbol q. When placed
within the electric field, the test charge will experience an electric force - either attractive or
repulsive. As is usually the case, this force will be denoted by the symbol F. The magnitude of
the electric field is simply defined as the force per charge on the test charge.
If the electric field strength is denoted by the symbol E, then the equation can be rewritten in
symbolic form as
.
The standard metric units on electric field strength arise from its definition. Since electric field
is defined as a force per charge, its units would be force units divided by charge units. In this
case, the standard metric units are Newton/Coulomb or N/C.
Coulomb's law states that the electric force between two charges is directly proportional to the
product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their
centers. When applied to our two charges - the source charge (Q) and the test charge (q) -
the formula for electric force can be written as
If the expression for electric force as given by Coulomb's law is substituted for force in the
above E =F/q equation, a new equation can be derived as shown below.
Note that the derivation above shows that the test charge q was canceled from both numerator
and denominator of the equation. The new formula for electric field strength (shown inside the
box) expresses the field strength in terms of the two variables that affect it. The electric field
strength is dependent upon the quantity of charge on the source charge (Q) and the distance
of separation (d) from the source charge.
Sample Problem
An electron is released from rest in a uniform electric field of magnitude E=100N/C and
gains speed.
(a) Find the magnitude of the force applied to it?
(b) After traveling a distance of 1 meter, how fast does it reach?
Solution: The magnitude of charge of electron is e=1.6×10−19C and the electron
me=9.1×10−31kg. From rest means that v0=0.
(a) The electric field and electric force is related by formula F=qE. Thus, we have
F = qE
=(100)(1.6×10−19)
=1.6×10−17 N
(b) This part is a kinematics problem. "From rest" means the initial velocity of electron is
zero, v0=0.
By combining Newton's second law F=ma, and kinematic equation
v2−v02=2ax
as below, we can obtain the speed of the electron after traveling one meter through the
electric field.
v2 = 2 (F/m) x + v02
= 2(1.6×10−17 / 9.1×10−31)× (1)
v2 =3.51×1013
Taking square root from both sides, we get
v = 5.93×106 m/s
module.)
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

Mini-Performance Task No.1. Electric Potential Energy

Three point charges arranged in an equilateral triangle exhibit electric field towards each
other. Draw an illustration of its electric fields using equipotential lines if these charges are
all negative (20 points)
ILLUSTRATION:
ASSIMILATION
How do Van de Graaf generators explain the concept of electric potential difference? (10pts)
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How are electric potential with work, potential energy, and electric field related?
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Electric charges and equipotential difference
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Dimensional Analysis, Vector Analysis, Electric Field Analysis


• Deduce the effects of simple capacitors (e.g., parallel-plate, spherical, cylindrical) on the
capacitance, charge, and potential difference when the size, potential difference, or
charge is changed
• Calculate the equivalent capacitance of a network of capacitors connected in
series/parallel
• Determine the total charge, the charge on, and the potential difference across each
capacitor in the network given the capacitors connected in series/parallel
• Determine the potential energy stored inside the capacitor given the geometry and the
potential difference across the capacitor
• Describe the effects of inserting dielectric materials on the capacitance, charge, and
electric field of a capacitor
• Solve problems involving capacitors and dielectrics in contexts such as, but not limited
to, charged plates, batteries, and camera flashlamps

a. Precision and accuracy in identifying the effects of different capacitors
b. Scientific literacy in inferring the relationship of capacitance to potential difference
and electric charges as well as dielectric charges
c. Excellence in solving problems related to capacitance and capacitors

This lesson is all about basic concept of capacitors; its main function and relationship to
voltages and current as well as solving problems related to capacitance and dielectric
charges

Capacitance is the ability of a component or circuit to collect and store energy in the form of
an electrical charge.
Capacitors are energy-storing devices available in many sizes and shapes. They consist of
two plates of conducting material (usually a thin metal) sandwiched between an insulator made
of ceramic, film, glass or other materials, even air.
The insulator is also known as a dielectric, and it boosts a capacitor's charging capacity.
Capacitors are sometimes called condensers in the automotive, marine and aviation
industries.
The internal plates are wired to two external terminals, which sometimes are long and thin and
can resemble tiny metallic antennae or legs. These terminals can be plugged into a circuit.
Capacitors and batteries both store energy. While batteries release energy gradually,
capacitors discharge it quickly.
A capacitor is a device used to store electric charge. Capacitors have applications ranging
from filtering static out of radio reception to energy storage in heart defibrillators. Typically,
commercial capacitors have two conducting parts close to one another, but not touching, such
as those in Figure 3.1. (Most of the time an insulator is used between the two plates to provide
separation). When battery terminals are connected to an initially uncharged capacitor, equal
amounts of positive and negative charge, +Q and –Q, are separated into its two plates. The
capacitor remains neutral overall, but we refer to it as storing a charge Q in this circumstance.
Figure 3.1. Both capacitors shown
here were initially uncharged
before being connected to a
battery. They now have separated
charges of +Q and –Q on their two
halves. (a) A parallel plate
capacitor. (b) A rolled capacitor
with an insulating material
between its two conducting sheets
The amount of
charge Q a capacitor can store
depends on two major factors—
the voltage applied and the
capacitor’s physical
characteristics, such as its size.
A system composed of two identical, parallel conducting plates separated
by a distance, as in Figure 3.2 (left), is called a parallel plate capacitor. It is
easy to see the relationship between the voltage and the stored charge for
a parallel plate capacitor, as shown in Figure 3.2. Each electric field line
starts on an individual positive charge and ends on a negative one, so that
there will be more field lines if there is more charge. (Drawing a single field
line per charge is a convenience, only. We can draw many field lines for
each charge, but the total number is proportional to the number of charges.)
The electric field strength is, thus, directly proportional to Q.
The field is proportional to the charge:
E∝Q,
where the symbol ∝ means “proportional to.” From the concept in Electric
Potential in a Uniform Electric Field, the voltage across parallel plates is
V = Ed
Thus, V∝E. It follows, then, that V∝Q, and conversely,
Q∝V.
This is true in general: The greater the voltage applied to any capacitor, the greater the
charge stored in it.
Different capacitors will store different amounts of charge for the same applied voltage,
depending on their physical characteristics. We define their capacitance C to be such that
the charge Q stored in a capacitor is proportional to C. The charge stored in a capacitor is
given by
Q = CV.
This equation expresses the two major factors affecting the amount of charge stored. Those
factors are the physical characteristics of the capacitor, C, and the voltage, V. Rearranging
the equation, we see that capacitance C is the amount of charge stored per volt, or
C=Q/V
The unit of capacitance is the farad (F), named for Michael Faraday (1791–1867), an English
scientist who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. Since
capacitance is charge per unit voltage, we see that a farad is a coulomb per volt, or
1 F=1 C/1 V
Figure 3.3 (right) shows some common capacitors.
Capacitors are primarily made of ceramic, glass, or
plastic, depending upon purpose and size. Insulating
materials, called dielectrics, are commonly used in
their construction.
Parallel Plate Capacitor

The parallel plate capacitor shown in Figure 4 (on the
right) has two identical conducting plates, each having a
surface area A, separated by a distance d (with no material
between the plates). When a voltage V is applied to the
capacitor, it stores a charge Q, as shown. We can see how
its capacitance depends on A and d by considering the
characteristics of the Coulomb force. We know that like
charges repel, unlike charges attract, and the force between
charges decreases with distance. So it seems quite
reasonable that the bigger the plates are, the more charge
they can store—because the charges can spread out more.
Thus C should be greater for larger A. Similarly, the closer
the plates are together, the greater the attraction of the
opposite charges on them. So C should be greater for
smaller d.
It can be shown that for a parallel plate capacitor there are
only two factors (A and d) that affect its capacitance C. The
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor in equation form is
given by
C=εo(A/d)
A is the area of one plate in square meters, and d is the
distance between the plates in meters. The constant ε0 is the permittivity of free space; its
numerical value in SI units is ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m. The units of F/m are equivalent to
C2/N · m2. The small numerical value of ε0 is related to the large size of the farad. A parallel
plate capacitor must have a large area to have a capacitance approaching a farad.
Dielectrics
If d is made smaller to produce a larger capacitance, then the maximum voltage must be
reduced proportionally to avoid breakdown (since E=V/d). An important solution to this
difficulty is to put an insulating material, called a dielectric, between the plates of a capacitor
and allow d to be as small as possible. Not only does the smaller d make the capacitance
greater, but many insulators can withstand greater electric fields than air before breaking
down.
There is another benefit to using a dielectric in a capacitor. Depending on the material used,
the capacitance is greater than that given by the equation
C=κϵ0(A/d)
by a factor κ, called the dielectric constant. A parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric between
its plates has a capacitance given by C = κϵ0(A/d) (parallel plate capacitor with dielectric).
The cylindrical capacitor includes a hollow or a solid cylindrical conductor surrounded by the
concentric hollow spherical cylinder. Capacitors are
widely used in electric motors, flour mills, electric
juicers and other electrical instruments. The potential
difference between each capacitor varies. There are
many electrical circuits where capacitors are to be
grouped accordingly to get the desired capacitance.
There are two common modes, including capacitors
in series and capacitors in parallel.
The Cylindrical capacitor is a type of capacitor that
possess the shape of a cylinder having an inner
radius as a and outer radius as b.
The formula for the cylindrical capacitor is
Where,
C= capacitance of the cylinder L = length of the cylinder
a = inner radius of the cylinder, b = outer radius of the cylinder
= permittivity of free space ( )
Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Sample Problem 1:
Five capacitors, C1 = 2 μF, C2 = 4 μF, C3 = 6 μF, C4 = 5 μF, C5 = 10 μF, are connected in
series and parallel. Determine the capacitance of a single capacitor that will have the same
effect as the combination.
Known :
Capacitor C1 = 2 μF Capacitor C2 = 4 μF
Capacitor C3 = 6 μF Capacitor C4 = 5 μF
Capacitor C5 = 10 μF
Wanted : The equivalent capacitance (C)
Solution :
Capacitor C2 and C3 are connected in parallel. The equivalent capacitance :
CP = C2 + C3
CP = 4 + 6
CP = 10 μF
Capacitor C1, CP, C4 and C5 are connected in series. The equivalent capacitance :
1/C = 1/C1 + 1/CP + 1/C4 + 1/C5
1/C = 1/2 + 1/10 + 1/5 + 1/10
1/C = 5/10 + 1/10 + 2/10 + 1/10
1/C = 9/10
C = 10/9 μF
• Capacitors are used in a variety of devices, including defibrillators, microelectronics

such as calculators, and flash lamps, to supply energy.
• The potential energy stored in a capacitor can be expressed in three ways:
Ecap = QV/2 = CV2/2 = Q2/2C,
where Q is the charge, V is the voltage, and C is the capacitance of the capacitor. The
energy is in joules when the charge is in coulombs, voltage is in volts, and capacitance
is in farads.
Sample Problem 2:
C1 = 3 μF, C2 = 4 μF and C3 = 3 μF, are connected in series and parallel. Determine
the electric energy on the circuits.
Known :
Wanted : The equivalent capacitance (C)
Solution :
Capacitor C2 and C3 are connected in parallel.
The equivalent capacitance :
CP = C2 + C3
CP = 4 + 3
CP = 7 μF
Capacitor C1 and CP are connected in series. The equivalent capacitance :

1/C = 1/C1 + 1/CP
1/C = 1/3 + 1/7
1/C = 7/21 + 3/21
1/C = 10/21
C = 21/10
C = 2.1 μF
C = 2.1 x 10-6 F
The electric energy on the circuits :

E = ½ C V2
E = ½ (2.1 x 10-6)(122)
E = ½ (2.1 x 10-6)(144)
E = (2.1 x 10-6)(72)
E = 151.2 x 10-6 Joule
E = 1.512 x 10-4 Joule
module.)
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

ENGAGEMENT
Enabling Assessment Activity No.2. Capacitance
Solve the following problem. Provide your solution to the problem. Box in the final answer (with
correct units)
1. Using the figure below, find

(a) the equivalent capacitance of the capacitors (5 pts)
(b) the charge on each capacitor (5 pts)
(c) the potential difference across each capacitor (10 pts)
ASSIMILATION
Why is it dangerous to touch the terminals of a high-voltage capacitor even after the voltage
source that charged the battery is disconnected from the capacitor? (10pts)
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SIGNATURE OF PARENTS OR GUARDIAN
Which plate has a higher potential, positive or negative? Explain.
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Electric charges, equipotential difference and
capacitance


• Distinguish between conventional current and electron flow
• Apply the relationship charge = current x time to new situations or to solve related
problems
• Describe the effect of temperature increase on the resistance of a metallic conductor
• Describe the ability of a material to conduct current in terms of resistivity and conductivity
• Apply the relationship of the proportionality between resistance and the length and cross-
sectional area of a wire to solve problems

a. Precision and accuracy in distinguishing similarities and differences of conventional
current and electron flow
b. Scientific literacy in describing the effect of temperature to resistance and
conductivity
c. Excellence in solving problems related to resistance and conductivity

This lesson is all about basic concept of conductivity and resistance, including resistors, and
how resistance is affected by varying the material, length and area or a resistor.
Electrical conductivity can be defined as how much voltage is required to get an amount of
electric current to flow. This is largely determined by the number of electrons in the outermost
shell; these electrons determine the ease with which mobile electrons are generated. Another
factor--but a less important one--is the number of atoms per unit volume, which determines
the number of electrons that will readily move in response to an electric field. Materials with
high conductivity, like copper and aluminum, are called conductors. Materials with low
conductivity, like rubber and glass, are called electrical insulators (or just insulators when
there's no possibility of confusion with thermal insulation). Another special class of materials
like silicon and germanium are in between and are called semiconductors.
Electric current is defined to be the rate at which charge flows. A large current, such as that
used to start a truck engine, moves a large amount of charge in a small time, whereas a small
current, such as that used to operate a hand-held calculator, moves a small amount of charge
over a long period of time. In equation form, electric current I is defined to be
I=ΔQ/Δt,
where ΔQ is the amount of charge passing through a given area in time Δt.
The SI unit for current is the ampere (A), named for the French physicist André-Marie
Ampère (1775–1836). Since I = ΔQ/Δt, we see that an ampere is one coulomb per second:
1 A = 1 C/s
Not only are fuses and circuit breakers rated in amperes (or amps), so are many electrical
appliances.
Figure 4.1. The rate of flow of charge is current. An ampere is
the flow of one coulomb through an area in one second.
Figure 4.2 (on the left) shows a

simple circuit and the standard
schematic representation of a
battery, conducting path, and load
(a resistor). Schematics are very
useful in visualizing the main
features of a circuit. A single
schematic can represent a wide variety of situations. The
schematic in Figure 4.2 (b), for example, can represent anything
from a truck battery connected to a headlight lighting the street
in front of the truck to a small battery connected to a penlight
lighting a keyhole in a door. Such schematics are useful because
the analysis is the same for a wide variety of situations. We need
to understand a few schematics to apply the concepts and
analysis to many more situations.
Figure 4.2. (a) A simple electric circuit. A closed path for current
to flow through is supplied by conducting wires connecting a load
to the terminals of a battery. (b) In this schematic, the battery is
represented by the two parallel red lines, conducting wires are
shown as straight lines, and the zigzag represents the load. The schematic represents a wide
variety of similar circuits.
Note that the direction of current flow in Figure 4.2 is from positive to negative. The direction
of conventional current is the direction that positive charge would flow. Depending on the
situation, positive charges, negative charges, or both may move. In metal wires, for example,
current is carried by electrons—that is, negative charges move. In ionic solutions, such as salt
water, both positive and negative charges move. This is also true in nerve cells. A Van de
Graaff generator used for nuclear research can produce a current of pure positive charges,
such as protons. Figure 4.3 illustrates the movement of charged particles that compose a
current. The fact that conventional current is taken to be in the direction that positive charge
would flow can be traced back to American politician and scientist Benjamin Franklin in the
1700s. He named the type of charge associated with electrons negative, long before they were
known to carry current in so many situations. Franklin, in fact, was totally unaware of the small-
scale structure of electricity. It is important to realize that there is an electric field in conductors
responsible for producing the current, as illustrated in Figure 4.3. Unlike static electricity,
where a conductor in equilibrium cannot have an electric field in it, conductors carrying a
current have an electric field and are not in static equilibrium. An electric field is needed to
supply energy to move the charges.
Figure 4.3. Current I is the rate at which charge moves

through an area A, such as the cross-section of a wire.
Conventional current is defined to move in the direction
of the electric field. (a) Positive charges move in the
direction of the electric field and the same direction as
conventional current. (b) Negative charges move in the
direction opposite to the electric field. Conventional
current is in the direction opposite to the movement of
negative charge. The flow of electrons is sometimes
referred to as electronic flow.
Resistance and Resistivity

If voltage drives current, what impedes it? The electric property that impedes current
(crudely similar to friction and air resistance) is called resistance R. Collisions of moving
charges with atoms and molecules in a substance transfer energy to the substance and limit
current. Resistance is defined as inversely proportional to current, or
I∝1R.
Thus, for example, current is cut in half if resistance doubles. Combining the relationships of
current to voltage and current to resistance gives
I=VR.
This relationship is also called Ohm’s law. Ohm’s law in this form really defines resistance for
certain materials. Ohm’s law is not universally valid. The many substances for which Ohm’s
law holds are called ohmic. These include good conductors like copper and aluminum, and
some poor conductors under certain circumstances. Ohmic materials have a resistance R that
is independent of voltage V and current I. An object that has simple resistance is called
a resistor, even if its resistance is small. The unit for resistance is an ohm and is given the
symbol Ω (upper case Greek omega). Rearranging I = V/R gives R = V/I, and so the units of
resistance are 1 ohm = 1 volt per ampere:
1Ω = 1V/A
The resistance of an object depends on its shape and the material of which it is composed.
The cylindrical resistor in Figure 4.4 is easy to analyze, and, by so doing, we can gain insight
into the resistance of more complicated shapes. As you might expect, the cylinder’s electric
resistance R is directly proportional to its length L, similar to the resistance of a pipe to fluid
flow. The longer the cylinder, the more collisions charges will make with its atoms. The greater
the diameter of the cylinder, the more current it can carry. In fact, R is inversely proportional
to the cylinder’s cross-sectional area A.
Figure 4.4 .A uniform cylinder of length L and cross-
sectional area A. Its resistance to the flow of current is
similar to the resistance posed by a pipe to fluid flow.
The longer the cylinder, the greater its resistance. The
larger its cross-sectional area A, the smaller its
resistance.
For a given shape, the resistance depends on the material of which the object is composed.
Different materials offer different resistance to the flow of charge. We define the resistivity ρ of
a substance so that the resistance R of an object is directly proportional to ρ. Resistivity ρ is
an intrinsic property of a material, independent of its shape or size. The resistance R of a
uniform cylinder of length L, of cross-sectional area A, and made of a material with resistivity ρ,
is
R=ρ(L/A)
Conductors have the smallest resistivities, and insulators have the largest; semiconductors
have intermediate resistivities. Conductors have varying but large free charge densities,
whereas most charges in insulators are bound to atoms and are not free to move.
Semiconductors are intermediate, having far fewer free charges than conductors, but having
properties that make the number of free charges depend strongly on the type and amount of
impurities in the semiconductor.
The resistivity of conductors increases with increasing temperature. Since the atoms vibrate
more rapidly and over larger distances at higher temperatures, the electrons moving through
a metal make more collisions, effectively making the resistivity higher. Over relatively small
temperature changes (about 100ºC or less), resistivity ρ varies with temperature change
ΔT as expressed in the following equation
ρ = ρ0 (1 +αΔT),
where ρ0 is the original resistivity and α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
Note also that α is negative for the semiconductors listed in Table 4, meaning that their
resistivity decreases with increasing temperature. They become better conductors at higher
temperature, because increased thermal agitation increases the number of free charges
available to carry current. This property of decreasing ρ with temperature is also related to the
type and amount of impurities present in the semiconductors. The resistance of an object also
depends on temperature, since R0 is directly proportional to ρ. For a cylinder we
know R = ρL/A, and so, if L and A do not change greatly with temperature, R will have the
same temperature dependence as ρ. Thus,
R = R 0 ( 1 + αΔT )
is the temperature dependence of the resistance of an object, where R0 is the original
resistance and R is the resistance after a temperature change ΔT. Numerous thermometers
are based on the effect of temperature on resistance. (See Figure 4.5.) One of the most
common is the thermistor, a semiconductor crystal with a strong temperature dependence,
the resistance of which is measured to obtain its temperature. The device is small, so that it
quickly comes into thermal equilibrium with the part of a person it touches.
Figure 3. These familiar thermometers are

based on the automated measurement of a
thermistor’s temperature-dependent resistance
Sample Problem: Although caution must be used in applying ρ = ρ0(1 +αΔT) and R = R0(1
+αΔT) for temperature changes greater than 100ºC, for tungsten the equations work
reasonably well for very large temperature changes. What, then, is the resistance of the
tungsten filament if its temperature is increased from room temperature ( 20ºC ) to a typical
operating temperature of 2850ºC?
Solution
The hot resistance R is obtained by entering known values into the above equation:
R = R0(1+αΔT)
=(0.350Ω)[1+(4.5×10−3/ºC)(2830ºC)]
=4.8Ω
Table 4
module.)
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

Mini-Performance Task No.2. Conductivity

Calculate the resistance (at 20 degrees Celsius) of three different wires with the following
specifications written below. Identify which of these wires is the best electrical conductor and
justify your answer. Show your solutions (30 points)
Wire Length (m) Area (sq. cm) Resistivity Resistance (Ω)

(Ω.m)
Copper 1.25 10.50
Gold 1.50 9.25
Tungsten 1.75 8.75
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DATE: ______________
PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT: How do length and area affect the resistivity?
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Coulomb's law, equipotential difference and
resistance
• Differentiate ohmic and non-ohmic materials in terms of their I-V curves
• Differentiate emf of a source and potential difference (PD) across a circuit
• Given an emf source connected to a resistor, determine the power supplied or
dissipated by each element in a circuit
• Solve problems involving current, resistivity, resistance, and Ohm’s law in
contexts such as, but not limited to, batteries and bulbs, household wiring, and
selection of fuses
1. Precision and accuracy in distinguishing differences in ohmic and non-ohmic materials
as well as the difference of electromotive force and potential difference
2. Scientific literacy in determining the power supplied or dissipated in a circuit
3. Excellence in solving problems involving current, voltage and resistors
This lesson is all about basic concept of Ohm's Law in series and parallel connected circuits
as well as how current, voltage, power and resistance affects one another.
What drives current? We can think of various devices—such as batteries, generators,
wall outlets, and so on—which are necessary to maintain a current. All such devices
create a potential difference and are loosely referred to as voltage sources. When a
voltage source is connected to a conductor, it applies a potential difference V that
creates an electric field. The electric field, in turn, exerts force on charges, causing
current. The current that flows through most substances is directly proportional to the
voltage V applied to it. The German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) was the
first to experimentally demonstrate that the current in a metal wire is directly
proportional to the voltage applied: I∝V.
Ohm’s Law states that current is proportional to voltage; circuits are ohmic if they obey
the relation V=IR.
The German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) was the first to experimentally
demonstrate that the current in a metal wire is directly proportional to the voltage
applied: I∝V.
OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s Law states that current is proportional to voltage; circuits are ohmic if they obey
the relation V=IR.
What drives current? We can think of various devices—such as batteries, generators,
wall outlets, and so on—which are necessary to maintain a current. All such devices
create a potential difference and are loosely referred to as voltage sources. When a
voltage source is connected to a conductor, it applies a potential difference V that
creates an electric field. The electric field, in turn, exerts force on charges, causing
current. The current that flows through most substances is directly proportional to the
voltage V applied to it. The German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) was the
first to experimentally demonstrate that the current in a metal wire is directly
proportional to the voltage applied: I∝V.
This important relationship is known as Ohm’s law. It can be viewed as a cause-and-
effect relationship, with voltage the cause and current the effect. This is an empirical
law like that for friction—an experimentally observed phenomenon. Such a linear
relationship doesn’t always occur. Recall that while voltage drives current, resistance
impedes it. Collisions of moving charges with atoms and molecules in a substance
transfer energy to the substance and limit current. The current is therefore inversely
proportional to the resistance: I∝1/R.
A simple electric circuit in which a closed path for current to flow is supplied by
conductors (usually metal wires) connecting a load to the terminals of a battery,
represented by the red parallel lines. The zigzag symbol represents the single resistor
and includes any resistance in the connections to the voltage source.
The unit for resistance is the ohm where 1Ω = 1 V/A. We can combine the two relations
above to obtain I = V/R. This relationship is also called Ohm’s law. In this form Ohm’s
law really defines resistance for certain materials. Ohm’s law (like Hooke’s law) is not
universally valid. The many substances for which Ohm’s law holds are called ohmic.
These include good conductors like copper and aluminum, and some poor conductors
under certain circumstances. Ohmic materials have a resistance R that is independent
of voltage V and current I. An object that has simple resistance is called a resistor,
even if its resistance is small.
In a true ohmic device, the same value of resistance will be calculated from R = V/I
regardless of the value of the applied voltage V. That is, the ratio of V/I is constant,
and when current is plotted as a function of voltage the curve is linear (a straight line).
If voltage is forced to some value V, then that voltage V divided by measured current
I will equal R. Or if the current is forced to some value I, then the measured voltage V
divided by that current I is also R. We visualize the
plot of I versus V as a straight line. There are,
however, components of electrical circuits which do
not obey Ohm’s law; that is, their relationship
between current and voltage (their I–V curve) is
nonlinear (or non-ohmic). An example is the p-n
junction diode.
The emf (electromotive force) is the potential difference between the terminals of a
battery when no current is flowing through an external circuit when the circuit is open.
Potential difference is the voltage across the terminals of the battery when the current
is being drawn from it to an external.
POWER AND JOULE’S LAW

Power is the term used to describe the rate
of doing work or work over time. This means
that a 100W globe is running much hotter
than a 1W globe, and we can sense the work
being done by the heat generated. Power is
directly linked to Ohm’s by Joule’s law, which
says that the heat produced in resistance is
proportional to the square of the current
flowing through it over a given time.
Sample Problem 1
A small light bulb is connected to a 6 V battery and draws 2 A of current. What is the
net resistance of the bulb?
• Voltage: V = 6 V
• current: I = 2 A
• resistance: R = ?
Since R is unknown, cover R and you see V/I.
• R = V/I
• R = 6/2
• R=3Ω
Sample Problem 2
A fuse is a device to avoid the flow of a large current in a circuit. The potential
difference across the fuse is negligible. In our circuit, the maximum current allowed
through the fuse is 10 A. The light bulbs marked 40 Watt, 110 V. The bulbs connected
to a voltage source of 110 V. What is the maximum number of bulbs that can be placed
in parallel before the fuse blows?
The power dissipated by the bulb is given by

P = V2/R,
We can calculate the resistance of the light bulb
R = V2/P = 1102/40 = 302.5 Ω.
The total resistance of two bulbs is
1/RT = 1/R + 1/R
or
RT = R/2.
Thus, for n light bulbs, we will get
RT = R/n. (1)
The total current in the circuit is given by
I = V/RT (2) (The Ohm’s law).
We substitute the equation (1) into the equation (2) and obtain
I = V*n/R (3)
If the current I is equal or greater than the maximum current Imax then the fuse blows.
I ≥ Imax
We can rewrite it using equation (3)
V*n/R ≥ Imax
or
n ≥ Imax*R/V (4)
We substitute the values into the equation (4) and we obtain
n ≥ 10*302.5/110
n ≥ 27.5
Finally, we can see that we are safe if we are connecting 27 light bulbs in parallel
and the fuse blows if we will place 28 light bulbs.
WEEK5 ANSWER SHEET (Please submit only the answers. Do not return the entire
module.)
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

ENGAGEMENT
Enabling Assessment Activity No.3. Ohm’s Law
Complete the Table using Ohm’s Law.

Resistance Voltage (V) Current (A) Power (watts)
(Ohms)
20 5
110 10
5 250
30 1500
220 15
ASSIMILATION
Suppose a parachutist lands on a high-voltage wire and grabs the wire as she
prepares to be rescued. Will she be electrocuted? If the wire then breaks, should she
continue to hold onto the wire as she falls to the ground? Why? (10pts)
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PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT: How does current affects the power input of a certain
appliances?
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Ohm's law, equipotential difference,
resistance
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Dimensional Analysis, Vector Analysis, Circuit analysis

• Operate devices for measuring currents and voltages
• Draw circuit diagrams with power sources (cell or battery), switches, lamps,
resistors (fixed and variable) fuses, ammeters and voltmeters
• Evaluate the equivalent resistance, current, and voltage in a given network of
resistors connected in series and/or parallel
• Calculate the current and voltage through and across circuit elements using
Kirchhoff’s loop and junction rules (at most 2 loops only)
• Solve problems involving the calculation of currents and potential difference in
circuits consisting of batteries, resistors and capacitors
1. Precision and accuracy in operating devices that measures current and voltage
2. Scientific literacy in evaluating equivalent resistance, current and voltage in a given
circuit
3. Excellence in solving problems involving Kirchoff's Rule using 2 loops
This lesson is all about basic concept of circuits; how parallel and series connection affects
the voltage, current and resistance in a circuit, as well as the laws revolving around a circuit.
Circuit diagrams show how electronic components are connected together. Each
component is represented by a symbol.
Circuit diagrams show the connections as clearly as possible with all wires drawn
neatly as straight lines. The actual layout of the components is usually quite different
from the circuit diagram and this can be confusing for the beginner. The secret is to
concentrate on the connections, not the actual positions of components.
The circuit diagram and strip-board layout for the Adjustable Timer project are shown
here so you can see the difference.
A circuit diagram is useful when testing a circuit and for understanding how it works.
This is why the instructions for projects include a circuit diagram as well as the
stripboard or printed circuit board layout which you need to build the circuit.
Drawing circuit diagrams

Drawing circuit diagrams is not difficult but it takes a little practice to draw neat, clear
diagrams. This is a useful skill for science as well as for electronics. You will certainly
need to draw circuit diagrams if you design your own circuits.
Follow these tips for best results:
• Make sure you use the correct symbol for each component.
• Draw connecting wires as straight lines (use a ruler).
• Put a 'blob' ( ) at each junction between wires.
• Label components such as resistors and capacitors with their values.
• The positive (+) supply should be at the top and the negative (-) supply at the
bottom. The negative supply is usually labelled 0V, zero volts.
Resistors in Series
Resistors are said to be connected in “Series”, when they are daisy chained together
in a single line. Since all the current flowing through the first resistor has no other way
to go it must also pass through the second resistor and the third and so on. Then,
resistors in series have a Common Current flowing through them as the current that
flows through one resistor must also flow through the others as it can only take one
path.
Then the amount of current that flows through a set of resistors in series will be the
same at all points in a series resistor network. For example:
In the following example the resistors R1, R2 and R3 are all connected together in
series between points A and B with a common current, I flowing through them.
Series Resistor Circuit
As the resistors are connected together in series the same current passes through each
resistor in the chain and the total resistance, RT of the circuit must be equal to the sum of all
the individual resistors added together. That is
and by taking the individual values of the resistors in our simple example above, the
total equivalent resistance, REQ is therefore given as:
REQ = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1kΩ + 2kΩ + 6kΩ = 9kΩ
Series Resistor Voltage

The voltage across each resistor connected in series follows different rules to that of
the series current. We know from the above circuit that the total supply voltage
across the resistors is equal to the sum of the potential differences across
R1 , R2 and R3 , VAB = VR1 + VR2 + VR3 = 9V.
Using Ohm’s Law, the voltage across the individual resistors can be calculated as:
Voltage across R1 = IR1 = 1mA x 1kΩ = 1V
giving a total voltage VAB of ( 1V + 2V + 6V ) = 9V which is equal to the value of the supply
voltage. Then the sum of the potential differences across the resistors is equal to the total
potential difference across the combination and in our example this is 9V.
Example No1
Using Ohms Law, calculate the equivalent series resistance, the series current,
voltage drop and power for each resistor in the following resistors in series circuit.
All the data can be found by using Ohm’s Law, and to make life a little easier we can
present this data in tabular form.
Resistance Current Voltage Power
R1 = 10Ω I1 = 200mA V1 = 2V P1 = 0.4W
R2 = 20Ω I2 = 200mA V2 = 4V P2 = 0.8W
R3 = 30Ω I3 = 200mA V3 = 6V P3 = 1.2W
RT = 60Ω IT = 200mA VS = 12V PT = 2.4W
Then for the circuit above, RT = 60Ω, IT = 200mA, VS = 12V and PT = 2.4W
Parallel Resistor Circuit

Various Parallel Resistor Networks
Find the total resistance, RT of the following resistors connected in a parallel

network.
The total resistance RT across the two terminals A and B is calculated as:
The equation given for calculating the total current flowing in a parallel resistor circuit
which is the sum of all the individual currents added together is given as:
Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3 ….. + In
In the following circuit calculate the total current ( IT ) taken from the 12v supply.
At first glance this may seem a difficult task, but if we look a little closer we can see
that the two resistors, R2 and R3 are actually both connected together in a “SERIES”
combination so we can add them together to produce an equivalent resistance the
same as we did in the series resistor tutorial. The resultant resistance for this
combination would therefore be:
R2 + R3 = 8Ω + 4Ω = 12Ω
So we can replace both resistor R2 and R3 above with a single resistor of resistance
value 12Ω
So our circuit now has a single resistor RA in “PARALLEL” with the resistor R4. Using
our resistors in parallel equation we can reduce this parallel combination to a single
equivalent resistor value of R(combination) using the formula for two parallel connected
resistors as follows.
The resultant resistive circuit now looks something like this:
We can see that the two remaining

resistances, R1 and R(comb) are connected together in a
“SERIES” combination and again they can be added together
(resistors in series) so that the total circuit resistance between
points A and B is therefore given as:
R(ab) = Rcomb + R1 = 6Ω + 6Ω = 12Ω
Thus a single resistor of just 12Ω can be used to replace the original four resistors
connected together in the original circuit above.
By using Ohm’s Law, the value of the current ( I ) flowing around the circuit is
calculated as:
KIRCHHOFF’S RULE
Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that at any circuit junction, the sum of the currents
flowing into and out of that junction are equal.
Kirchhoff’s junction rule, also known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), Kirchoff’s first
law, Kirchhoff’s point rule, and Kirchhoff’s nodal rule, is an application of the principle
of conservation of electric charge.
Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that at any junction ( node ) in an electrical circuit, the
sum of the currents flowing into that junction is equal to the sum of the currents flowing
out of that junction. In other words, given that a current will be positive or negative
depending on whether it is flowing towards or away from a junction, the algebraic sum
of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is equal to zero.
Kirchhoff’s loop rule states that the sum of the emf values in any closed loop is equal
to the sum of the potential drops in that loop.
Kirchhoff’s loop rule (otherwise known as Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), Kirchhoff’s
mesh rule, Kirchhoff’s second law, or Kirchhoff’s second rule) is a rule pertaining to
circuits, and is based on the principle of conservation of energy.
The algebraic sum of the products of resistances of conductors (and currents in them)
in a closed loop is equal to the total electromotive force available in that loop.
Mathematically, Kirchhoff’s loop rule can be represented as the sum of voltages in a
circuit, which is equated with zero.
Sample Problem: The circuit loop in the figure below consists of three resistors and
a voltage source (battery). The current in the loop is I = +4.00 A, clockwise. The battery
supplies a voltage of vb = 100.0 V. The resistance values for two of the three resistors
are given in the figure. What is the value of resistor R3 ?
The value of the third resistor can be found by rearranging the formula above:
NOTE: Take note of the signs for

varying directions using resistors
and voltage source
For circuits with two loops, you must

first chose the loop that you will
consider
Problem: Find I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit below

Loop abefa includes the voltage source V1 and resistors R1 and R2. The loop starts
at point a, then travels through points b, e, and f, and then back to point a. The second
loop, Loop ebcde, starts at point e and includes resistors R2 and R3, and the Voltage
source V2.
Now we can apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule Starting at point a and moving to point b, the
resistor R1 is crossed in the same direction as the current flow I1, so the potential
drop I1R1 is subtracted. Moving from point b to point e, the resistor R2 is crossed in
the same direction as the current flow I2 so the potential drop I2R2 is subtracted.
Moving from point e to point f, the voltage source V1 is crossed from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal, so V1 is added. There are no components between
points f and a. The sum of the voltage differences must equal zero:
Loop abefa: −I1R1 − I2R2 +V1 = 0 or
V 1 = I 1R 1 + I 2R 2.
Finally, we check loop ebcde. We start at point e and move to point b, crossing R2 in
the opposite direction as the current flow I2. The potential drop
I2R2 is added. Next, we cross R3 and R4 in the same direction as the current
flow I3 and subtract the potential drops I3R3 and I3R4. Note that the current is the
same through resistors R3 and R4,because they are connected in series. Finally,
the voltage source is crossed from the positive terminal to the negative terminal, and
the voltage source V2 is subtracted. The sum of these voltage differences equals zero
and yields the loop equation
Loop ebcde: I2R2 − I3(R3+R4) − V2 = 0
We now have three equations, which we can solve for the three unknowns.
Junction b: I1 − I2 − I3 = 0 (Equation 1)
Loop abefa: I1R1 + I2R2 = V1 (Equation 2)
Loop ebcde: I2R2 − I3(R3+R4) = V2 (Equation 3)
To solve the three equations for the three unknown currents, start by eliminating
current I2. First multiply Equation 1 with R2
(I1 − I2 − I3 = 0) R2
I1R2 − I2R2 − I3R2 = 0 (Equation 4)
Add Equation 4 and Equation 2

(I1R2 − I2R2 − I3R2 = 0) + (I1R1 + I2R2 = V1)
I1R2 + I1R1 − I3R2 = V1
3ΩI1 + 3Ω I1 − 3Ω I3 = 24V
6Ω I1 − 3Ω I3 = 24V (Equation 5)
Next, Subtract Equation 3 from Equation 2

(I1R1 + I2R2 = V1) – (I2R2 − I3(R3+R4) = V2)
I1R1 − I3(R3+R4) = V1 - V2
3Ω I1 − I3(3Ω +4Ω) = 24V - 29V
3Ω I1 − 7Ω I3 = -5V (Equation 6)
Multiply Equation 6 by 2
(3Ω I1 − 7Ω I3 = -5V)*2
6Ω I1 − 14Ω I3 = -10V (Equation 7)
Subtract Equation 7 from Equation 5

(6Ω I1 − 3Ω I3 = 24V) - (6Ω I1 − 14Ω I3 = -10V)
-17Ω I3 = 34V
I3 = 34V/-17Ω
I3 = 2A
Substitute I3 to Equation 6
3Ω I1 − 7Ω I3 = -5V
3Ω I1 – (7Ω*2A) = -5V
3Ω I1 – (14V) = -5V
3Ω I1 = -5V +14V
3Ω I1 = 9V
I1 = 9V/3Ω
I1 = 3A
Now, use I1 and I3 to solve I2 using Equation 1

I1 − I2 − I3 = 0
3A − I2 – 2A = 0
1A – I2 = 0
1A = I2
Answer:
I1 = 3A I2 = 1A I3 = 2A
TRY THIS ONE!!!
Find the values of I1, I2 and I3
Use the following equations

Junction rule equation I1 = I2 + I3
Loop abcdea: −I2R2 + V1 − I2r1 − I1R1 = −I2(R2 + r1) + V1 − I1R1 = 0
Loop aefgha: + I1R1 + I3R3 + I3r2 − V2 = + I1R1 + I3(R3 + r2) − V2 = 0
Answer: I1 = 4.75A I2 = -3.50A I3 = 8.25A
module.)
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

Mini-Performance Task No.3. Circuits
Solve the following problems. Provide solution to each problem. Box in the final answer
(with correct units)
1. (a) Find the equivalent resistance between points a and b in Figure below. (b)
Calculate the current in each resistor if a potential difference of 34.0 V is applied
between points a and b.
2. Find I1, I2 and I3
_________________________________________________________________
PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT: What is the significance of Kirchhoff's rule?
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Ohm's law, equipotential difference,
resistance
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Dimensional Analysis, Vector Analysis, Circuit analysis
• Differentiate electric interactions from magnetic interactions

• Evaluate the total magnetic flux through an open surface
• Describe the motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field in terms of its speed,
acceleration, cyclotron radius, cyclotron frequency, and kinetic energy
• Evaluate the magnetic force on an arbitrary wire segment placed in a uniform
magnetic field
• Evaluate the magnetic field vector at a given point in space due to a moving point
charge, an infinitesimal current element, or a straight current-carrying conductor
• Calculate the magnetic field due to one or more straight wire conductors using
the superposition principle
• Calculate the force per unit length on a current carrying wire due to the magnetic
field produced by other current-carrying wires
• Evaluate the magnetic field vector at any point along the axis of a circular current
loop
• Solve problems involving magnetic fields, forces due to magnetic fields and the
motion of charges and current-carrying wires in contexts such as, but not limited
to, determining the strength of Earth’s magnetic field, mass spectrometers, and
solenoids.
1. Precision and accuracy in evaluating total magnetic flux, magnetic force, and magnetic
field vectors in different instances
2. Scientific literacy in describing motion of a charged
3. Excellence in solving problems involving magnetic fields and magnetic forces
This lesson is all about basic concept of magnetic field and magnetic force; how magnetic
and electric interactions affects both magnetic force and magnetic field, including the speed,
acceleration, cyclotron radius, cyclotron frequency, and kinetic energy in a magnetic
field of a charged particle, and solving problems involving magnetic force and fields.

Magnetic fields are produced by electric currents, which can be macroscopic currents
in wires, or microscopic currents associated with electrons in atomic orbits. The
magnetic field B is defined in terms of force on moving charge in the Lorentz force law.
The interaction of magnetic field with charge leads to many practical applications.
Magnetic field sources are essentially dipolar in nature, having a north and south
magnetic pole. The SI unit for magnetic field is the Tesla, which can be seen from the
magnetic part of the Lorentz force law Fmagnetic = qvB to be composed of (Newton x
second)/(Coulomb x meter). A smaller magnetic field unit is the Gauss (1 Tesla =
10,000 Gauss).
The magnetic field lines around a long wire which carries an electric current form
concentric circles around the wire. The direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular
to the wire and is in the direction the fingers of your right hand would curl if you
wrapped them around the wire with your thumb in the direction of the current.
Lorentz Force Law

Both the electric field and magnetic field can be defined from the Lorentz force law:
The electric force is straightforward, being in the direction of the electric field if the
charge q is positive, but the direction of the magnetic part of the force is given by
the right hand rule.
Right Hand Rule
The right hand rule is a useful
mnemonic for visualizing the
direction of a magnetic
force as given by the Lorentz
force law. The diagrams above
are two of the forms used to
visualize the force on a moving
positive charge. The force is in
the opposite direction for a
negative charge moving in the
direction shown. One fact to
keep in mind is that the magnetic force is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and
the charge velocity, but that leaves two possibilities. The right hand rule just helps you
pin down which of the two directions applies.
For applications to current-carrying wires, the conventional electric current direction

can be substituted for the charge velocity v in the above digram.
The magnetic force exerted on a moving charge takes the form of a vector product.
The magnetic force on a free moving charge is perpendicular to both the velocity of
the charge and the magnetic field with direction given by the right hand rule. The force
is given by the charge times the vector product of velocity and magnetic field.
Examining the direction of the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying segment

of wire shows that all parts of the loop contribute magnetic field in the same direction
inside the loop.
Electric current in a circular loop creates a magnetic field which is more concentrated
in the center of the loop than outside the loop. Stacking multiple loops concentrates
the field even more into what is called a solenoid.
CYCLOTRON
The cyclotron was one of the earliest types of particle accelerators, and is still used as
the first stage of some large multi-stage particle accelerators. It makes use of
the magnetic force on a moving charge to bend moving charges into a semicircular
path between accelerations by an applied electric field. The applied electric field
accelerates electrons between the "dees" of the magnetic field region. The field is
reversed at the cyclotron frequency to accelerate the electrons back across the gap.
When the cyclotron principle is used to accelerate electrons, it has been historically
called a betatron. The cyclotron principle as applied to electrons is illustrated below.
A moving charge in a cyclotron will move in a circular path under the influence of a
constant magnetic field. If the time to complete one orbit is calculated:
it is found that the period is independent of the radius. Therefore if a square wave is
applied at angular frequency qB/m, the charge will spiral outward, increasing in speed.
When a square wave of angular frequency
is applied between the two sides of the magnetic poles, the charge will be boosted
again at just the right time to accelerate it across the gap. Thus the constant cyclotron
frequency can continue to accelerate the charge
Magnetic Field Formula
When electric current is carried in a wire, a magnetic field is formed around it. The
magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the wire. The magnetic field
direction depends on the direction of the current. It can be determined using the "right
hand rule", by pointing the thumb of your right hand in the direction of the current. The
direction of the magnetic field lines is the direction of your curled fingers. The
magnitude of the magnetic field depends on the amount of current, and the distance
from the charge-carrying wire. The formula includes the constant . This is called the
permeability of free space, and has a value . The unit of
magnetic field is the Tesla, T.
B = magnetic field magnitude (Tesla, T)
= permeability of free space ( )

I = magnitude of the electric current (Amperes, A)
r = distance (m)
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field 0.10 m away from a wire carrying a 3.00
A current? If the current has a vector direction out of the page (or screen), what is
the direction of the magnetic field?
The direction of the magnetic field can be determined using the "right hand rule", by
pointing the thumb of your right hand in the direction of the current. The direction of
the magnetic field lines is the direction of your curled fingers. The current has a vector
direction out of the page, and so your fingers will curl in the counter-clockwise
direction. Therefore, the magnetic field lines point in the counter-clockwise
direction, forming circles around the wire.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A straight wire carries a current of 5 A placed between two poles of magnets.
If the amplitude of magnetic field is 0.02 Tesla then find:
Note: U = utara = north, S = selatan = south, B = barat = west, T = timur = east

a) magnetic force acts on the wire with 10 cm in length
b) direction of magnetic field
Answer
a) The magnetic force acts on a conductor with length l meter in a magnetic
field B Tesla carries a current of i Ampere with an angle between B and i is θ found
by an equation F = Bil sinθ , insert the data to the equation then we get :
b) magnetic force direction with right hand rules

4 fingers → B direction
thumb→ i direction
palm → F direction
The magnetic field direction comes from north pole to south pole of a magnet, so
then the direction of F is into the plane of the figure or down if we use the compass
direction reference above.
MAGNETIC FLUX
Magnetic flux is the product of the average magnetic field times the perpendicular area
that it penetrates. It is a quantity of convenience in the statement of Faraday's Law and
in the discussion of objects like transformers and solenoids. In the case of an electric
generator where the magnetic field penetrates a rotating coil, the area used in defining
the flux is the projection of the coil area onto the plane perpendicular to the magnetic
field. Since the SI unit for magnetic field is the Tesla, the unit for magnetic flux would
be Tesla m2. This unit combination has the historical name Weber (Wb).
The Dimension of a rectangular loop is 0.50m and 0.60m. B and θ are 0.02T and
45° respectively. Determine the magnetic flux through the surface.
Solution:
Given
Dimensions of rectangular loop = 0.50m and 0.60m,
B = 0.02T
θ = 45°
Magnetic flux formula is given by
Φ = B A Cosθ
Area, A = 0.50 × 0.60
= 0.3 m2
Φ = 0.02 × 0.3 × Cos 45
Φ = 0.00312 Wb
module.)
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

ENGAGEMENT
Enabling Assessment Activity No.3. Magnetic Force
Solve the following problems. Provide solution to each problem. Box in the final
answer (with correct units)
1. A coaxial cable consists of an insulated wire carrying
current I1 = 5.00 A surrounded by a cylindrical
conductor carrying current I2 = 3.00 A in the opposite
direction, as in the Figure below (a) Calculate the
magnetic field inside the cylindrical conductor at rint =
0.500 cm. (b) Calculate the magnetic field outside the
cylindrical conductor at rext = 2.50 cm.
ASSIMILATION
Can you use a compass to detect the currents in wires in the walls near light
switches in your home? Justify your answer (10 points)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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GENERAL PHYSICS 2

Level: SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Semester: SECOND

TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 HRS

RUA: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

INSTITUTIONAL VALUES: Precision and Accuracy, Scientific Literacy, Excellence

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

STUDENT’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

CHARGING BY FRICTION AND INDUCTION

Coulomb's Law Equation

The fields from isolated, individual

Electric Flux on Different Gaussian Surfaces

Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 HRS

RUA: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

INSTITUTIONAL VALUES: Precision and Accuracy, Scientific Literacy, Excellence

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

STUDENT’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

Electric Potential Energy: Potential Difference

Figure 2. A charge accelerated by an electric field is

The work done by the electric field in Figure to move a

The Force per Charge Ratio

Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

Mini-Performance Task No.1. Electric Potential Energy

TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 HRS

RUA: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

INSTITUTIONAL VALUES: Precision and Accuracy, Scientific Literacy, Excellence

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

STUDENT’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

Parallel Plate Capacitor

Capacitors in Series and Parallel

• Capacitors are used in a variety of devices, including defibrillators, microelectronics

Capacitor C1 and CP are connected in series. The equivalent capacitance :

The electric energy on the circuits :

Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

1. Using the figure below, find

TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 HRS

RUA: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

INSTITUTIONAL VALUES: Precision and Accuracy, Scientific Literacy, Excellence

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

Figure 4.2 (on the left) shows a

Figure 4.3. Current I is the rate at which charge moves

Resistance and Resistivity

Figure 3. These familiar thermometers are

Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

Mini-Performance Task No.2. Conductivity

Wire Length (m) Area (sq. cm) Resistivity Resistance (Ω)

PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT: How do length and area affect the resistivity?

POWER AND JOULE’S LAW

The power dissipated by the bulb is given by

Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

Complete the Table using Ohm’s Law.

TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 HRS

Drawing circuit diagrams

Series Resistor Circuit

Series Resistor Voltage

Resistance Current Voltage Power

R1 = 10Ω I1 = 200mA V1 = 2V P1 = 0.4W

R2 = 20Ω I2 = 200mA V2 = 4V P2 = 0.8W

R3 = 30Ω I3 = 200mA V3 = 6V P3 = 1.2W

RT = 60Ω IT = 200mA VS = 12V PT = 2.4W

Parallel Resistor Circuit

Various Parallel Resistor Networks

Find the total resistance, RT of the following resistors connected in a parallel

Name: __________ Section: _

Name: __________ Section: _

Name: __________ Section: _

Name: __________ Section: _

Name: __________ Section: _

Name: __________ Section: _

Name: __________ Section: _