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BIOCHEMISTRY

BIOCHEMISTRY – is the study of the chemical substances found in living organisms and the
chemical interactions of these substances with each other.

Biochemical substances (human body)

1. Bioinorganic substance – do not contain carbon; Water (70%), inorganic salts (5%)
2. Bioorganic substance – contain carbon; protein (15%), lipids (8%), carbohydrates (2%),
nucleic acid (2%)

CARBOHYDRATE

Carbohydrates – most abundant class of bioorganic molecules; 75% by mass of dry plant
materials

Photosynthesis :

Plants’ 2 main uses for the carbohydrates they produce: cellulose - structural elements; starch-
energy reserves

Function in human:

1. Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy,

2. Carbohydrate storage, in the form of glycogen, provide short- term energy reserve,
3. Carbohydrate supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of other biochemical substances
(protein, lipids, and nucleic acid),
4. Carbohydrate form part of the structural framework of DNA and RNA molecules,
5. Carbohydrate linked to lipids are structural components of cell membranes, and
6. Carbohydrate linked to proteins function in a variety of cell-cell and cell-molecules
recognition process.

Carbohydrates - polyhydroxy aldehyde, polyhydroxy ketone or compound that yields

polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone upon hydrolysis; CnH2nOn is the general formula
for simple carbohydrate

Example: glucose and fructose

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Classification of carbohydrates:
1. Monosaccharide – contains single polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone unit;
cannot be broken into simpler units by hydrolysis reactions. Naturally occurring
monosaccharide have from 3 to 4 carbon atoms; 5 to 6 carbon are common.
Saccharum – Latin word for sugar.
Classification according to the functional group: aldose , ketose
Classification according to the number of carbon: triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose

Example: glucose – aldohexose

Aldose Ketose
Triose Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
Tetrose Erythrose, Threose Erythrulose
Pentose Ribose, Arabinose, Xylose, Ribulose, Xylulose
Lyxose
Hexose Allose, Altrose, Glucose, Psicose, Fructose, Sorbose,
Mannose, Gulose, Idose, Tagatose
Galactose, Talose

2. Disaccharide - contains two monosaccharide unit covalently bonded (glycosidic bond)

through condensation reaction; hydrolysis of disaccharide produce 2 monosaccharide units
3. Oligosaccharide - contains three to ten monosaccharide unit covalently bonded(glycosidic
bond). Free oligosaccharide are seldom encountered in biochemical system
4. Polysaccharide – polymeric carbohydrate that contains many monosaccharide units
(hundreds to millions).
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Structure of Aldoses

Structure of ketoses
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CHIRALITY : Handedness of molecules

1.Handedness: a form of isomerism; left- handed and right-handed form
2.Mirror images: superimposable mirror image and nonsuperimposable mirror image
3.Chirality – chiral objects possess handedness
Chiral molecules - nonsuperimposable mirror image, possess handedness
Achiral molecules – superimposable mirror image; do not impose handedness
Chiral center is an atom in a molecule that has four (4) different groups bonded to it
in a tetrahedral orientation (single bond);

Examples:

*Chiral centers within molecules are often denoted by a small asterisk.

Note: some molecules does not have chiral centers, some have more than 1.

In human body chemistry, right-handed and left-handed forms of a molecule often elicit
different responses within the body.
1. Sometimes both forms are biologically active, each form giving different response;
2. sometimes both elicit the same response, but one responses greater than the other;
and
3. sometimes only one of the two forms are biochemically active.
Plants produce only right-handed monosaccharide, building blocks for protein are left-
handed amino acids.
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FISCHER PROJECTION FORMULAS is a two-dimensional structural notations for showing

the spatial arrangement of groups about chiral centers in a molecule.
 By convention, the carbon chain is always positioned vertically with the carbonyl group
(aldehyde or ketone)
 AT or NEAR the top. The D, L nomenclature gives the configuration only at the HIGHEST
numbered chiral center: D (if OH is on the right) ; L ( if OH is on the left)

Assigning of L and D

There are 4 chiral centers in the given

hexose. These are carbon #s 2,3,4,&5.
The HIGHEST numbered chiral center is
carbon #5.
Look at the orientation of OH in carbon5. If
oriented on the right it is a D-
monosaccharide; if oriented on the left it is a
L-monosaccharide

Examples
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Stereoisomers – isomers that have same molecular and structural formulas but differ in the
orientation of atoms in space.
1.Enantiomers – stereoisomer whose molecules are nonsuperimposable mirror image of
each other. All Left and right handed forms
For molecules to be a mirror image , ALL hydroxyl groups
attached in chiral centers should be in OPPOSITE
orientation for both molecules.
OH in carbon#2: A is on the left; B is on the right
OH in carbon#3: A is on the right; B is on the left
OH in carbon#4: A is on the left; B is on the right
OH in carbon#5: A is on the right; B is on the left
Since, ALL are oriented in OPPOSITE direction
These two structures are enantiomers

2. Diastereomers – stereoisomers whose molecules are not mirror image of each other.
**Epimers – is a type of diastereomers whose molecules differ only in the configuration at
ONE chiral center.
Example:
For molecules to be NOT a mirror image , hydroxyl groups
attached in chiral centers should be arranged in OPPOSITE and
SAME orientation for both molecules.
OH in carbon#2: A and B are same
OH in carbon#3: A is on the right; B is on the left
OH in carbon#4: A is on the left; B is on the right
OH in carbon#5: A and B are same
OH are oriented in OPPOSITE and SAME direction

The structures are diastereomers but NOT epimer because SOME

hydroxyl groups in SOME chiral centers were oriented in the
SAME direction and MORE THAN ONE chiral center are oriented
in OPPOSITE direction
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For molecules to be epimer , hydroxyl groups attached in chiral
centers should be arranged in OPPOSITE orientation in ONE
chiral center only
OH in carbon#2: A and B are same
OH in carbon#3: A and B are same
OH in carbon#4: A is on the left; B is on the right
OH in carbon#5: A and B are same
OH are oriented in OPPOSITE and SAME direction
The structures are diastereomers AND epimers because SOME
hydroxyl groups in SOME chiral centers were oriented in SAME
direction and ONLY ONE is in OPPOSITE direction

Examples

D-erythrose and L-erythrose are

ENANTIOMERS (ALL OH group in chiral
centers are oriented in OPPOSITE/
DIFFERENT configuration, hence mirror
images. )

D-Glucose and D-Altrose are

DIASTEREOMERS (chiral centers are
NOT mirror images, OH groups differ in the
configuration in MORE THAN ONE chiral
centers)

D-Galactose and D-glucose are EPIMERS

(diastereomers that differ only in the
configuration at ONE chiral center ONLY)
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Dextrorotatory and Levorotatory Compounds

Optically active - compound is a compound that rotates the plane of a polarized light.
Achiral molecules are optically inactive and chiral molecules are optically active.
1. Dextrorotatory compounds – a chiral compound that rotates the plane of a polarized
light in a CLOCKWISE direction (+) / Right
2. Levorotatory compounds – a chiral compound that rotates the plane of a polarized light
in a COUNTERCLOCKWISE direction (-) / Left
 The handedness of an enantiomer (D and L) and the direction of rotation of a plane-
polarized light by enantiomer [(+) and (-)] are NOT CONNECTED entities. There is no
way of knowing which way an enantiomer will rotate light until it is examined with a
POLARIMETER.
Example: D-(+)-mannose

Instruments used to measure the degree of rotation of plane-polarized light by enantiomeric

compounds are called polarimeters.
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HAWORTH PROJECTION FORMULA –is a cyclic form of a monosaccharide. Resulted from

the ability of the carbonyl group to react intramolecularly with hydroxyl group.

Example: D-glucose

RULES:

1. All OH, hydroxyl groups in the chiral centers drawn to the RIGHT in the original Fischer
projection formula will appear BELOW the ring in the Haworth projection formula. All
those to the LEFT will appear ABOVE the ring.(OH in highest chiral center will NOT follow
this rule )
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2. Terminal –CH2OH (highest-numbered carbon) group will be ABOVE the ring if the
monosaccharide is a D-form. Terminal –CH2OH group will appear BELOW the ring if L-
form.

3. Rotate groups attached to (second to the last carbon) or (carbon 5) to give an easy
visualization of intramolecular hemiacetal formation. Intramolecular reaction between
hydroxyl (-OH) and carbonyl (C=O).
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Oxygen in hydroxyl (from carbon5) will add across the carbon in the carbonyl group
(C=O) forming a cyclic structure. Carbonyl group’s double bond will be broken into single
bond to meet the four bond requirement. Hydrogen from hydroxyl group (from carbon5)
will add across the oxygen in the carbonyl group (C=O) forming a new hydroxyl
substituent.

4. Cyclization of monosaccharide (hemiacetal formation) creates a new chiral center and

produces two stereoisomers called α (alpha) and β (beta) isomers. α – stereoisomer has
the –OH group on the OPPOSITE side of the ring from the –CH2OH group. β –
stereoisomer has the –OH group on the SAME side of the ring from the –CH2OH group.
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ANOMERIC carbon atom – is the hemiacetal carbon atom present in the cyclic
monosaccharide structure. It is bonded to –OH and to –O atom in the heterocyclic ring.
ANOMERS – are cyclic monosaccharides that differ only in the position of the
substituents on the anomeric (hemiacetal) carbon atoms. α (alpha) and β (beta)
ANOMERS.

The D form of a monosaccharide will have two anomers (α and β) after cyclization. The L
form of a monosaccharide will have two anomers (α and β) after cyclization.

SIX (6) Biochemically Important Monosaccharides for human body

} important intermediates in glycolysis, glucose → 2pyruvate

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3. D-glucose – most abundant in nature; used by the cell as primary source of energy
Other name: ―grape sugar‖- (20%-30% glucose by mass in ripe grapes);
―dextrose‖ - aqueous solution of D-glucose rotates to the right; “blood sugar”,
blood contains dissolved glucose (normal concentration= 70-100mg/dL).
The actual glucose concentration in blood is dependent on the time that has elapsed since
the last meal was eaten. A concentration of about 130 mg/dL occurs in the first hour after
eating, and then the concentration decreases over the next 2-3 hours back to the normal
range. Two hormones, insulin and glucagon have important roles in keeping glucose blood
concentration within normal range, which is required for normal body function. Abnormal
functioning of the hormonal control process for blood glucose levels leads to DIABETES.

4. D-galactose – seldomly encountered free monosaccharide; synthesized from glucose in

the mammary glands for use in lactose (milk sugar); also called “brain sugar”, D-galactose
is a component of glycoprotein found in the brain and nerve tissue; also present in the
chemical markers that distinguish various types of blood.

5. D- Fructose – also known as “levulose” – aqueous solution of D-fructose rotates plane-

polarized light to the left; “fruit sugar” – sweetest tasting of all sugar, is found in many fruits
and is present in honey; ―dietary sugar” – not because of fewer calories per gram, but less
is needed for the same amount of sweetness.
HFCS – High-Fructose Corn Syrup is replacing sucrose in prepared foods and beverages
because it is in liquid for thus, easier to blend and transport; leads to product with longer
shelf life; and cheaper than sucrose obtained from sugar beets and sugar cane. HFCS-55
means 55%fructose is used in soft drink industry; HFCS-90 has 90%fructose and is used in
baked goods.

6. D-Ribose - is a component of a variety of complex molecules including: RNA (ribonucleic

acids), ATP (adenosine triphosphate), energy-rich compounds, and DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid)
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REACTION OF MONOSACCHARIDES
1. Oxidation to acidic sugars
a. Use of weak oxidizing agents (Tollens and Benedict solution) to oxidize the
aldehyde end of an ALDOSE to give ALDONIC ACID.

D-Glucose → D-gluconic acid,

D-Galactose → D-galactonic acid

Reducing sugars are carbohydrates that gives positive test with Tollens and Benedict
solutions. All monosaccharide are reducing sugars.

b. Use of strong oxidizing agents to oxidize BOTH ends (the aldehyde end and the
terminal primary alcohol group) of an ALDOSE to give ALDARIC ACID.

D-Glucose → D-glucaric acid,

D- Galactose → D-galactaric acid

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c. Use of enzymes to oxidize the terminal primary alcohol end of an ALDOSE to give
ALDURONIC ACID (aldehyde end is unoxidized).

D-Glucose → D-glucuronic acid,

D-Galactose → D-galacturonic acid

2. Reduction to sugar alcohols

The CARBONYL group in a monosaccharide (aldose and ketose) can be reduced to
HYDROXYL group with the use of hydrogen as the reducing agent.

Aldose or ketose → polyhydroxy alcohol (sugar alcohol)

D- glucose → D-glucitol (common name, D-sorbitol)

D-sorbitol is used as moisturizing agents in foods and cosmetics; sweetening agents in
bubble gum. Bacteria that cause tooth decay cannot use polyalcohols as food sources;
accumulation of D-sorbitol in the eyes is the major factor in the formation of cataracts due to
diabetes.
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3. Glycoside formation
Glycoside is an acetal formed from a cyclic monosaccharide by replacement of the
hemiacetal carbon’s –OH group with an –OR group. Glycosides can exist in  and β forms.
Acetals have two —OR groups attached to the same carbon atom.

Cyclic form of monosaccharide + alcohol ↔ glycoside + water

glucose + alcohol ↔ glucoside + water;

galactose + alcohol ↔ galactoside + water

4. Phosphate ester formation

Cyclic form of monosaccharide + phosphoric acid phosphate ester + water
Glucose + phosphoric acid glucose 1-phosphate + water
Glucose + phosphoric acid glucose 6-phosphate + water
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5. Amino sugar formation – one hydroxyl group of monosaccharide is replaced with an

amino group
Cyclic form of monosaccharide amino sugar
Glucose glucosamine
Galactose galactosamine

SUMMARY
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DISACCHARIDE

Monosaccharide + monosaccharide → disaccharide + water

When two monosaccharide molecules react to form a glycosidic bond (linkage), a water
molecule is generated in the process through a chemical reaction known as condensation.
Therefore, condensation is a reaction where water is removed and a polymer is formed.

Glycosidic linkage is the bond in a disaccharide resulting from the reaction of the
hemiacetal carbon atom –OH group of one monosaccharide and an –OH group on the other
monosaccharide.

Disaccharides can easily be hydrolyzed (the reverse of condensation) to become

monosaccharides, especially in the presence of enzymes (such as the digestive enzymes in
our intestines) or alkaline catalysts.

Four important Disaccharides

1. Maltose – called ―malt sugar‖; produced when

starch breakdown (like when seed germinates and
starch digestion). Malt (germinated barley that has
been baked and ground) contains malt sugar; made
up of two (2) D-glucose units, one of which is - D-
glucose; glycosidic linkage is (1→4); maltase is the
enzyme needed for the hydrolysis of maltose;
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Reaction:

2. Cellobiose – intermediate in the hydrolysis of cellulose; contains two (2) D-glucose

units, one of which is β-D-glucose; glycosidic linkage is β(1→4); CANNOT be digested by
humans nor fermented by yeast; celliobiase is the enzyme needed for the hydrolysis of
cellobiose

3. Lactose – major sugar found in

milk, ―milk sugar‖; made up of β-D-
galactose and D-glucose; glycosidic
linkage is β(1→4); souring of milk is
caused by conversion of lactose to lactic
acid; lactase is the enzyme needed for
the hydrolysis of lactose

Lactose is the principal carbohydrate in milk. Human mother’s milk obtained by nursing
infants contains 7%-8% lactose, almost double the 4%-5% lactose found in cow’s milk.
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LACTOSE INTOLERANCE is a condition where people lack lactase, enzyme needed to

convert lactose to galactose and glucose. Deficiency of lactase can be caused by a genetic
defect, physiological decline with age, or by injuries to the mucosa lining in the intestines.
When lactose molecules remain in the intestine undigested , they attract water to themselves,
causing fullness, discomfort, cramping, nausea, and diarrhea. Bacterial fermentation of the
lactose further along the intestinal tract produces acid (lactic acid) and gas, adding to the
discomfort. Lactose intolerance in NOT considered to be a food allergy situation (when
person’s immune system responds to an invading allergen).
After lactose has been metabolized into glucose and galactose, the galactose has to be
converted into glucose before it can be used by the cells. Galactosemia is a genetic condition
in human, caused by the absence of one or more of the enzymes needed for such conversion.
Once galactose and toxic metabolic derivative galacticol (dulcitol) remain to be unconverted, it
will accumulate in the blood. If not treated, galactosemia can cause mental retardation in
infants and even death.
Lactase persistence is used to describe a condition where milk-drinking ability continues
into adulthood.

4.Sucrose – common name “table sugar”; contains -D-glucose and β-D-fructose; glycosidic
linkage is ,β (1→2); unlike maltose, cellubiose and lactose, sucrose is nonreducing sugar
and does not have  and β isomers because the hemiacetal center/ anomeric carbon atoms
are involve in the glycosidic linkage ; invert sugar are equimolar mixture of glucose and
fructose and the product of sugar hydrolysis during digestion and cooking; sucrase is the
enzyme needed for sucrose hydrolysis.
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Because of the high caloric value of sucrose, it is often difficult to satisfy a demanding ―sweet
tooth‖ without adding pounds to the body frame. As a solution to ―sucrose problem‖, sugar
substitutes are now used since they provide virtually no calories. Three sugar substitutes
which have been widely used are saccharin, sodium cyclamate and aspartame. However,
these SUGAR SUBSTITUTES have received much publicity because of their safety.

SUGAR SUBSTITUTES

1. Saccharin – oldest artificial sweeteners; study suggested that large dose of saccharin
caused bladder tumors in rats; It is 300 times sweeter than sucrose but has a bitter
aftertaste.
2. Sodium cyclamate - study suggested that it can cause cancer among laboratory
animals; Canada has approved the use of sodium cyclamate but banned saccharin. It is
30 times sweeter than sugar.
3. Aspartame – Nutra-Sweet; 150 times sweeter than sucrose; aspartame and saccharin
are NOT heat-stable therefore must not be used in products that require cooking; it
contains phenylalanine, an amino acid that cause mental retardation among children
suffering from PKU (phenylketonuria)
4. Sucralose – 600 times sweeter than sucrose; heat-stable, does not lose its sweetness
when heated; it is calorie-free, cannot be hydrolyzed in digestive tract;
5. Neotame – 7000 times sweeter than sucrose; general-purpose sweetener; heat-stable;
an aspartame derivate but is safe for PKU
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OLIGOSACCHARIDE

Naturally occurring oligosaccharide:

( )
found in onion, cabbage, broccoli, whole wheat, bean

( )}

Human lacks the digestive enzymes necessary to metabolize raffinose and stachyose, hence
when ingested, they pass undigested into large intestine, where bacteria act upon them
usually produces discomfort and flatulence (gas).

SOLANINE – compound contains oligosaccharide, found in potato and act as plant’s toxin to
defense against insects and predators. Small amount of solanine present in properly
stored potatoes is not dangerous and actually contributes to the flavor. When excessive
solanine is present, potatoes taste bitter. Improperly stored potatoes (exposed to sunlight),
solanine and chlorophyll increases. Deep-frying reduces solanine levels but not in boiling.

An important aspect of human body chemistry that involves oligosaccharide attachment to

more complex molecules is blood chemistry associated with blood types.
Human blood is classified into four types: A, B, AB, O. In blood transfusion, donor’s blood
must be matched/ compatible to that of the patient, otherwise, will cause blood cells to form
clumps, a potentially fatal reaction.
Human Blood Group Compatibilities
RECIPIENT BLOOD
TYPE
A B AB O √ is compatible
DONOR BLOOD

A √ X √ x x is incompatible
B X √ √ x
AB X X √ x
TYPE

O √ √ √ √
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The biochemical basis for the various types of blood involves OLIGOSACCHARIDE
molecules (biochemical markers) that are attached to the plasma membrane of the red
blood cells.

BIOCHEMICAL MARKERS common for blood types:

The absence or presence of a fifth monosaccharide (attached on the second galactose)
determines blood type.
Type O lacks fifth marker, type A has N-acetylgalactosamine as fifth unit, type B has
galactose as fifth unit and type AB contains both Type A and type B markers.
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POLYSACCHARIDE
POLYSACCHARIDE- Also called glycans; contains monosaccharide units in a polymer chain

Important parameters that distinguish glycans from each other

1. The identity of the monosaccharide.
HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDE – with only ONE type of monosaccharide monomer;
examples: starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin
HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDE – with more than one type (usually TWO)
monosaccharide monomer; examples: hyaluronic acid and heparin
2. The length of the polymer chain.
3. The type of glycosidic linkages between monomer units
4. The degree of branching.

Properties:
1. Not sweet
2. Negative in Tollens and Benedict’s solution
3. Has limited solubility in water; thick colloidal suspension in water
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SIX IMPORTANT POLYSACCHARIDE

A. Storage Polysaccharide – is a polysaccharide that is a storage for monosaccharide
and is used as an energy source in cell
1. Starch – energy-storage in plant cell; homopolysaccharide (glucose as monomer);
if excess glucose enters plant cell, it is converted to starch and stored for later use;
when cell cannot get enough glucose from outside the cell, it hydrolyze starch to
release glucose. Starch solution turn black to dark blue with iodine solution;
present in wheat, rice, corn, potatoes.

Two different polyglucose polysaccharides can be isolated from starches:

1.1 Amylose – straight – chain glucose polymer (15%-20% of the starch); 300-1,000
monomer with  (1→4) glycosidic linkage

1.2 Amylopectin – branched glucose polymer (80%-85% of the starch); up to 100,000

monomer units with  (1→4) and  (1→6) glycosidic linkage; branching occurs about
once every 25-30 glucose unit; digested more rapidly than amylose due to more ―end‖
structure.

Amylopectin
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2. Glycogen – energy-storage in animal and human cell; homopolysaccharide (glucose as

monomer); also known as ―animal starch‖, due to similar function; liver cells and muscle
cells are the storage site for glycogen; up to 1,000,000 monomer units with  (1→4) and
 (1→6) glycosidic linkage; three times more branched than amylopectin, branching
occurs every 8-12 glucose units
2.1 When excess glucose is present in blood (normally from eating too much
starch), the liver and muscle tissue converts glucose to glycogen
(GLYCOGENESIS), which is then stored in these tissues;
2.2 When glucose blood level drops (from exercise, fasting or normal activities),
some stored glycogen is hydrolyzed back to glucose (GLYCOGENOLYSIS).
The amount of glycogen in a body is relatively small. Muscle tissue is 1% glycogen and liver
tissue is 2%-3% glycogen, sufficient to take care of normal-activity glucose demand for 15
hours. During strenuous exercise, glycogen supply can be exhausted rapidly, at this point
body will oxidize fat as source of energy.

B. Structural Polysaccharide – is a polysaccharide that serves as a structural element in

plant cell walls and animal exoskeletons
1. Cellulose - homopolysaccharide (glucose as monomer); unbranched glucose polymer;
5,000 glucose monomer with β (1→4) glycosidic linkage; cotton is 95% cellulose,
wood is 50% cellulose; woody portion of the plant (stems, stalks and trunks); not a
source of nutrition for human and some animals due to lack of enzyme to catalyze
cellulose to glucose, however horse, cows and sheep’ s intestinal tracts have bacteria
that produces cellulase that will hydrolyze β (1→4) glycosidic linkage; it also serves as
―dietary fiber‖, provides bulk that helps move food through the intestinal tract and
facilitates excretion of solid wastes, and it absorbs water leading to softer stool and
frequent bowel action.
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2. Chitin - homopolysaccharide (N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (NAG), a glucose derivate as

monomer); NAG are linked with β (1→4) glycosidic linkage; gives rigidity to the
exoskeletons of crabs, lobsters, shrimps, insects and other arthropods; hydrolysis of
chitin produces D-glucosamine; study claims that D-glucosamine decrease joint
inflammation and pain associated to osteoarthritis.

C. Acidic Polysaccharide – is a polysaccharide with a disaccharide repeating unit in

which one of the disaccharide component is amino sugar, and one or both
disaccharide component has a negative charge due to a sulfate group or carboxyl
group.
1. Hyaluronic acid– heteropolysaccharides; unbranched ; one of the disaccharide has
carboxyl group; with alternating pattern of glycosidic bond types; β(1→3) and β(1→4);
approximately 50,000 disaccharide units per chain; serves as lubricants in the fluid of joints,
and jelly-like consistency of the vitreous humor of the eye; Greek word ―hyalos‖ means glass

2. Heparin - heteropolysaccharides; unbranched ; both of the disaccharide has sulfate

group; it is a blood anticoagulant, prevents formation of clots in the blood and retards the
growth of existing clots within the blood, but DOES NOT break the clots that have already
formed; naturally present in mast cell and is released at the site of tissue injury.
Pharmaceutical- grade heparin is applied as an anticoagulant to the interior/ exterior of
external objects that come in contact with the blood (kidney dialysis machine surfaces,
prosthetic implant materials) to prevent blood from clotting. Source for the pharmaceutical
heparin is intestinal or lung tissue of slaughter-house animals (pigs and cows)
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Monomer of Heparin

Types of Glycosidic Linkages for Common Glucose-Containing Di- and

Polysaccharides

DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND CARBOHYDRATES

1. Simple Carbohydrates – is a dietary monosaccharide or dietary disaccharide usually

sweet to taste; often referred to as sugars
a.Natural sugar – present naturally in whole foods like milk and fruits
b.Refined sugar – sugar that has been separated from its plant source; empty calories
2. Complex Carbohydrate – is a dietary polysaccharide; not sweet; source of starch and
fiber;