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F. Ellyin
Mem. ASME
D. Kujawski1
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Plastic Strain Energy in Fatigue
Failure
In this paper the cyclic plastic strain energy of the A-516 Gr. 70 carbon low-alloy
steel during fully reversed constant strain or stress-controlled cycles is discussed. A
relationship is proposed which can be used to determine the plastic strain energy per
cycle for a non-Masing material for various stress ranges during the entire life cycle.
Predictions of the proposed method are in good agreement with the experimental
data. The variation of the plastic strain energy per cycle and cyclic creep during the
life of fully reversed stress-controlled tests is also presented. It is shown that the
cyclic creep strain affects the fatigue crack initiation period and consequently the
amount of the total absorbed plastic strain energy to failure.

Introduction
Experimental methods which have been used to obtain the
fatigue properties of materials, usually correlate the fatigue
life, Nf, of a smooth specimen with either plastic strain or
stress amplitude. In these approaches the inter-relation
between the cyclic stress and plastic strain, and fatigue
damage process is usually overlooked [1]. Since the fatigue
damage is generally caused by the cyclic plastic strain, the
plastic strain energy plays an important role in the damage
process. Therefore, the idea of relating fatigue life to the
plastic work during a load cycle has been proposed [2-10].
The significance of the energy approach is in its ability to
unify microscopic and macroscopic testing data, and to
formulate multi-axial design criteria [4]. In total strain-
controlled experiments, it has been observed that the plastic
strain energy per cycle, AW, does not vary appreciably with
cycles [2,5,9]. On the other hand, when a specimen is sub-
jected to cyclic loading with fully reversed loads, the strain
range is free to vary [11]. During the transient state when
hardening or softening occurs, the plastic strain energy and
mean value of strain per cycle may change considerably,
before an apparent steady state is achieved. The open
hysteresis loop during transient state can produce cyclic creep
[11]. Sometimes the open hysteresis loop is referred to as the
"positive closure failure" (i.e., requiring a positive strain to
close the loop) or a negative one [12]. Therefore, if the fatigue
damage is governed by the history of the plastic strain energy
per cycle and closure failure (cyclic creep), then the total
plastic strain energy to failure for a given life can be different
for the strain or stress-controlled tests in low-cycle fatigue.
Abel and Muri [12] suggested that the hysteresis loop closure
failure may be an essential prerequisite for the fatigue-crack
initiation.
The ASTM A-516 Gr. 70 carbon low-alloy steel is ex-
On leave from Institute of Machine Design Fundamentals, Warsaw
Technical University, Warsaw, Poland
Contributed by the Pressure Vessels and Piping Division for publication in
the JOURNAL OF PRESSURE VESSEL TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received by the
Pressure Vessels Piping Division, March 27, 1984; revised manuscript received
July 18, 1984.
tensively used in the fabrication of modern pressure vessels in
petrochemical, electric power generation and process plants.
A knowledge of basic material and cyclic properties are
required in designing against fatigue and fracture failure.
Some of these properties are given in references [9, 13-16].
It is the objective of this paper to present results of a
systematic study on the cyclic plastic strain energy of the A-
516 Gr. 70 carbon low-alloy steel during fully reversed con-
stant strain or stress-controlled cycles. A relationship is
proposed which can be used to determine the plastic strain
energy per cycle for a non-Masing material for various stress
ranges during the entire life cycle. The plastic strain energy
can be used as a criterion for multi-axial states of stress.
Attempts have been made to relate it to the uniaxial fatigue
data [17, 18].
The present work utilizes the same material and testing
techniques as in Lefebvre and Ellyin [9], but concentrates on
evaluation of plastic strain energy per cycle for fully reversed
constant strain or stress-controlled tests. It complements the
earlier work.
Cyclic and Fatigue Behavior of Material
Fully-reversed constant strain or stress-controlled tests were
performed on solid specimens by applying a sinusoidally
varying axial strain or stress with an average rate of 5 x 10 ~3
s "' or 0.25 Hz, respectively. The cyclic stress-strain curve was
obtained by plotting the stress corresponding to the positve
(tensile) peaks of the hysteresis loops at half-life for various
strain ranges [9].
A cyclic stress-strain relation of the form
Ae Aff
( — ) (1)
~2 IF
\2EJ
was fitted by the least-squares technique. In this equation, Ae
= total strain range; Acr = stress range; E = modules of
elasticity; E0 = constant, cyclic strength coefficient; and n'
= constant, cyclic strain-hardening exponent. All the
coefficients relating to the cyclic and fatigue properties of the
ASTM A-516 Gr. 70 steel for strain-controlled tests are
summarized in Table 1.

342/Vol. 106, NOVEMBER 1984 Transactions of the ASME

Copyright © 1984 by ASME
Table 1 Cyclic and fatigue properties of A-516 Gr 70 carbon D,
low-alloy steel [9]
Direction
Properties Longitudinal Transversal
r /
F/
£(MPa)
£ 0 (MPa)
204,000
1067
205,000
1210
Iff Ae p •/

n' 0.193 0.222

Stress Amplitude
tf 0.204 0.314
o/(MPa) 841.6 938
c -0.499 -0.512
b -0.102 -0.114
FU

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ffe(MPa) 205.0 -
o^MPa) 993 994
e 0.386 0.396
/
Z-S(MPa) 725.6 -
n* 0.152 - b° ^^rf y l E
(1
\WWMwttNOttWN
It was shown in [9] that the A-516 Gr. 70 carbon low alloy

steel does not follow the Masing type description [19]. If the
origin of the coordinate axes is transformed to the tip of the
negative (compressive) cycle, the positive branches of the half-
life hysteresis loops do not fall on a monotonically increasing
unique curve. This observation is rather significant and it
affects the manner in which the plastic strain energy per cycle
is to be determined.
The plastic strain energy per cycle, AW, is the area of the
hysteresis loop, and the total plastic strain energy Wj =
LAW. The phenomenon of the fatigue damage is primarily
controlled by the stress and plastic strain or the irrecoverable
plastic strain energy per cycle2. Each material has a capacity
to absorb a certain amount of energy and when this limit is
attained "fatigue failure" results. The fatigue failure is
defined here in terms of a crack length of the order of 3-4 mm
for the load-controlled tests, and a drop of about 5 percent in
the peak stress for the strain-controlled tests. It was observed
that a 5 percent drop in the peak stress was related to a crack
length of about 3-4 mm.
A material is said to exhibit a Masing description when the
branches of the hysteresis loops can be described by the cyclic
stress-strain curve equation (1) magnified by a factor of two,
i.e,
ACT
Ae = +2 (2)
V 2En )
where the origin to determine Ae and Ac is at the compressive
tip of the hysteresis loop. Usually the hysteresis loop at the
half-life is taken to be representative and is used to calculate
the plastic strain energy. This energy is given by [3]
AW= — AffAe" (3)
1+/?'
The shape of the hysteresis loop in the transition period for
a Masing material may be calculated using Martin, Topper
and Sinclair model [20].
For a non-Masing material model description, the
prediction of equation (3) or that of reference [20] may not be
accurate.
It has been shown [9] that the yield stress (at 0.2 percent
offset) for the A-516 Gr. 70 carbon steel increases with the
increase of the imposed strain. Jhansale and Topper [21]
proposed an approach for describing the loop shapes of a
non-Masing material. This approach was used in [9] and is
adopted herein. A "master" (skeleton) curve different from
that of the cyclic curve is defined as one geometrically similar
to the matched upper branches of the hysteresis loops with
minimum proportional range. This definition and the
knowledge of the relationship between the plastic strain range
In case of the high-cycle fatigue, the strain energy density would be a more
appropriate damage controlling parameter.
PHP
(7\\\
9^
Strain Amplitude
Fig. 1 Description of hystersis loop for a material which does not
follow a Masing hypothesis
of the loop and the increase in the proportional stress range,
can be used to compute the plastic strain energy per cycle.
Figure 1 shows the hysteresis loop (ABCA) for the
"minimum" proportional range, a0 and that of (OABCDFO)
with a bigger proportional range. The equation of the
"master" curve ABCD, where the origin A corresponds to the
lower tip of the minimum proportional range hysteresis loop,
is given by
/ ACT* \ u
"'
Ae' = 2 ( - ) (4)
The coefficient E* and exponent n* of equation (4) are
evaluated by a least-squares technique from the A-516 Gr. 70
carbon steel data. The numerical values are: E*0 = 725.6
MPa and n* = 0.152 (see Table 1). Note that the exponent n*
in equation (4) has a different value from that of n' in
equation (2).
The hysteresis loop ABCDFA, corresponding to the Masing
behavior, is obtained by translating the lower branch DFO by
a quantity equal to the increase in the proportional stress
range, i.e, <5CT0. The plastic strain energy of the (Masing) loop
ABCDFA would be
l-n* 1
AWM = Ao*Ae>> = (Aa-8a0)Ae" (5)
1 +n* l+n*
The area OAFO, representing the increase of the plastic strain
energy per cycle due to the non-Masing behavior, can be
evaluated by (5cr0Aep), see Appendix A.
The plastic strain energy of the hysteresis loop OABCDFO
is then given by
AW= ~" (ACT- off„)Ae" + So^Ae" (6)
1 + n*
The increase in the proportional stress, 8a0, can be easily
obtained from the cyclic stress-strain relationship equation
(1), and the "master" curve equation (4). One then gets
5CT0=ACT-ACT* = A C T - 2 £ , * ( A ^ / 2 ) " * (7)
The minimum proportional stress, a0, reported in [9] is equal
to 190 MPa.
The plastic strain energy per cycle at half-life was deter-
mined by measuring the areas of each strain-controlled
hysteresis loop. They were also calculated from equations (3)
and (6). The results are reported in Table 2. The plastic strain

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology NOVEMBER 1984, Vol. 106/343

 Table 2 Strain-controlled fatigue test results and plastic strain energy per cycle of A-516 Gr. 70 carbon steel
(half-life)
da0 AW AW
(a) (MPa) AW(MJ/m1) (MJ/m ! ) (MJ/m 3 )
Ae/2 ACT AffAe" from measured from from
Orientation (percent) (MPa) (MJ/m 3 ) equation (7) experimentally equation (3) equation (6) cycles
0.100 384.0 0.031 73 — 0.02 0.02 1,500,000(6)
L 0.125 426.2 0.158 33 — 0.11 0.12 793,370
0 0.150 478.0 0.292 54 — 0.20 0.22 535,920
N 0.200 504.0 0.746 19 0.61 0.51 0.56 111,000
G 0.300 602.4 1.801 63 1.47 1.22 1.38 18,000
I 0.400 679.4 3.125 103 2.34 2.11 2.43 7300

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T 0.500 709.4 4.576 102 3.49 3.10 3.54 4525
U 0.600 774.2 6.294 146 4.91 4.26 4.95 2700
D 0.700 780.6 7.884 131 6.65 5.33 6.15 1350
I 0.800 798.0 9.584 131 7.35 6.48 7.47 1070
N 0.800 815.6 9.722 150 7.52 6.58 7.63 900
A 1.000 896.0 13.906 203 11.27 9.41 11.07 820
L 1.000 852.0 13.317 158 10.70 9.01 10.45 630
1.200 934.0 18.054 217 14.30 12.21 14.40 536

'"'Measured
<6)
experimentally
No fracture

Table 3 Stress-controlled fatigue test results and plastic strain energy per cycle of A-516 Gr. 70 carbon steel at various life
cycles
Specimen daa AW AW
no./ Aep(percent) (MPa) AW(MJ/m 3 ) (MJ/m 3 ) (MJ/m 3 )
no. of ACT measured AffAe" from measured from from
cycles (MPa) experimentally (MJ/m 3 ) equation (7) experimentally equation (3) equation (6) cycles
17/10 520.0 0.038 0.20 126 0.13 0.14 0.16
17/100 520.0 0.063 0.33 94 0.23 0.22 0.26
17/200 520.0 0.113 0.59 54 0.39 0.40 0.45 50,000
17/350 520.0 0.194 1.01 15 0.74 0.68 0.75
17/25000 520.0 0.175 0.91 22 0.69 0.62 0.68
19/200 648.0 0.538 3.49 58 2.70 2.36 2.65
19/1000 648.0 0.475 3.08 69 2.33 2.08 2.35
19/4150 648.0 0.400 2.59 84 1.93 1.75 2.00 7780
19/5000 648.0 0.388 2.51 86 1.84 1.70 1.94
18/80 685.0 0.788 5.40 60 4.26 3.65 4.10
18/800 685.0 0.650 4.45 78 3.51 3.01 3.41
18/2000 685.0 0.581 3.98 88 3.06 2.69 3.06 3900
18/3000 685.0 0.550 3.77 93 2.88 2.55 2.91
24/20 730.0 1.188 8.67 64 7.18 5.87 6.59
24/30 730.0 1.200 8.76 63 7.21 5.93 6.65
24/300 730.0 1.013 7.40 80 6.01 5.01 5.66 2170
24/1000 730.0 0.825 6.02 100 4.79 4.07 4.65
24/2000 730.0 0.750 5.48 109 4.28 3.71 4.25
5/7000 590.0 0.325 1.92 43 1.41 1.30 1.45 15,160
14/7500 590.0 0.294 1.74 52 1.28 1.18 1.32 19,650
16/6100 590.0 0.313 1.85 46 1.40 1.25 1.40 13,160

energy per cycle for stress-controlled tests is given in Table 3.

The plastic strain energy per cycle was measured at various
intervals during the life. The results calculated from equations
(3) and (6) are also reported in Table 3. Note that equation (3)
underestimates the energy by a value of 1 0 - 2 0 percent; while
those calculated from equation (6) are in very good agreement
with the experimentally measured values.

Comparison with Experimental Data

Figure 2 shows the "master" curve equation (4) in terms of
the total strain
ACT*
Ae* = +2 (8)
V IE* )
and a few hysteresis loops of stress-controlled tests (see Table
3). It is seen that the "master" curve describes sufficiently
well the shape of the hysteresis loops. Note that at the initial
stage of hardening for large values of stress range, Ao,
(specimen No. 24 in Fig. 2) the "master" curve overestimates
the slope. As the number of cycles increases, the hysteresis Fig. 2 Hysteresis loop plotted with matched upper branches in-
dicating a "master" curve
loop tends towards the "master" curves.
Figure 3 summarizes experimental data and calculations of represents the relationship between AW and (A<rAep)
equations (3) and (6) for strain-and stress-controlled tests in calculated from equation (3). It is interesting to note that the
terms of the product (AaAe'7). The dash-dot curve in Fig. 3 results calculated from equation (6) and those measured

344/ Vol. 106, NOVEMBER 1984 Transactions of the ASME

 ' Strain Control ° Experimental
Tests . E q . (6) ,.-A

Load Control 'Experimental ,.-'' s ' a/' °

TeS,S
'Eq.(B) ..---' /

s-io
E
// o /

//
DO
5 8
, - ^ / •
o,-'i* /
o ,cf
< A i.-* /
o /'

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v v--* /
CO

O
.* '
*,-•*•'

.*'
>r 10 12 14 16 18 20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
P
AoAeP,(MJ/m3)
M e a s u r e d SaQ ( M P a )
Fig. 3 Plastic strain energy per cycle versus product of (Ao- Ae p )
Fig. 6 Calculated (equation (7)) versus actual increase of the
proportional stress range, ia0, for stress-controlled tests

1 ' ' '

.o

: -
- ^sp
"
r- A W = 549.5 ( N f r ° ' 6 0 5

- -
5
< :
-a 6
^ \ o
]
o Experimental data
Strain Controlled Tests
(half life) - Best fit line to Eq. 6 "
- x. -
1 i I I
300 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Nf (cycles)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Fig. 7 Plastic strain energy per cycle at half-life versus cycles to
Experimentally Measured A W (MJ/m 3 ) failure for strain-controlled tests

Fig. 4 C a l c u l a t e d (equation (6)) versus experimentally measured

plastic strain energy per cycle for strain-controlled tests
stress-controlled tests is depicted in Fig. 6. Similar results
were obtained for strain-controlled tests. From Figs. 3-6, it is
seen that the proposed method for calculating plastic strain
energy per cycle is in good agreement with the experimentally
obtained data.
00
The plastic strain energy per cycle at half-life is plotted
•I8 against number of cycles to failure in Fig. 7, for strain-
—}
controlled tests. A relationship of the form
£6 AW=KN? (9)
<l
<D
was fitted through the calculated values from equation (6) by
•*-<

_ra 4 using the least-square errors technique and is shown in Fig. 7.

D It is noted that the experimental data follow closely the
_o
to / relation (9).
O „ g,"1 Stress Controlled Tests

Variation of A W During the Life

0 ^ In the strain-controlled tests, the plastic strain energy per

0 2 4 6
Experimentally Measured AW (MJ/m )
Fig. 5 Calculated (equation (6)) versus experimentally
plastic strain energy per cycle for stress-controlled tests
experimentally fall closely on a straight line (dashed line in
Fig. 3). However, experimental points at the initial stage of
hardening for stress-controlled tests with high Aa deviate
slightly from the dashed line.
The plastic strain energy per cycle measured and calculated
by equation (6) are shown in Figs. 4 and 5, for strain-and
stress-controlled tests, respectively. The relation between
measured and calculated (equation (7)) values of 8a0 for
8 10 cycle does not vary appreciably during the life [2, 5, 9],
3
However, in the fully reversed stress-controlled tests, the
measured
strain varies depending upon the pretest history of the
material. Thus, the plastic strain energy per cycle will also
vary during the life. For a material which cyclically softens,
the plastic strain and the corresponding energy per cycle will
increase, whereas for the hardening material they will
decrease.
The variation of the measured plastic strain energy per
cycle, AW, with cycles, N, is plotted in Figs. 8 and 9. In Fig. 8,
the prestrain is tensile, the magnitude of which is indicated in
parentheses on each curve together with the applied stress
range. The uncontrolled plastic strain range varies in a similar

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology NOVEMBER 1984, Vol. 106/345

 ' i < i

Tensile prestrain
A<r=726MPa (e£=1.28%)
, A <7= 469 MPa(e£re= 1.28%)

<

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1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 Compressive prestrain

Nf (cycles) £c= 7,

Fig. 8 Variation of the measured plastic strain energy per cycle with
1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
number of cycles for stress-controlled tests with tensile prestrain
N (cycles)
Fig. 10 Variation of the cyclic creep strain with number of cycles

<
g 10,000

n Experimental data
— Best fit line for strain controlled test (Eq. 6 X Nf)
1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

N (cycles)
Fig. 9 Variation of the measured plastic strain energy per cycle with Nf (cycles)
number of cycles for stress-controlled tests with compressive prestrain
Fig. 11 Absorbed plastic strain energy to failure versus cycles to
failure for stress-controlled tests with tensile prestrain
fashion. It is noted that the material is initially softening and
subsequently hardening as the cyclic load proceeds. The effect
of compressive prestrain on A Wis depicted in Fig. 9. Again
the material initially is softening and it hardens thereafter.
The initial softening period is up to about 10 percent of the
r W | - 549.5 ( N , ) 0 - 3 9 5
total life for both cases. The plastic strain energy per cycle,
AW, varies with the applied stress range, Aa, while the effect
of prestrain appears to be less significant.
The variation of the cyclic creep strain with number of
cycles is shown in Fig. 10 for six different tests. In general, the g 10,000

cyclic creep strain, ec, depends on the prestrain and stress

* Experimental data
range. Specimens with tensile prestrain show a negative creep - Best fit line for strain controlled test (Eq. 6 X N()
rate, i.e., d(ec)/dN<0, while those with the compressive
prestrain indicate a positive creep rate, d{ec)/dN>0. After a ' 1,000 10,000 100,000 500,000
certain number of cycles (about the initial softening period) Nf (cycles)
the cyclic creep reaches a stable value. The amount of the Fig. 12 Absorbed plastic strain energy to failure versus cycles to
creep strain is less than the prestrain value (1/3 ~ 1/2 of e£re). failure for stress-controlled tests with compressive prestrain

Absorbed Plastic Strain Energy to Failure
In the case of the strain-controlled tests, the total absorbed
energy to failure may be determined from
Wf = AWNf=KN}+a (10)
where the last step was obtained by substituting for AW from
equation (9).
For stress-controlled tests, the foregoing procedure may not
be applicable due to the variation of AW with number of
cycles. In this case, Wf is determined by calculating the area
under the curve of energy per cycle AW versus N for each
particular curve shown in Figs. 8 and 9. The values of the
total plastic strain energy absorbed throughout the life to
failure, for tests with tensile prestrains, are plotted against Nf
in Fig. 11. A similar plot for the compressive prestrain is
shown in Fig. 12. For the sake of comparison, equation (10)
(strain-controlled) is also plotted in Figs. 11 and 12.
It is noted that the total absorbed plastic strain energy to
failure Wf, for each tensile prestrain test lies very close to
equation (10) which describes the strain-controlled test
results, Fig. 11. In contrast, the points representing the total
absorbed plastic strain energy for compressive prestrain lie
below that of equation (9), see Fig. 12. One can thus conclude
that the damage is accumulated at a higher rate for the
compressive prestrain condition than those of either tensile
prestrain or strain-controlled conditions.
This difference in damage accumulation may be described
as follows. The fatigue damage process could be described by
the plastic strain energy per cycle and its variation in time
(often referred to as sequential loading effect) and the cyclic
creep strain ec, and its variation in time. The creep strain can
affect the fatigue crack initiation period. If the d(ec)/dN>0,
it will contribute in opening the defect (crack) with increased
cycles. Whereas for the d(ec)/dN<0, the defect (crack) will

346/Vol. 106, NOVEMBER 1984 Transactions of the ASM E

tend to close with applied cycles. For two similar paths of
AW, one would therefore expect a shorter life for the case
where the creep strain is of the "defect opening" nature, i.e,
d(ec)/dN>0. Consequently, the total absorbed energy Wf
would be less in this case. The experimental data shown in
Figs. 11 and 12 confirm the foregoing mechanism.
The initial softening period in Figs. 9 and 8 is rather short.
The curves AW versus N in these figures can therefore be
construed as high-to-low multiple plastic strain density
loading. It is shown by Kujawski and Ellyin [10] that such a
sequence is more damaging than either a constant A ^(strain-
controlled tests) or low-to-high multiple AW'loading.
It should be noted that in any damage evolution both (AW
- TV) and (ec - JV) interact. For example, while Fig. 8 will
indicate more damage accululation than a constant AW, the
negative d(ec)/dN(Fig. 10)wouldhave anoppositeeffect.lt
is for this reason that the total absorbed plastic strain energy
for the tensile prestrain and strain-controlled test are about
the same (Fig. 11).
Conclusions
A new method for calculation of the cyclic plastic strain
energy for the A-516 GR. 70 carbon low-alloy steel during
fully reversed constant strain or stress-controlled cycles is
presented.
This method can be used to determine the plastic strain
energy per cycle for a non-Masing material for various stress
or strain ranges during the entire life cycle.
Predictions of the proposed method are in good agreement
with the experimentally measured values. During fully
reversed axial stress cycling, specimens with tensile prestrain
show a negative cyclic creep rate, while those with the
compressive prestrain indicate a positive creep rate. The
fatigue damage is accumulated at a higher rate for the fully
reversed stress-controlled tests with compressive prestrain
condition than those of either tensile prestrain or strain-
controlled condition. The cyclic creep strain affects the
fatigue crack initiation period and consequently the amount
of the total absorbed plastic strain energy to failure.
Acknowledgment
The work reported herein is part of a general investigation
into material behavior under multi-axial states of stress and
adverse environments. The research is supported, in part, by
the Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada
(NSERC Grant No. A-3808). We would also like to thank
Izaak Killam Memorial Foundation for awarding a Post-
Doctoral Fellowship to D.K.
References
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APPENDIX A
The cross-hatched area in Fig. 1, representing the increase
of the plastic strain energy per cycle due to the non-Masing
behavior, can be evaluated in the following manner. For the
coodinate system with the origin at D, the plastic strain energy
for the loading from point D to A is given by
p
rAe
AWi = \ o-'de" (11)
Jo
If the coordinate system is translated to point F, the plastic
strain energy for the loading from point F to 0 is given by
equation (11).
For loading DFO, we have
l-Ae"
AW2=\a'dP + 50AP (12)
Therefore, the area OAFO is equal to
(OAFO) area = W1-WX= 5a0AeP (13)
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