Mod 1

21CS52 -
COMPUTER NETWORKS
Textbooks:
1. Computer-Networks- Andrew S. Tanenbaum and David J. Wetherall, Pearson Education,
5th-Edition. (www.pearsonhighered.com/tanenbaum)
2. Computer Networking A Top-Down Approach -James F. Kurose and Keith W.
RossPearson Education 7th Edition.
Reference Books:
1. Behrouz A Forouzan, Data and Communications and Networking, Fifth Edition, McGraw
Hill,Indian Edition
2. Larry L Peterson and Brusce S Davie, Computer Networks, fifth edition, ELSEVIER
(As per VTU Syllabus)
1/15/2024 ELAIYARAJA P
21CS52 - COMPUTER NETWORKS
CREDITS – 4 (3 T + 2 L)
CIE (Continuous Internal Evaluation) MARKS – 50
SEE (Semester End Examination) MARKS – 50
Course Learning Objectives:

CLO1. Fundamentals of data communication networks.
CLO2. Software and hardware interfaces
CLO3. Application of various physical components and protocols
CLO4. Communication challenges and remedies in the networks.
Course Outcomes:
CO1. Learn the basic needs of communication system.
CO2. Interpret the communication challenges and its solution.
CO3. Identify and organize the communication system
network components
CO4. Design communication networks for user requirements.
Assessment Details (both CIE and SEE)
Continuous Internal Evaluation:
Three Unit Tests each of 20 Marks (duration 01 hour)
1. First test at the end of 5th week of the semester

2. Second test at the end of the 10th week of the semester
3. Third test at the end of the 15th week of the semester
Two assignments each of 10 Marks
4. First assignment at the end of 4th week of the semester

5. Second assignment at the end of 9th week of the semester
Practical Sessions need to be assessed by appropriate rubrics and viva-voce

method.
This will contribute to 20 marks.
Program Outcomes:
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
PO's PO Description
Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
PO1 fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
PO2 complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
PO3
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
PO4 research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of
data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
PO5 modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
PO6 to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
PO7 engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
PO8
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
Program Outcomes:
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
PO9
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
PO10
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
PO11
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
PO12 engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.
Program Specific Outcomes:
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES
PSO's PSO Description

An ability to design and analyze algorithms by applying theoretical concepts to build
PSO1 complex and computer- based systems in the domain of System Software, Computer
Networks & Security, Web technologies, Data Science and Analytics.
Be able to develop various software solutions by applying the techniques of Data
PSO2 Base Management, Complex Mathematical Models, Software Engineering practices
and Machine Learning with Artificial Intelligence.
21CS52 –
COMPUTER NETWORKS
➢ Module 1 - Introduction to networks, Physical Layer
Laboratory Component:
1. Implement Three nodes point – to – point network with duplex links between
them for different topologies. 1Set the queue size, vary the bandwidth, and find
the number of packets dropped for various iterations.
Module 1 –
Introduction to networks,
Physical Layer - Q&A
➢ Module 1 - Introduction to networks, Physical Layer
Introduction to networks: Network hardware,
Network software, Reference models,
Physical Layer: Guided transmission media,
Wireless transmission
Module 1 - Introduction to networks, Physical Layer
1. Mention the widely used two types of

transmission technology
There are two types of transmission technology that are :

point-to-point links and broadcast links.
➢ Point-to-point links connect individual pairs of machines. To go from
the source to the destination on a network made up of point-to-point
links, short messages, called packets in certain contexts, may have to
first visit one or more intermediate machines. Often multiple routes, of
different lengths, are possible, so finding good ones is important in
point-to-point networks.
➢ Point-to-point transmission with exactly one sender and exactly one
receiver is sometimes called unicasting.
Broadcast network: the communication channel is shared by all the machines

on the network; packets sent by any machine are received by all the others.
An address field within each packet specifies the intended recipient.
Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If the packet is
intended for the receiving machine, that machine processes the packet; if the
packet is intended for some other machine, it is just ignored.
➢ Broadcast systems usually also allow the possibility of addressing a

packet to all destinations by using a special code in the address field.
When a packet with this code is transmitted, it is received and
processed by every machine on the network.
➢ This mode of operation is called broadcasting. Some broadcast
systems also support transmission to a subset of the machines, which
known as multicasting
2. Classify the interconnected processors by

scale that connects networks.
We classify multiple processor systems by their rough physical size. At the

top are the personal area networks, networks that are meant for one person.
Beyond these come longer-range networks. These can be divided into
local, metropolitan, and wide area networks, each with increasing scale.
Finally, the connection of two or more networks is called an internetwork.
The worldwide Internet is certainly the best-known (but not the only)
example of an internetwork
3. Describe the following

a) Personal Area Networks
b) Local Area Networks
c) Metropolitan Area Networks
d) Wide Area Networks
a) Personal Area Networks :
PANs (Personal Area Networks) let devices communicate over

the range of a person. A common example is a wireless network
that connects a computer with its peripherals.
➢ A short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect
these components without wires.
➢ PANs can also be built with other technologies that
communicate over short ranges, such as RFID on smartcards
and library books.
b) Local Area Networks

A LAN (Local Area Network) is a privately owned network that
operates within and nearby a single building like a home, office or
factory.
LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and consumer
electronics to let them share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange
information.
When LANs are used by companies, they are called enterprise networks.
Wireless LANs are very popular these days, especially in homes, older
office buildings, cafeterias, and other places where it is too much
trouble to install cables. In these systems, every computer has a radio
modem and an antenna that it uses to communicate with other
computers.
This device, called an AP (Access Point), wireless router, or base
station, relays packets between the wireless computers and also
between them and the Internet.
C) Metropolitan Area Networks

➢ A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) covers a city. The best-known
examples of MANs are the cable television networks available in many
cities. These systems grew from earlier community antenna systems used
in areas with poor over-the-air television reception.
➢ To a first approximation, a MAN might look something like the system
shown in Fig. 1-9. In this figure we see both television signals and
Internet being fed into the centralized cable headend for subsequent
distribution to people’s homes.
Cable television is not the only MAN, though. Recent developments in
highspeed wireless Internet access have resulted in another MAN, which has
been standardized as IEEE 802.16 and is popularly known as WiMAX.
d) Wide Area Networks

A WAN (Wide Area Network) spans a large geographical area, often a
country or continent. We will begin our discussion with wired WANs, using
the example of a company with branch offices in different cities.
The WAN in Fig. 1-10 is a network that connects offices in Perth, Melbourne,
and Brisbane. Each of these offices contains computers intended for running
user (i.e., application) programs. We will follow traditional usage and call
these machines hosts.
The rest of the network that connects these hosts is then called the
communication subnet, or just subnet for short.
➢ The WAN as we have described it looks similar to a large wired LAN, but
there are some important differences that go beyond long wires. Usually in a
WAN, the hosts and subnet are owned and operated by different people.
➢ The cellular telephone network is another example of a WAN that uses
wireless technology. This system has already gone through three generations
and a fourth one is on the horizon. The first generation was analog and for
voice only.
➢ The second generation was digital and for voice only. The third generation is
digital and is for both voice and data. Each cellular base station covers a
distance much larger than a wireless LAN, with a range measured in
kilometers rather than tens of meters. The base stations are connected to each
other by a backbone network that is usually wired.
4. Discuss the differences between Connection-

Oriented and Connectionless Services.
➢ Connection-oriented service is modeled after the telephone system. To talk

to someone, you pick up the phone, dial the number, talk, and then hang up.
Similarly, to use a connection-oriented network service, the service user first
establishes a connection, uses the connection, and then releases the connection.
➢ The essential aspect of a connection is that it acts like a tube: the sender pushes
objects (bits) in at one end, and the receiver takes them out at the other end. In
most cases the order is preserved so that the bits arrive in the order they were
sent.
➢ Reliable connection-oriented service has two minor variations: message
sequences and byte streams.
➢ Connectionless service is modeled after the postal system. Each

message (letter) carries the full destination address, and each one is
routed through the intermediate nodes inside the system independent of
all the subsequent messages. There are different names for messages in
different contexts; a packet is a message at the network layer.
➢ Unreliable (meaning not acknowledged) connectionless service is often
called datagram service.
5. Identify Six service primitives (socket interface)

that provide a simple connection-oriented
service.
➢ A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available

to user processes to access the service. These primitives tell the service to
perform some action or report on an action taken by a peer entity. If the
protocol stack is located in the operating system, as it often is, the
primitives are normally system calls.
➢ These calls cause a trap to kernel mode, which then turns control of the
machine over to the operating system to send the necessary packets
Primitive Meaning
LISTEN - Block waiting for an incoming connection
CONNECT - Establish a connection with a waiting peer
ACCEPT - Accept an incoming connection from a peer
RECEIVE - Block waiting for an incoming message
SEND - Send a message to the peer
DISCONNECT - Terminate a connection
Six service primitives that provide a simple connection-oriented

service.
6. Sketch a simple client-server interaction

using acknowledged datagrams.
➢ The operating system then typically sends a packet to the peer

asking it to connect, as shown by (1) in Fig. 1-18. The client
process is suspended until there is a response.
➢ When the packet arrives at the server, the operating system
sees that the packet is requesting a connection. It checks to see
if there is a listener, and if so it unblocks the listener. The
server process can then establish the connection with the
ACCEPT call. This sends a response (2) back to the client
process to accept the connection.
➢ The arrival of this response then releases the client. At this

point the client and server are both running and they have a
connection established.
7. Draw & explain the OSI reference model.
OSI reference model:
The model is called the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
Reference Model because it deals with connecting open
systems—that is, systems that are open for communication with
other systems.
The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied
to arrive at the seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is
needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye

toward defining internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the
information flow across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct
functions need not be thrown together in the same layer
out of necessity and small enough that the architecture
does not become unwieldy.
OSI Model- OSI “ Open Systems Interconnection".
Model has 7 layers.
7-Layer OSI Model
Layer 7 Application Layer
Layer 6 Presentation Layer Layers 1-4 relate to

communications technology.
Layer 5 Session Layer
Layer 4 Transport Layer Layers 5-7 relate to user

applications.
Layer 3 Network Layer
Layer 2 Data Link Layer
Layer 1 Physical Layer

Communications subnet boundary
Layer 1: Physical Layer
• Describes physical aspects of network: cards, wires, etc.
• Specifies interconnect topologies and devices
Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• Packages raw bits from the Physical layer into frames (logical,
structured packets for data).
• Works with Network Layer to translate logical addresses (IP) into
hardware addresses (MAC) for transmission.
• Defines a single link protocol for transfer between two nodes
• Provides reliable transmission of frames.
• IP address needs to be resolved to physical address at each IP

network interface
• Ethernet uses 48-bit addresses
• Each Ethernet network interface card (NIC) has globally
unique Medium Access Control (MAC) or physical address
• First 24 bits identify NIC manufacturer; second 24 bits are
serial number
00:90:27:96:68:07 12 hex numbers
Intel
Layer 3: Network Layer Module 1 - Introduction to networks, Physical Layer
• Manages addressing/routing of data within the subnet .
• Routing.
IP Address
RFC 1166
• Each host on Internet has unique 32 bit IP address
• Each address has two parts: netid and hostid
• netid unique & administered by
American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN)
Reseaux IP Europeens (RIPE)
Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC)
• Facilitates routing
IPv4 - Address Classes 21CS52 - COMPUTER NETWORKS
When calculating hosts IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased because they
cannot be assigned to hosts, i.e. the first IP of a network is network number and
the last IP is reserved for Broadcast IP.
Class A Address : 1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Class B Address : 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
Class C Address : 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
Class D Address : 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 –MULTICAST PURPOSE
Class E Address : 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254 – RESERVED IP ADDR
IPv6 - Address Classes

Hexadecimal notation
Groups of 16 bits represented by 4 hex digits
Separated by colons
4BF5:AA12:0216:FEBC:BA5F:039A:BE9A:2176
IP Addresses
Specific ranges of IP addresses set aside for use in private networks (RFC 1918)
Use restricted to private internets; routers in public Internet discard packets with
these addresses (IPV4)
Range 1: 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 (65,536 IP addresses)
Range 2: 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 (1,048,576 IP addresses)
Range 3: 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 (16,777,216 IP addresses)
Network Address Translation (NAT) used to convert between private & global IP
addresses
IP Addresses
Layer 4: Transport Layer

Manages transmission packets
• Repackages long messages when necessary into small packets for
transmission.
• Reassembles packets in correct order to get the original message.
• Handles error recognition and recovery.
Layer 5: Session Layer

• Allows two applications on different computers to establish, use,
and end a session.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer :
Transmitted data
• Translates different data representations from the Application
layer into uniform standard format
• Providing services for secure efficient data transmission
e.g. data encryption, and data compression.
e.g. file transfer, remote login
Layer-7 Application Layer :

• Directly support software applications for file transfers, database
access, and e-mail etc
8. Draw & explain the TCP/IP reference model.
When satellite and radio networks were added later, the existing
protocols had trouble interworking with them, so a new reference
architecture was needed. Thus, from nearly the beginning, the ability
to connect multiple networks in a seamless way was one of the
major design goals.
This architecture later became known as the TCP/IP Reference
Model
The Link Layer All these requirements led to the choice of a

packet-switching network based on a connectionless layer that
runs across different networks. The lowest layer in the model,
the link layer describes what links such as serial lines and
classic Ethernet must do to meet the needs of this
connectionless internet layer.
The Internet Layer
The internet layer is the linchpin that holds the whole architecture
together.It is shown in Fig. 1-21 as corresponding roughly to the
OSI network layer. Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into
any network and have them travel independently to the destination
(potentially on a different network). They may even arrive in a
completely different order than they were sent, in which case it is
the job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is
desired.
The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol

called IP (Internet Protocol), plus a companion protocol called
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) that helps it function.
The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they
are supposed to go. Packet routing is clearly a major issue here,
as is congestion (though IP has not proven effective at avoiding
congestion).
The Transport Layer
The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now
usually called the transport layer. It is designed to allow peer
entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a
conversation, just as in the OSI transport layer. Two end-to-end
transport protocols have been defined here. The first one, TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol), is a reliable connection-
oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on one
machine to be delivered without error on any other machine in the
internet.
The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol),

is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not
want TCP’s sequencing or flow control and wish to provide their
own.
It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type request-reply
queries and applications in which prompt delivery is more
important than accurate delivery, such as transmitting
speech or video.
The Application Layer
The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers. No
need for them was perceived. Instead, applications simply include
any session and presentation functions that they require.
Experience with the OSI model has proven this view correct: these
layers are of little use to most applications.
On top of the transport layer is the application layer. It contains all
the higher- level protocols. The early ones included virtual terminal
(TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP).
It includes the Domain Name System (DNS), for mapping host
names onto their network addresses, HTTP, the protocol for
fetching pages on the World Wide Web, and RTP, the protocol for
delivering real-time media such as voice or movies.
9. Mention the Critique of the OSI Model and

Protocols
A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols
1. Bad timing.
2. Bad technology.
3. Bad implementations.
4. Bad politics.
10. Discuss the following

i) Coaxial Cable ii) Fiber Optics.
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:

▪ two concentric copper ▪ glass fiber carrying light pulses,
conductors each pulse a bit
▪ bidirectional ▪ high-speed operation:
• high-speed point-to-point
▪ broadband: transmission (10’s-100’s Gbps)
• multiple frequency channels on
cable ▪ low error rate:
• 100’s Mbps per channel • repeaters spaced far apart
• immune to electromagnetic
noise
i) Coaxial Cable
Guided transmission medium is the coaxial cable.
It has better shielding and greater bandwidth than unshielded
twisted pairs, so it can span longer distances at higher speeds.
Two kinds of coaxial cable are widely used. One kind, 50-ohm
cable, is commonly used when it is intended for digital
transmission from the start. The other kind, 75-ohm cable, is
commonly used for analog transmission and cable television.
A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core,

surrounded by an insulating material. The insulator is encased by a
cylindrical conductor, often as a closely woven braided mesh. The
outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.
ii) Fiber Optics.
Fiber optics are used for long-haul transmission in network

backbones, highspeed LANs (although so far, copper has always
managed catch up eventually), and high-speed Internet access such
as FttH (Fiber to the Home). An optical transmission system has
three key components: the light source, the transmission medium,
and the detector.
The sketch of Fig. 2-6(b) shows only one trapped ray, but since any
light ray incident on the boundary above the critical angle will be
reflected internally, many different rays will be bouncing around at
different angles. Each ray is said to have a different mode, so a
fiber having this property is called a multimode fiber.
However, if the fiber’s diameter is reduced to a few wavelengths

of light the fiber acts like a wave guide and the light can
propagate only in a straight line, without bouncing, yielding a
single-mode fiber.
Single-mode fibers are more expensive but are widely used for
longer distances. Currently available single-mode fibers can
transmit data at 100 Gbps for 100 km without amplification.
Even higher data rates have been achieved in the laboratory for
shorter distances.
11. Classify the wireless transmission and mention

the Radio Transmission and Infrared Transmission.
Wireless communication in general.

It has many other important applications besides providing
connectivity to users who want to surf the Web wireless mode.
Wireless has advantages for even fixed devices in some
circumstances. For example, if running a fiber to a building is
difficult due to the terrain (mountains, jungles, swamps, etc.),
wireless may be better.
The types of Wireless transmissions are
i) The Electromagnetic Spectrum

ii) Radio Transmission
iii) Microwave Transmission
iv) Infrared Transmission
v) Light Transmission
Radio Transmission
Radio frequency (RF) waves are easy to generate, can travel long
distances, and can penetrate buildings easily, so they are widely
used for communication, both indoors and outdoors. Radio waves
also are omnidirectional, meaning that they travel in all directions
from the source.
Radio waves pass through obstacles well, but the power falls off
sharply with distance from the source—at least as fast as 1/r 2 in
air—as the signal energy is spread more thinly over a larger surface.
This attenuation is called path loss. At high frequencies, radio waves
tend to travel in straight lines and bounce off obstacles.
Path loss still reduces power, though the received signal can depend
strongly on reflections as well. High-frequency radio waves are also
absorbed by rain and other obstacles to a larger extent than are low-
frequency ones.
Infrared Transmission
Unguided infrared waves are widely used for short-range
communication.
The remote controls used for televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use
infrared communication. They are relatively directional, cheap, and
easy to build but have a major drawback: they do not pass through
solid objects. (Try standing between your remote control and your
television and see if it still works.)
In general, as we go from long-wave radio toward visible light,

the waves behave more and more like light and less and less like
radio.
Infrared communication has a limited use on the desktop, for
example, to connect notebook computers and printers with the
IrDA (Infrared Data Association) standard, but it is not a major
player in the communication game.
Module 1 - Introduction to networks,
Physical Layer
THE END

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21CS52 -

Course Learning Objectives:

CLO2. Software and hardware interfaces

CLO3. Application of various physical components and protocols

CLO4. Communication challenges and remedies in the networks.

Continuous Internal Evaluation:

Three Unit Tests each of 20 Marks (duration 01 hour)

1. First test at the end of 5th week of the semester

Two assignments each of 10 Marks

4. First assignment at the end of 4th week of the semester

Practical Sessions need to be assessed by appropriate rubrics and viva-voce

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

PSO's PSO Description

➢ Module 1 - Introduction to networks, Physical Layer

the number of packets dropped for various iterations.

➢ Module 1 - Introduction to networks, Physical Layer

Introduction to networks: Network hardware,

Network software, Reference models,

Physical Layer: Guided transmission media,

1. Mention the widely used two types of

There are two types of transmission technology that are :

Broadcast network: the communication channel is shared by all the machines

➢ Broadcast systems usually also allow the possibility of addressing a

2. Classify the interconnected processors by

We classify multiple processor systems by their rough physical size. At the

3. Describe the following

a) Personal Area Networks :

PANs (Personal Area Networks) let devices communicate over

b) Local Area Networks

C) Metropolitan Area Networks

d) Wide Area Networks

4. Discuss the differences between Connection-

➢ Connection-oriented service is modeled after the telephone system. To talk

➢ Connectionless service is modeled after the postal system. Each

5. Identify Six service primitives (socket interface)

➢ A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available

Six service primitives that provide a simple connection-oriented

6. Sketch a simple client-server interaction

➢ The operating system then typically sends a packet to the peer

➢ The arrival of this response then releases the client. At this

7. Draw & explain the OSI reference model.

3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye

Layer 6 Presentation Layer Layers 1-4 relate to

Layer 4 Transport Layer Layers 5-7 relate to user

Layer 2 Data Link Layer

Layer 1 Physical Layer

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• IP address needs to be resolved to physical address at each IP

IPv6 - Address Classes

Layer 4: Transport Layer

Layer 5: Session Layer

Layer-7 Application Layer :

8. Draw & explain the TCP/IP reference model.

The Link Layer All these requirements led to the choice of a

The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol

The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol),

9. Mention the Critique of the OSI Model and

A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols

10. Discuss the following

Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:

A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core,

ii) Fiber Optics.

Fiber optics are used for long-haul transmission in network