CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION OF THE MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT:

Material handling equipment is all equipment that relates to the movement,
storage, control and protection of materials, goods and products throughout the
process of manufacturing, distribution, consumption and disposal. Material handling
equipment is the mechanical equipment involved in the complete system. Material
handling equipment is generally separated into four main categories: storage and
handling equipment, engineered systems, industrial trucks, and bulk Ways in which
material handling equipment can improve efficiency:
Material handling equipment is used to increase throughput, control costs, and
maximize productivity. There are several ways to determine if the material handling
equipment is achieving peak efficiency. These include capturing all relevant data
related to the warehouse's operation (such as SKUs), measuring how many times an
item is "touched" from the time it is ordered until it leaves the building, making sure
you are using the proper picking technology, and keeping system downtime to a
minimum.
1.2 TYPES OF MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT: 1.2.1 Storage and
handling equipment
Storage and handling equipment is a category within the material handling
industry. The equipment that falls under this description is usually non-automated
storage equipment. Products such as Pallet rack, shelving, carts, etc. belong to storage
and handling. Many of these products are often referred to as "catalog" items because
they generally have globally accepted standards and are often sold as stock materials
out of Material handling catalogs.

1
1.2.2 Engineered Systems:
Engineered systems are typically custom engineered material handling systems.
Conveyors, Handling Robots, AS/RS, AGV and most other automated material
handling systems fall into this category. Engineered systems are often a combination
of products integrated to one system. Many distribution centers will optimize storage
and picking by utilizing engineered systems such as pick modules and serration
systems.
Equipment and utensils used for processing or otherwise handling edible
product or ingredients must be of such material and construction to facilitate thorough
cleaning and to ensure that their use will not cause the adulteration of product during
processing, handling, or storage. Equipment and utensils must be maintained in
sanitary condition so as not to adulterate product.
1.2.3 Industrial Trucks:
Industrial trucks usually refer to operator driven motorized warehouse vehicles.
Industrial trucks assist the material handling system with versatility; they can go
where engineered systems cannot. Forklift trucks are the most common example of
industrial trucks but certainly aren't the extent of the category. Tow tractors and stock
chasers are additional examples of industrial trucks.
1.2.4 Bulk material handling:
Bulk material handling equipment is used to move and store bulk materials
such as ore, liquids, and cereals. This equipment is often seen on farms, mines,
shipyards and refineries. This category is also explained in Bulk material handling.
1.3 GENERAL OPERATIONS MOVABLE FORKLIFT:

HM

2
 Fig: No: 1.1 A forklift transporting a pallet of potted plants
Forklifts are rated for loads at a specified maximum weight and a specified
forward center of gravity. This information is located on a nameplate provided by the
manufacturer, and loads must not exceed these specifications. In many jurisdictions it
is illegal to remove or tamper with the nameplate without the permission of the
forklift manufacturer.
An important aspect of forklift operation is that most have rear-wheel steering.
While this increases maneuverability in tight cornering situations, it differs from a
driver's traditional experience with other wheeled vehicles. While steering, as there is
no caster action, it is unnecessary to apply steering force to maintain a constant rate of
turn.
Another critical characteristic of the forklift is its instability. The forklift and
load must be considered a unit with a continually varying center of gravity with every
movement of the load. A forklift must never negotiate a turn at speed with a raised
load, where centrifugal and gravitational forces may combine to cause a disastrous
tip-over accident.
The forklift are designed with a load limit for the forks which is decreased with
fork elevation and undercutting of the load (i.e. load does not butt against the fork
"L"). A loading plate for loading reference is usually located on the forklift. A forklift
should not be used as a personnel lift without the fitting of specific safety equipment,
such as a "cherry picker" or "cage".
Forklift use in warehouse and distribution center .Forklifts is a critical element
of warehouses and distribution centers. It's imperative that these structures be
designed to accommodate their efficient and safe movement.
In the case of Drive-In/Drive-Thru Racking, a forklift needs to travel inside a
storage bay that is multiple pallet positions deep to place or retrieve a pallet.
Oftentimes, forklift drivers are guided into the bay through guide rails on the floor and

3
the pallet is placed on cantilevered arms or rails. These maneuvers require well-
trained operators. Since every pallet requires the truck to enter the storage structure,
damage is more common than with other types of storage. In designing a drive-in
system, dimensions of the fork truck, including overall width and mast width, must be
carefully considered.

4
 CHAPTER-2 FLUID POWER
Fluid power technology is a means to convert, transmit, convert and apply fluid
energy to perform useful work. Since a fluid can be either a liquid or a gas, fluid
power in general includes and pneumatics and hydraulics. Oil hydraulics employs
pressurized liquid and pneumatics employs compressed air. 2.1GENERAL
APPLICATION OF FLUID POWER:
Farm equipment
Agriculture Earth moving equipment, concrete mixing equipment Controllable pitch
Construction propellers Hydraulic retractable landing wheels Missile launches system
Ships Hydraulic elevators
Aviation Hydraulic presses for metal forming pneumatic hand tools, Injection molding
Defense machine Fabrication Hydraulic jacks' hydraulic ram, conveyor system,
Transportation pneumatically operated packing warping and bottling equipments
Fabrication Hydraulically operated machine tools, robots', pneumatically Operated
indexing holding gripping and feeding devices.
Material handling

Automation

5
 CHAPTER-3
BASIC PRINCIPLES & INTRODUCTION OF HYDRAULICS
AND PNEUMATICS
Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into linear
mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single purpose applications
such as clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many other applications.
The Pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciprocating motion by
pneumatic cylinders. The various industrial applications for which air cylinders are used
can be divided duty wise into the groups. They are light duty, medium duty and heavy
duty but according to the operating principle air cylinders can be sub divided as 1.single-
acting, 2.Double- acting cylinders. Since our project is based on single acting cylinder
we shall see deep about it.
In a single-acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only in one side hence, this
cylinder can produce work only in one direction the return movement of the piston is
affected by a built-in spring or by application of an external force the spring is designed
to return the piston to its initial position with a sufficiently high speed.
Most industrial processes require substances to be transformed from one place to
another. Also the final products should be shaped (or) compressed (or) held by applying
a great force. Such activities are performed by using prime movers.
The prime movers are operated by,
(i) Electrical System
(ii) Hydraulic System
(iii) Pneumatic System
In electrical system, the rotary motion is provided by simple motors. The linear
motions can be obtained by converting rotary motions with the aid of screw jack (or)
Rack and pinion.

6
 In Hydraulic system, enclosed water (or) oil can be used to convey energy from
one location to another. In Greek, hydra means water.
In Pneumatic system, enclosed gas (normally compressed air) is used to transfer
energy from one location to another). In Greek, Pneumatic means wind.

3.1 HYDRAULIC BASIC PRINCIPLES: 3.1.1 Hydraulic

Principles:
There are certain governing principles in a hydraulic system:
1. All liquids are non-compressible and can be used to transmit power.
2. Any load to be lifted offers resistance to flow of liquid. This resistance to
flow is pressure.
3. If the capacity of the pump is more, then it pumps out more liquid. If it
pumps out more liquid, then it makes the hydraulic actuators (hydraulic
cylinder (or) hydraulic for the speed of the hydraulic actuator.
4. If the force developed in the hydraulic cylinder is more than the external
load, then the actuator lifts the external load. If the force developed in the
hydraulic cylinder is less than the external load, then the actuator will not
lift the external load. The flow rate is nothing to do with the load carrying
capacity of the hydraulic system.
5. If the operation of a hydraulic system, the liquid chooses the path of least
resistance
For example, there are two passages of flow from the pump. One path is
connected to the hydraulic actuator to lift the load. Another path is connected to the
reservoir. The liquid will choose the path of least resistance (reservoir path) and flows
back into the reservoir, without choosing the path that offers higher resistance i.e. lifting
the load. Ultimately, the load remains un lifted in this case. 3.1.2 Pascal's Law:

7
 (=16N
W=4000N

Metlianiacl advantage

Fig: No: 3.1 Pascal's Law

Pascal's law states that "The pressure applied anywhere to a confined liquid it
transmitted equally to every portion of the surface of the containing vessel". Refer the
following fig. When a force is applied to the liquid by a piston, the liquid transmits this
force equally to all surfaces of the container. 3.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE
HYDRAULICS COMPONENTS
A Hydraulic cylinder (also called a linear hydraulic motor) is a mechanical
actuator that is used to give a linear force through a linear stroke. It has many
applications, notably in engineering vehicles. 3.2.1 Operation of Hydraulic Actuator:
Hydraulic Actuators:
Pumps convert mechanical input of motor into pressure energy of fluid. Hydraulic
actuators do just the opposite. They convert the pressure energy of fluid into mechanical
output to perform useful work. Fluid power is transmitted through either linear (or)
rotary motion. Linear motion is obtained by using linear actuators called hydraulic
cylinders Rotary motion is obtained by using rotary actuators called hydraulic motors.
Rotary actuators are the hydraulic and pneumatic
equivalent of an electric motor.
3.2.1.1 Linear Actuators: (Hydraulic cylinders)
There are two types of hydraulic cylinders.
1. Single acting cylinder

8
 2. Double acting
cylinder Single acting hydraulic cylinder:
The return stroke is actuated by a spring (or) gravity. The simplest type of
linear actuator is the single acting hydraulic cylinder. In this device, the pressurized
liquid is admitted through only one side. So this cylinder will produce work in only
one direction.

Fig: No: 3.2 Single-acting Hydraulic Cylinder

It consists of a piston inside a cylinder body called a barrel. The prison rod is
attached to the one end of the piston. The piston rod extends out during extension and
goes inside cylinder during retraction.
Inlet port is provided at the other end of the cylinder. Single acting cylinders' pistons
do not retract hydraulically but it is accomplished by using gravity force (or) using
compression spring as shown in the following fig.

The following are the important components of single acting cylinder:

1. Cylinder body (or) barrel
2. Two end cover plates
3. Piston
4. Piston rod
5. U-cup seal

9
 6. 0-ring
7. Bush to guide the piston

U-cup Cylnder body(of) O-ring

Piston Spring Single Acting Cylinder

Fig: No: 3.3 Various Parts of the Single-acting Hydraulic Cylinder

The various parts of single acting cylinder is shown in fig. The end covers are
fitted to the body by using four cover screws (or) tie rods which are not shown in fig.
Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder:
In these double acting cylinders, the pressurized liquid is admitted in both sides of
the piston alternately. Work is performed during forward motion as well as backward
motion of the piston. To prevent leakage, seals are provided in five locations are the
important components of double acting cylinder. 1. Two end cover plates (or) two end
caps with port connections
(i) Base Cap
(ii) Bearing cap
2. Cylinder barrel
3. Piston
4. Piston rod
The end caps are made up of cast iron (or) aluminum and have inlet and outlet
ports. These caps entries are threaded so that it can be locked (or) opened. End caps

10
should be designed to withstand the impact loads, due to the fluid pressure and kinetic
energy of moving parts.
These shock loads are developed at the extreme ends of piston travels. These
stock loads at the end of travel can be minimized by cushion valves built into the end
caps. This is known as cylinder cushioning.

Fig: No: 3.4 Double-acting Hydraulic Cylinder

Hydraulic cylinders get their power from pressurized hydraulic fluid, which is
typically oil. The hydraulic cylinder consists of a cylinder barrel, in which a piston
connected to a piston rod moves back and forth. The barrel is closed on each end by the
cylinder bottom (also called the cap end) and by the cylinder head where the piston rod
comes out of the cylinder. The piston has sliding rings and seals.
The piston divides the inside of the cylinder in two chambers, the bottom chamber
(cap end) and the piston rod side chamber (rod end). The hydraulic pressure acts on the
piston to do linear work and motion. Flanges, trunnions, and/or clevises are mounted to

11
the cylinder body. The piston rod also has mounting attachments to connect the cylinder
to the object or machine component that it is pushing.
A hydraulic cylinder is the actuator or "motor" side of this system. The
"generator" side of the hydraulic system is the hydraulic pump which brings in a fixed or
regulated flow of oil to the bottom side of the hydraulic cylinder, to move the piston rod
upwards. The piston pushes the oil in the other chamber back to the reservoir. If we
assume that the oil pressure in the piston rod chamber is approximately zero, the force
on the piston rod equals the pressure in the cylinder times the piston area (F=PA).
The piston moves instead downwards if oil is pumped into the piston rod side
chamber and the oil from the piston area flows back to the reservoir without pressure.
The pressure in the piston rod area chamber is (Pull Force) / (piston area - piston rod
area).

Fig: No: 3.5 Cut Section Of The Hydraulic Actuator

3.2.1.2 Parts of Hydraulic Actuator:

A hydraulic cylinder consists of the following parts:
Cylinder barrel:
The cylinder barrel is mostly a seamless thick walled forged pipe that must be
machined internally. The cylinder barrel is ground and/or honed internally.

12
Cylinder Bottom or Cap:
In most hydraulic cylinders, the barrel and the bottom portion are welded
together. This can damage the inside of the barrel if done poorly. Therefore some
cylinder designs have a screwed or flanged connection from the cylinder end cap to the
barrel. (See "Tie Rod Cylinders" below) In this type the barrel can be disassembled and
repaired in future. Cylinder Head:
The cylinder head is sometimes connected to the barrel with a sort of a simple
lock (for simple cylinders). In general however the connection is screwed or flanged.
Flange connections are the best, but also the most expensive. A flange has to be welded
to the pipe before machining. The advantage is that the connection is bolted and always
simple to remove. For larger cylinder sizes, the disconnection of a screw with a diameter
of 300 to 600 mm is a huge problem as well as the alignment during mounting. Piston:
The piston is a short, cylinder-shaped metal component that separates the two
sides of the cylinder barrel internally. The piston is usually machined with grooves to fit
elastomeric or metal seals. These seals are often O-rings, U-cups or cast iron rings. They
prevent the pressurized hydraulic oil from passing by the piston to the chamber on the
opposite side. This difference in pressure between the two sides of the piston causes the
cylinder to extend and retract. Piston seals vary
in design and material according to the pressure and temperature requirements that the
cylinder will see in service. Generally speaking, elastomeric seals made from nitride
rubber or other materials are best in lower temperature environments while seals made
of Viton are better for higher temperatures. The best seals for high temperature are
cast iron piston rings. Piston Rod:
The piston rod is typically a hard chrome-plated piece of cold-rolled steel
which attaches to the piston and extends from the cylinder through the rod-end head.
In double rod-end cylinders, the actuator has a rod extending from both sides of the

13
piston and out both ends of the barrel. The piston rod connects the hydraulic actuator
to the machine component doing the work.
This connection can be in the form of a machine thread or a mounting
attachment such as a rod-clevis or rod-eye. These mounting attachments can be
threaded or welded to the piston rod or, in some cases; they are a machined part of the
rod-end. Rod Gland:
The cylinder head is fitted with seals to prevent the pressurized oil from
leaking past the interface between the rod and the head. This area is called the rod
gland. It often has another seal called a rod wiper which prevents contaminants from
entering the cylinder when the extended rod retracts back into the cylinder. The rod
gland also has a rod bearing. This bearing supports the weight of the piston rod and
guides it as it passes back and forth through the rod gland. In some cases, especially in
small hydraulic cylinders, the rod gland and the rod bearing are made from a single
integral machined part. Other parts
> Cylinder bottom connection
> Seals > Cushions
A hydraulic cylinder should be used for pushing and pulling only. No bending
moments or side loads should be transmitted to the piston rod or the cylinder. For this
reason, the ideal connection of a hydraulic cylinder is a single clevis with a spherical
ball bearing. This allows the hydraulic actuator to move and allow for any misalignment
between the actuator and the load it is pushing.
3.3 SPECIAL HYDRAULIC CYLINDER:
3.3.1 Telescopic Cylinder:
The length of a hydraulic cylinder is the total of the stroke, the thickness of the
piston, the thickness of bottom and head and the length of the connections. Often this
length does not fit in the machine. In that case the piston rod is also used as a piston

14
barrel and a second piston rod is used. These kinds of cylinders are called telescopic
cylinders.
If we call a normal rod cylinder single stage, telescopic cylinders are multistage
units of two, three, four, five and even six stages. In general telescopic cylinders are
much more expensive than normal cylinders. Most telescopic cylinders are single acting
(push). Double acting telescopic cylinders must be specially designed and manufactured.

3.3.2 Plunger Cylinder:

A hydraulic cylinder without a piston or with a piston without seals is called a
plunger cylinder. A plunger cylinder can only be used as a pushing cylinder; the
maximum force is piston rod area multiplied by pressure. This means that a piston
cylinder in general has a relatively thick piston rod.
3.3.3 Differential Cylinder:
A differential cylinder acts like a normal cylinder when pulling. If the cylinder
however has to push, the oil from the piston rod side of the cylinder is not returned to the
reservoir, but goes to the bottom side of the cylinder. In such a way, the cylinder goes
much faster, but the maximum force the cylinder can give is like a plunger cylinder. A
differential cylinder can be manufactured like a normal cylinder, and only a special
control is added.

CHAPTER-4 4. HYDRAULIC PUMP

4.1 CHARACTERSTICS OF THE HYDRAULIC PUMP

Hydraulic pumps are used to pump out the liquid from the reservoir to the
hydraulic actuator through a set of valves.

15
 A pump converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. The mechanical
energy is given to the pump by an electric motor. Due to mechanical action, the pump
creates a partial vacuum at its inlet.
This makes the atmospheric pressure to force the liquid through the inlet line and
into the pump. The pump then pushes the liquid into the hydraulic system. The pumps
are classified as:
(i) Positive displacement pumps
(ii) Hydrodynamic (or) Non-positive displacement pumps Hydrodynamic
(or) Non-positive displacement pumps are used for
transporting fluids from one location to another. These types of pumps are generally
used for low pressure, high-volume flow applications, since they are not capable of
withstanding high pressures.
The centrifugal pumps and axial flow pumps are the examples of nonpositive
displacement pumps. These pumps provide smooth flow. But the output flow rate is
reduced when the resistance to flow is increased.
Positive displacement pumps have the internal working elements which make a
very close fit together so that there is very little leakage (or) slippage between them.
This type of pumps ejects a fixed quantity of liquid into the hydraulic system per
revolution of the pump shaft.
4.2 ADVANTAGES:
These pumps have the following advantages:
❖ High pressure capability
❖ Small and compact size
❖ High volumetric efficiency
❖ Great flexibility of performance, i.e. these pumps can operate over
a wide range of pressure requirements and speed ranges.

16
4.3 HYDRAULIC PUMP TYPES:
❖ Gear pumps
❖ Gear rotor pumps
❖ Rotary vane pumps
❖ Screw pumps
❖ Bent axis pumps
❖ Axial piston pumps swash plate principle
❖ Radial piston pumps
❖ Peristaltic pumps
❖ Multi pump assembly
4.4 PUMP SELECTION:
Pumps are selected by considering the following factors:
1. Discharge (flow rate) requirements. (in liters/mm)
2. Operating speed (in rpm)
3. Pressure rating (in bar)
4. Performance
5. Reliability
6. Maintenance
7. Cost
8. Noise

17
4.5 HYDRAULIC PUMP WORKING PRINCIPLES:
4.5.1 Gear Pumps:

Fig: No: 4.1 Gear Pump

Gear pumps (with external teeth) (fixed displacement) are simple and economical
pumps. The swept volume or displacement of gear pumps for hydraulics will be between
about 1 cm3 (0.001 liter) and 200 cm3 (0.2 liter). These pumps create pressure through
the meshing of the gear teeth, which forces fluid around the gears to pressurize the outlet
side. Some gear pumps can be quite noisy, compared to other types, but modern gear
pumps are highly reliable and much quieter than older models. 4.5.2 Gear Rotor
Pumps:

Fig: No: 4.2 Gear Rotor Pump

18
 Gear rotor pumps (fixed displacement) are a variation of gear pumps, having
internal teeth of optimized design. The efficiency and noise level are very good for such
a medium pressure pump.
4.5.3 Rotary Vane Pumps:
Rotary vane pumps (fixed and simple adjustable displacement) have higher
efficiencies than gear pumps, but are also used for mid pressures up to 180 bars in
general. Some types of vane pumps can change the centre of the vane body, so that a
simple adjustable pump is obtained. These adjustable vane pumps are in general constant
pressure or constant power pumps: the displacement is increased until the required
pressure or power is reached and subsequently the displacement or swept volume is
decreased until equilibrium is reached.
4.5.4 Screw Pumps:
Screw pumps (fixed displacement) are a double Archimedes spiral, but closed.
This means that two screws are used in one body. The pumps are used for high flows
and relatively low pressure (max 100 bars). They were used on board ships where the
constant pressure hydraulic system was going through the whole ship, especially for the
control of ball valves, but also for the steering gear and help drive systems. The
advantage of the screw pumps is the low sound level of these pumps; the efficiency is
not that high.
4.5.5 Bent Axis Pumps:
Bent axis pumps, axial piston pumps and motors using the bent axis principle,
fixed or adjustable displacement exists in two different basic designs. The Thoma-
principle (engineer Hans Thoma, Germany, patent 1935) with max 25 degrees angle and
the Wahl mark-principle (Gunnar Axel Wahl mark, patent 1960) with spherical shaped
pistons in one piece with the piston rod, piston rings, and maximum 40 degrees between
the driveshaft centerline and pistons (Volvo Hydraulics Co.). These have the best
efficiency of all pumps. Although in general

19
the largest displacements are approximately one liter per revolution, if necessary a two
liter swept volume pump can be built. Often variable displacement pumps are used, so
that the oil flow can be adjusted carefully. These pumps can in general work with a
working pressure of up to 350-420 bars in continuous work. Axial Piston Pumps Swash
Plate Principle:
Axial piston pumps using the swash plate principle (fixed and adjustable
displacement) have a quality that is almost the same as the bent axis model. They have
the advantage of being more compact in design. The pumps are easier and more
economical to manufacture; the disadvantage is that they are more sensitive to oil
contamination.
4.5.6 Radial Piston Pumps:
Radial piston pumps (fixed displacement) are used especially for high pressure and
relatively small flows. Pressures of up to 650 bar are normal. In fact variable
displacement is not possible, but sometimes the pump is designed in such a way that the
plungers can be switched off one by one, so that a sort of variable displacement pump is
obtained.
4.5.7 Peristaltic Pumps:
Peristaltic pumps are not generally used for high pressures. Pumps for open and
closed systems

4.6 MULTI PUMP ASSEMBLY:

In a hydraulic installation, one pump can serve more cylinders and motors. The
problem however is that in that case a constant pressure system is required and the
system always needs the full power. It is more economic to give each cylinder and motor
its own pump. In that case multi pump assemblies can be used. Gear pumps can often be
obtained as multi pumps. The different chambers (sometimes of different size) are
mounted in one body or built together. Also vane pumps can

20
often be obtained as a multi pump. Gear rotor pumps are often supplied as multi
pumps. Screw pumps can be built together with a gear pump or a vane pump. Axial
piston swash plate pumps can be built together with a second pump of the same or
smaller size, or can be built together with one or more gear pumps or vane pumps
(depending on the supplier). Axial plunger pumps of the bent axis design cannot be
built together with other pumps. 4.7 HYDRAULIC HOSE:
The hose is long cylindrical tube designed to carry power in the form of fluids
from one place to other. Hoses are generally made up of polyethylene, PVC, or
synthetic or natural rubber with a combination of metal wires to give strength.
Common parameters are diameter, wall thickness and pressure rating.

........

Fig: No: 4.3 Hydraulic Hose

CHAPTER-5 HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
5.1 SPECIFICATIONS:
Some of the specifications of the fluids are not given mainly the kinematic
viscosities of the fluids at 40°C and 100°C which are used to calculate viscosity index of
the fluid. The kinematic viscosities of the fluids at both temperatures has been measured
in flumes lab by using Ubbelohde viscometer where it is used in most of the test
methods like ISO 3104, ISO 3105, ASTM D 445, ASTM D 446, BS 188, IP 71.
To calculate viscosity index of the petroleum products, lubricants or other types
of hydraulic fluid according to „ISO 2909:2002' or „ASTM D2270 - 10e1' standards it
requires kinematic viscosities [cSt] at two different temperature. One is at 40°C and
other is at 100°C. But these two standards are used to calculate the viscosity index of the
fluids from 2 cSt to 70 cSt at 100°C. The viscosity index of the fluids has calculated by

21
using online calculator [3]. The difference in viscosities between the given data and the
measured is due to error in the viscometer. But this does not affect in estimating the
viscosity of the fluid with respect to temperature. HYDRAULIC FLUID:
Hydraulic fluid is a medium to transfer power in the system or the machinery.
Hydraulic fluids play a very important role in the developing world. The fluids are
classified on the basis of their viscosity, which makes a chart which is useful for the
industries to select the fluid for the particular function. The classifications range from a
simple ISO (International Organization for Standardization) to the recent classification
ASTM D 6080-97 (classifying based on viscosity).
5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS BASED ON ISO
VISCOSITY GRADE:
Most of the fluids used are classified with ISO standards. The ISO standard
fluids are mainly classified based on the kinematic viscosity at 400C. The fluid is
mainly taken at 400C which is taken as a reference temperature between the maximum
operating and the ambient temperatures. The ISO classification is done on 18 main
fluids based on their viscosity grade. Table.2.1 shows the viscosity range of a fluid on
its ISO VG.
Classification of hydraulic fluids based on ISO Viscosity grade:
ISO VISCOSITY GRADS BASED ON KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
[CENTISTOKES/CST] AT 400C
ISO VG Minimum [cSt] Maximum[cSt]
2 1.98 2.42
3 2.88 3.52
5 4.14 5.06
7 6.12 7.48
10 9.0 11
15 13.5 16.5

22
 22 19.8 24.2
32 28.8 35.2
46 41.4 50.6
68 61.2 74.8
100 90 110
150 135 165
220 198 242
320 288 353
460 4147 506
680 612 748
1000 900 1100
1500 1350 1650

Table: No: 5.1 ISO Viscosity Grads Based On Kinematic Viscosity

5.3 TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:

According to ISO there are three different types of fluids according to their
source of availability and purpose of use. 5.3.1 Mineral-Oil based Hydraulic fluids:
As these have a mineral oil base, so they are named as Mineral-oil-Based
Hydraulic fluids. This kind of fluids will have high performance at lower cost. These
mineral oils are further classified as HH, HL and HM fluids. Type HH fluids are
refined mineral oil fluids which do not have any additives. These fluids are able to
transfer power but have less properties of lubrication and unable to withstand high
temperature.
These types of fluid have a limited usage in industries. Some of the uses are
manually used jacks and pumps, low pressure hydraulic system etc. Type HL fluids
are refined mineral oils which contain oxidants and rust inhibitors which help the

23
system to be protected from chemical attack and water contamination. These fluids are
mainly used in piston pump applications.
HM is a version of HL-type fluids which have improved anti-wear additives.
These fluids use phosphorus, zinc and sulphur components to get their anti-wear
properties. These are the fluids mainly used in the high pressure hydraulic system.
Fire Resistant Fluids
These fluids generate less heat when burnt than those of mineral oil based
fluids. As the name suggests these fluids are mainly used in industries where there are
chances of fire hazards, such as foundries, military, die-casting and basic metal
industry.
These fluids are made of lower BTU (British thermal unit) compared to those
of mineral oil based fluids, such as water-glycol, phosphate ester and polyol esters.
ISO have classified these fluids as HFAE (soluble oils), HFAS (high water- based
fluids), HFB (invert emulsions), HFC (water glycols), HFDR (phosphate ester) and
HRDU (polyol esters). Environmental Acceptable Hydraulic Fluids (EAHF):
These fluids are basically used in the application where there is a risk of
leakage or spills into the environment, which may cause some damage to the
environment. These fluids are not harmful to the aquatic creatures and they are
biodegradable.
These fluids are used in forestry, lawn equipment, off-shore drilling, dams and
maritime industries. The ISO have classified these fluids as HETG (based on natural
vegetable oils), HEES (based on synthetic esters), HEPG (polyglycol fluids) and
HEPR (polyalphaolefin types).

24
5.4 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:

Hydraulic fluids
Based on
Environmentally
mineral oil Fire resistant acceptable
and related hydraulic fluids hydraulic fluids
hydrocarbons ISO 12922
Standard

ISO 11158

HFAE HETG HEPG

Classification
HFAS HEES HEPR
HFB
HFC
HFDR
HFDU

Fig: No: 5.1 Classifications Of Hydraulic

Fluids

5.5 FLUID PROPERTIES AND COMPARATIVE

PERFORMANCES:
While selecting a hydraulic fluid one has to be aware
of hydraulic fluid properties and its effect on hydraulic
system. Generally the hydraulic fluids have many properties
and some of the important properties are explained in detail
below. Density (p):
Density is expressed as mass occupied in a unit
volume. The density is inversely proportional to temperature.
The SI unit of density is kg/m3 Viscosity:

25
 The most important property of the hydraulic fluid to
be considered is viscosity of the fluid. The main selection of
fluid for the system depends on the viscosity of fluid.
Viscosity is the measure of resistance of fluid flow that is
inverse

26
 measure of fluidity. For example honey is very thick that
means it is more viscous than water. Viscosity is directly
related to system (especially pump and motor) wear, leakage,
and most important efficiency.

5.6
STANDARD
TEST
METHODS:
For hydraulic
fluids:
It is important to know the specification of the fluid
while selecting the fluid for the hydraulic system. Here are
some of the important specification and their standard test
methods in brief.
5.6.1 Viscosity:
This test determines the kinematic viscosity of the
hydraulic fluids and liquid petroleum products both opaque
and transparent. There are different standards like ISO 3104,
ISO 3105, ASTM D445, ASTM D446, IP 71, DIN 51366,
BS 188 to measure kinematic viscosity. All these standards
uses nearly same method to test kinematic viscosity. For this
test method glass capillary viscometer is used to determine
the kinematic viscosity. In this the time is calculated for the
fluid to fall under its own gravity from one point to another
at constant temperature and then it is multiplied by
viscometer constant to get kinematic viscosity in centistokes.
The viscosity is measured minimum at two different

27
temperatures mostly at 40°C and 100°C, so that viscosity
index of the fluid can be calculated.
5.6.2 Total acid number (TAN):
Total acid number is the presence of milligrams of
potassium hydroxide (KOH) per gram of sample. This TAN
indicates the potential of corrosion problems. ISO 6618,
ASTM D664 and ASTM D974 are some of the standard
methods. In ISO 6618 'color indicating titration' method is
used to measure the acid number where an appropriate pH
color indicator is added to the sample. The volume of color
titrant that is added to change the color of the sample
permanently is used to calculate acid number.
5.6.3 Flash Point:
Flash point is the minimum temperature at which the
fluid vaporize to form ignitable mixture in air when fire is
brought over this mixture. The standard methods are ISO
2592, ASTM D92. In these two standards „Cleveland open
cup method' is used to determine flash point. For this the
Cleveland apparatus is filled with fluid and then its
temperature is increased rapidly at first and then slowly till it
reaches its theoretical flash point. Then a small fire is
brought over the apparatus, therefore the minimum
temperature at which the mixture ignites is considered as
flash point.
5.6.4 Pour Point:
The pour point is the minimum temperature at which
the fluid becomes semi-solid and loses its fluidity. There are

28
different test standards for different types of fluid, for
example ISO 3016 for the petroleum products. Other
standards are ASTM D97, ASTM D 2500 etc. The general
procedure for petroleum products is the fluid is cooled to
form paraffin crystals. Then the temperature is maintained at
above 9°C above the expected pour point. For every
subsequent 3°C temperature the apparatus is tilted to check
the surface. If there is no movement in fluid then the
apparatus is kept horizontal for 5 seconds. If the fluid does
not flow then it is considered as pour point.
5.6.5 Water content:
This test is used to determine the water content in the
fluid. Water in fluid is the main problem that decreases
viscosity and forms rust. So the user has to check whether
the fluid is suitable for the machine with that water content.
Some of the standard tests are ISO 12937 and ISO 6296
which uses „Karl Fischer titration method' to find water
content.
5.6.6 Air Release:
Air release property is important parameter to be
considered mainly in the systems where residue time is short
because the air flows with fluid causes pressure losses in the
system. Some of the standard test methods are ISO 9120,
ASTM D3472, IP 313 and DIN 51381 where air is blown
into the fluid and the time taken by the air to decrease it's
volume by 0.2 % at constant temperature is considered as air
release time.

29
5.6.7 Low Temperature Fluidity:
This test determines the highest possible viscosity of
fluid at very low temperature for a certain period of time.
This is useful for the system when it is stand still for long
time at low temperature. The standard test method is ASTM
D2532.
Elements by ICP:
This test is used to determine the additive elements in
the fluid. This test provides wear indication of the hydraulic
machines by testing used oil. „Inductively Coupled Plasma
(ICP) Atomic Emission Spectrometry' is used t determine the
elements and it can measure the elements down to 0.1 parts
per million. ASTM D5185 and ASTM D4951 are the
standard tests.
5.6.8 Oxidation Stability:
This test is used to determine the oxidation stability of
the fluid. The standard tests are ASTM D943 and DIN
51554-3. In DIN 51554-3. 70 ml of oil is kept at 95°C for 35
days in atmospheric oxygen and it is stirred with glass stirrer
connected to copper strip at a speed of 24 stirs per minute.
Then the viscosity, acid number and other parameters are
measured for every week.
5.6.9 Hydrolytic stability:
There are more chances of fluid to get contaminated
with water which decreases viscosity, forms rust that
decrease the performance of the system. So it is

30
important to know the hydrolytic stability of the fluid. The
ASTM D2619 is the standard test method where 75 g of
fluid, 25 grams of water and a copper strip is sealed in
vessel and stirred at 5 rpm for 48 hrs at 93°C. Then the
acid number and viscosity is measured to find the
hydrolytic stability. 5.6.10 Thermal Stability:
The effect of temperature on the metals is also an
important factor. The ASTM D2070 is the standard test
method in which copper and steel rods are placed in the
oil at a temperature of 135°C for one week. Then the
condition of the metal specimens is noticed and viscosity
of fluid is also measured. For fluid power components:
Pump is the core component for the fluid power
system. So it is important to know the performance of the
pump at different working conditions. To know the
performance volumetric and mechanical efficiency of the
pump should be measured. To test the pump
1. Inlet pressure of the pump should be kept
constant. Record the measurements of
2. Input torque
3. Outlet flow of the pump.
4. Fluid temperature.
5. Drainage flow (if needed) Now test the pump
a) At constant speed and by
varying the outlet pressure of
the pump.

31
 b) By varying the speed of the
pump at constant pump outlet
pressure.
By using these two tests calculate the efficiencies of
the pump by the following equations

32
 £pDpAp _ Qep [1]
V hmp lp
EpDpUp
[i] 2nMjri
in

Where i] imr: =
hydromechanieal
effieiency of pump £p
= displacement setting
of the pump. Dp =
Displacement of the
pump.
Ap = pressure
difference of
the pump. Mm =
input torque to

33
pump. V v o i p =
volumetric
efficiency of the
pump.

34
 CHAPTER-6 HYDRAULIC
VALVE 6.1 Hydraulic Valves Pressure Flow Direction Controls
Applications:
Fluid power is controlled primarily through the use of control devices called
valves. Hydraulic and pneumatic systems require control valves to direct and regulate
the flow of fluid from pump (or compressor to hydraulic cylinders (or) hydraulic
motors.
The selection of these control devices depends on the type, size, actuating
technique and remote control capability. There are three basic types of control valves.
(i) Direction control valves
(ii) Pressure control valves
(iii) Flow control valves
Direction control valves are used to determine the path of the fluid through
which it should travel within a given circuit.
The control of fluid path is carried out by check valves, shuttle valves and two ways,
three way and four way direction control valves.
Pressure control valves are used to protect the hydraulic system against over
pressure. This over pressure may occur due to a gradual buildup as fluid demand
decreases (or) due to sudden surge as valve close.
The buildup of pressure is controlled by pressure relief, pressure reducing,
sequence, unloading and counter balance valves.
The fluid flow must be controlled in hydraulic circuits. The control of actuator
speeds depends on the flow rates. So to control the actuator speed, the flow rate
should be controlled by using flow control valves.
There are some practical differences between the hydraulic and pneumatic
direction control valves, even though the principle of operation is the same. But the

35
pressure and the flow control valves for both hydraulic and pneumatic systems are
same.
6.2 DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES:
As the name implies, the direction control valves are used to control the
direction of the flow to the actuator from the pump.
The following are the important types of direction control valves in the hydraulic
system.
1. Check Valve
2. Two position two way valves
3. Two position four way valves
4. Three position four way valves
5. Rotary four way valve
6. Shuttle valve
6.2.1 Check Valve:
The simplest type of one direction flow valve is check valve. Check valve is a
one way valve because it permits flow in only one direction and prevents any flow in
the opposite direction. The check valve with graphical symbol is shown in figure.
No flow

Poppet

<
Free flow No flow
direction direction

Free flow N Operation of check valve

Fig: No: 6.1 Check Valve

36
 The spring holds the poppet in the closed position. When the fluid attains the
required pressure, it overcomes the spring force, the spring is compressed the poppet
is moving right and free flow occurs from left to right.
If the flow is attempted in the opposite direction, the fluid pressure along with
the spring force pushes the poppet in closed position. Hence, no flow is occurred in
opposite direction. The graphic symbol shows the function of the check valve.

Pilot pressurePilot
port
—■— Pilotpressure
piston

blocked

Fig: No: 6.2 Pilot Operated Check Valve

Another type of check valve is the pilot operated check valve. It is shown in fig
with its symbol. The pilot operated check valve always permits free flow in one
direction but permits flow in the normally blocked opposite direction only if pilot
pressure punches the pilot piston downward. Irk this construction, the pilot piston is
attached (or) integral part of the valve poppet.
The spring holds the poppet seated in a no flow condition by pushing against
the piston.
In the symbol, the dashed line represents the pilot pressure line connected to the
pilot pressure port of the valve. The pilot operated check valves are frequently used to
lock the hydraulic cylinders in position.

37
6.2.2 Rotary Four way valves:
Spool designs are mostly used like rotary four way valve. It has shown in figure
the corresponding for direction control valves. However, other types are consists of a
rotor closely fitted inside a valve body graphic symbol is also shown here.

Fig: No: 6.3 Rotary Four-way Valve

When the rotor is rotating inside the valve body, it connects (or) closes the
passages with the ports A (or) B (or) P (or) T, to provide four flow paths. The figure
shows the three position valve.
1. In the first position, the pressure port P is connected to the port A and the
port B is connected to the tank T.
2. In the 2nd position centered position, all four ports are blocked.
3. In the third position, the pressure port P is connected to port B and the
port A is connected to tank T. Rotary valves are usually operated by
manually (or) mechanically.

38
6.2.3 Shuttle Valve:
Shuttle valve is another type of direction control valve. It allows a system to
operate from either of two fluid power sources. It is also known as a double check
valve. It is mostly used in pneumatic device and is rarely used in hydraulic circuits.
Similarly, when the pressure is applied through port Y, the ball is blown to the
left blocking the port X, and the ports Y and A are connected. The construction and
symbol are shown here.

Fig: No: 6.4 Shuttle Valve

Since the ball is shuttled to one side (or) the other side of the valve depending
on which side of the ball has the greater pressure, it is known as shuttle valve. This
shuttle valve is used for safety purpose in the event that the main pump can no longer
provide hydraulic power to operate emergency devices; the shuttle valve will shift to
allow fluid to flow from a secondary backup pump. 6.2.4 Pressure Control Valves:
The pressure control valves are used in hydraulic circuits to maintain desired
pressure in various parts of the circuits. The most widely used type of pressure control

39
 Adjusting cap
Fig: No: 6.5 Pressure Control
Pressure Valve- Relief Valve
setting
It is spring also employed as a backup device when the
T
main pressure control device fails. The simple relief
Exhaust
valve is shown in figure. A poppet is held seated inside
Symbol for simple relief
the valve by a heavy valve spring. When
Puppet
the system pressure reaches enough high pressure, the
Source pressure Pressure control valve-
poppet isRelief Valve forced off its seat.
This
allows the flow through the outlet to tank as long as the high pressure level is
maintained. The adjusting screw cap is used to vary the spring force and thus to vary
the cracking pressure at which the valve begins to open.
To Hydraulic
system

I
___
I
Fig: No: 6.6partial hydraulic
Symbolic circuit
Representation of Partial Hydraulic Circuit

40
 The symbol for simple relief valve is shown here. A partial hydraulic circuit
consisting of pump and pressure relief valve is shown symbolically. If the hydraulic
system obtain maximum pressure (cracking pressure), then all the pump flow will
return back to the tank through the relief valve. The pressure relief valve protects the
hydraulic system against any overloads. If a pressure compensated vane pump is used,
then pressure relief valve is not needed. The main function of a pressure relief valve is
to control the force or torque produced by hydraulic actuators.

41
 CHAPTER-7
CONSTRUCTION AND LINE DIAGRAM OF HYDRAULIC
FORK LIFT

fork lift
___________^^structure

^^cylinder and piston Assly

Fig: No: 7.1 Hydraulic fork lift

42
 CHAPTER-8 WORKING PRINCIPLE

Here in our project fork lift machine is done by hydraulic system. It consists of
structure, arm, cylinder and piston assembly, with wheels and hydraulic circuit.
In this project of the fabricated model of hydraulic fork lift for industries will
describe the working principles as well as hydraulic machines application and its
advantages. Efforts have been taken to show the path of hydraulic fluid as it is applied
and released.
The Hydraulic system pressure can be generated in the form of any physical
action which result a compression over the Hydraulic system or pneumatic pressure
which is developed in the form of air compressing externally can be applied to
activate Hydraulic system. After fork lift loaded when pump is pumped the hydraulic
cylinder will moves upward, holds the object and will lift gradually. The light duty of
fork lift move easily with the help of wheel. No extra skill is required for operating
this system and then it is Easier to maintain. Hence the operation is very smooth and
in this system we can get more output by applying less effort.

CHAPTER-9 BILL OF MATERIALS

9.1 MATERIALS USED:

NAME OF THE COMPONENTS MATERIALS

Hydraulic pump(linear type pump) Steel
Cylinder M.S rod
Piston M.S with chromium
Ram M.S rod
Spring M.S

43
 Nipple M.S rod
End plate M.S plate
Hydraulic Fluid
Structure M.S.Plate

Table: No: 9.1 Bill of materials

CHAPTER-10 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
10.1 ADVANTAGES:
1. The process uses low- cost energy source.
2. Large machines frames are not required on the process.
3. Intricate shapes on material of low form ability can be worked fairly
easily.
4. It does not require special type hoses.
5. No extra skill is required for operating this system.
6. Easier maintenance.
7. Operation is very smooth and in this system we can get more output by
applying less effort.
8. Simple construction of additional accessories not needed.
9. Comparatively cheaper in cost then the other systems.
10.Quick response is achieved.
11.Continuous operation is possible without stopping.
12.More efficient.
13.Power can be easily transmission.
14.Less loss in transmission.
15.Very Easy Collecting Process.

44
10.2 DISADVANTAGES:
1. Machining work is very complicated.
2. Very sturdy base needed.
3. Hydraulics components cost is high.

CHAPTER-11 11. CONCLUSION

Therefore, the result obtain from the project is to reduces the time taken and
efficiency over the other system. The necessary requirements and fulfillment of the
project details which we have given is factual.
This report details with design of hydraulic fork lift with suitable drawing. The
project carried out by us made an impressing task. The operation is Simple in
construction where as additional accessories are not needed. It is comparatively
cheaper in cost than the other systems. The system becomes as a Quick response and
then Continuous operation is possible without stopping.
Through this type of changes in hydraulics principle and its application we
have increased the performance etc...
BIBLOGRAPHY:

1. GUPTA J.K and KHURUMI R.S (1981) "Text book of Machine Design",
S.Chand & comp and.
2. Parr. ANDREW (2003) 'Hydraulic & Pneumatics' Butterworth Heimann Ltd
3. Dr.D.K.AGGARVAL & Dr.P.C SHARMA(2004) "machine design",
S.K.Kataria and sons
4. MAJUMDAR.S.R "Pneumatic systems", Tata McGraw-hills company ltd.

45
5. SRINIVASAN.R(2004) "Hydraulic & pneumatic controls", Vijay Nicole
imprints private ltd.

46