Selection and Full-Scale Use of a Chelated Iron Absorbent for Odor Control

Author(s): Lee A. Mansfield, Peter B. Melnyk and George C. Richardson

Source: Water Environment Research , Mar. - Apr., 1992, Vol. 64, No. 2 (Mar. - Apr.,
1992), pp. 120-127
Published by: Wiley

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/25044124

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 Selection and full-scale use of a chelated
iron absorbent for odor control
Lee A. Mansfield, Peter B. Melnyk, George C. Richardson
ABSTRACT: Odors had been a chronic operational problem at the
City and County of Honolulu's Sand Island WWTP since it began service
in 1979. A field survey identified the release of hydrogen sulfide as the
major odor source and concluded that off-gas collection and treatment
afforded the best methods for abatement. A pilot program was initiated
that tested caustic scrubbing and a chelated iron catalytic absorbent. The
latter was selected based on performance, economics, and chemical-han
dling requirements.
The full-scale system was designed to treat 10.9 m3/s (23 000 scfm)
of air and achieve a 95% reduction in hydrogen sulfide levels, which
were expected to range from an average of 75 ppm ( V/ V) to a peak of
150 ppm. The design used two fiberglass packed towers operating in
series followed by activated carbon adsorbers. The system has been in
service since June 1986 and has shown itself to be effective in controlling
odors. Water Environ. Res., 64, 120 (1992).
KEYWORDS: absorption, control, hydrogen sulfide, iron, odor,
scrubbing, sulfur.
The Sand Island Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) is
the City and County of Honolulu's largest facility, servicing a
population of 450 000 and handling nearly all the domestic and
industrial waste generated in Honolulu and its contiguous sub
urbs. Located in Honolulu Harbor on a recreational island in
close proximity to urban Honolulu, the facility became plagued
with a chronic odor problem since its commissioning in 1979.
The release of gaseous hydrogen sulfide (H2S) during the treat
ment process was found to be responsible for the odors. Odors
were readily detected in the recreational areas and port facilities
adjacent to the plant and in downtown Honolulu on days when
the tradewinds were light or when wind changes placed the city
downwind of the plant. Amicable coexistence in this recreational
and urban setting required that these emissions be controlled.
A field survey and pilot testing program were initiated with the
objective of formulating an appropriate strategy and identifying
an effective treatment technology for odor control.
Background
The Sand Island WWTP provides primary treatment and deep
ocean discharge to an average daily wastewater flow of 3.5
m3/s (80 mgd), displaying the characteristics summarized in
Table 1. A process flow diagram of the plant is presented in
Figure 1. Treatment begins when wastewater is passed through
four parallel bar screens and distributed among six primary clar
ifiers by two parallel influent channels. The channels are aerated
at a rate of 10 L/m s (6.8 cu ft/min/ft) to freshen the waste
water, discourage septicity, encourage flocculation to enhance
sedimentation, and maintain grit in suspension. The channels,
which are 1.8 m (6 ft) deep and 210 m (700 ft) long, provide
an average retention time of 10 minutes. The clarifiers are 40
m ( 130 ft) in diameter with an average side water depth of 3.7
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m ( 12 ft). Originally designed as dissolved air flotation tanks,
they have been routinely operated in a conventional sedimen
tation mode since 1980. Effluent discharged from the tanks is
collected in one of two unaerated channels and passed to an
ocean outfall for disposal. The outfall is 3 800 m ( 12 578 ft) in
length and discharges at a depth of 70 m (230 ft).
Sludge produced by the clarifiers is pumped from each unit
at a concentration of approximately 1% solids to cyclone sepa
rators for grit removal and to one 15-m ( 50-ft ) diameter gravity
thickener for concentration. Thickened sludge at approximately
4 to 4.5% TS is stabilized by thermal oxidation then dewatered
to a concentration of 25% TS and burned autogenously in a
multiple-hearth incinerator.
The release of sulfide as gaseous hydrogen sulfide (H2S) during
the treatment process was recognized as the major odor source
through field measurements. Mercaptans, another common
group of odorous compounds, were not found to be present in
any significant quantity. Other odorous compounds, such as
disulphides, volatile organic acids, and phenolic substances, were
not believed to be present in significant quantities and were not
included in analyses. The release of hydrogen sulfide is a direct
consequence of the atypically large sulfide concentrations in the
influent, which exceeded 2 mg/L. Most of the sulfide present
was generated by sulfur-reducing bacteria oxidizing organic
matter under anaerobic conditions and using sulfate as the
"electron acceptor" (Gaudy, 1988; Middleton, 1977; and Post
gate, 1984). These organisms thrive at temperatures near 30?C,
pHs between 6 to 9, and sulfate concentrations greater than 100
mg/L (Lewis, 1965), conditions common to domestic waste
water in Hawaii. Wastewater temperatures of 27 to 29 ?C are
the result of Hawaii's subtropical environment and do not vary
significantly throughout the year. Sulfate is present at levels of
100 mg/L or more and this is attributed to brackish water in
filtration, which was observed in the gravity collection system.
Under these favorable conditions, sulfide was found to be gen
erated throughout the collection system and forcemains serving
Sand Island.
In solution, uncomplexed soluble sulfide distributes itself
among three species as shown below:
H2S^HS~ + H+ (1)
HS-^S~2 + H+ (2)
The relative amount of each is a function of pH an
lesser extent, temperature ( Price and Cheremisinoff
a distribution is shown in Figure 2 for a temperat
At solution pHs of 7.0 or less, more than half of
sulfide will exist as dissolved hydrogen sulfide g
dissolved gas will seek to establish an equilibrium
120 Water Environment Research, Volume 64,
 Mansfield et al.

Table 1?Influent wastewater characteristics. following sampling. Soluble sulfide was measured by the m?th
yl?ne blue procedure (Standard Methods, 1989). All gaseous
Flow rate 3.5 m3/s (80 mgd) H2S measurements were made with gas-sampling tubes and a
BOD5 160 mg/L
100-mL hand pump (the tubes were manufactured by National
Suspended solids 135 mg/L Drager Inc., of Pittsburgh, Pa). The tubes contained either a
COD 300 mg/L
lead or mercury compound as an indicator, which reacted with
pH 6.75
Sulfate 190 mg/L hydrogen sulfide, thereby forming either lead or mercury sulfide.
Sulfide 2 mg/L These metallic sulfides appear as a brown stain on the tube's
Temperature 27.5? C packing medium. The extent of the stain is proportional to the
H2S concentration in the volume of gas sampled. Use of the
tubes allowed measurement of H2S concentrations from 0.5 to
200 ppm. Mercury containing tubes were used up to concen
water is brought into contact with air. Under almost all condi
trations of 15 ppm, while the lead-containing tubes were used
tions encountered, this results in the release of hydrogen sulfide.
for higher concentrations. Mercaptans were analyzed by a private
The rate of release depends on the intimacy of liquid-air contact
laboratory using a Hewlett-Packard Model 5 8 30A gas Chro
and the concentration of gaseous H2S (Santry, 1966).
matograph and a Tracor Model 700A Hall Electrolytic Con
Field Survey ductivity Detector. Gas samples were passed through a Carbo
A field survey was undertaken to establish the locations and pack B HT 100 column for separation. The samples were col
concentrations of H2S released within the plant. The survey in lected in plastic Tediar? sample bags. Solution pHs were
volved sampling wastewater for sulfide as it moved through the measured with a portable pH meter and glass electrode.
plant and all off-gases and ventilation air for H2S levels. Aerated influent channels. A sulfide profile for the plant is
Analytical methods. Relatively simple analytical methods were presented in Figure 3. This was based on average values obtained
employed for the field survey and pilot tests. Measurements of from 168 samples taken at 2-hour intervals over a 14-day period.
soluble and gaseous H2S were made in the field immediately The largest drop in sulfide levels occurred in the influent channel

CLARIF1ERS
INaUENT FOREBAY
SCREENS PUMP STATION

OCEAN
OUTFALL

r\

\j
THICKENED SLUDGE
STORAGE TANKS

CENTRIFUGES
\7 3
OXIDIZED SLUDGE
STORAGE TANKS
THERMAL
CONDITIONING

- ?LANDFILL

Figure 1?Process schematic for Sand Island WWTP.

March/April 1992 121

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Mansfield et al._

Table 2?Ventilation system gaseous H2S concentrations

(ppm) (September 8, 1980).
Ventilation duct
serving 10:00 a.m. 12:30 p.m. 2:00 p.m. 3:30 p.m.
Influent channel #1 36 102 96 130
Influent channel #2 56 100 60 102
Clarifier No. 1 15 17 11 22
Clarifier No. 6 5 9 11 15

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
over an 8-hour period and a maximum of 20 pp
pH CONDUCTIVITY = 5.000 /?mhos/cm
TEMPERATURE minute
- 28* Cperiod. This condition prevented operators
the tanks to perform routine duties without the use
Figure 2?Distribution The
ofH2S
dissolved sulfide
concentration in the spec
ventilation air is rep
2. Interior air samples were also taken and sho
levels were appreciably larger at the tank perip
between the bar screens and
where clarifiers. This
else within the tank. finding
This w
was a result of
prising considering the air to liquid contact resulting
generated by wastewater falling into the launder a
ation. These channels werebycovered and originally
the drop in sulfide concentrations in it w
sample
that the off-gases be treated
diatelywith ozone
before and before
after the discha
weir, as shown in Fig
number of reasons, ozonation was
Approach. not
Based on thesuccessful in c
findings of the field s
odors and the practice was abandoned
concluded immediately
that off-gas collection and treatment af
start-up. Nevertheless, off-gases
means for odorcontinued to be
control. This conclusion wascol
fur
passed through a single contact chamber
by the experience before
gained from being
the use of in situ
untreated. H2S concentrations of the off-gas are
interim control measure. Chlorine was added to thepr
Table 2 for a typical day.toIn addition to gaseous H2S
oxidize sulfide and inhibit biological activity
ments made in the field, a samples were
dosage of 35 mg/L, taken
resulting in an and
excessivean d
mercaptans (organic-sulfur compounds); only dimet
cost of $7600. Prechlorination, while significantly r
was detected and it was at a level below 1 ppm.
did not eliminate them totally and regeneration o
Clarifiers. The profile displayed in Figure
clarifiers remained a problem.3Theshows a si
use of other o
increase in sulfide concentrations within the clarifiers
hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganat
aeration provided by the tation
influent
with ferricchannels increased
chloride were tested under la
oxygen concentrations to tions,
2.5 with
mg/L,
the conclusion that noneinsuffi
this was would be le
hibit anaerobic conditions moreand the
effective generation
than chlorine. of sul
quantity generated is significant in that it equals mor
of incoming sulfides. In addition to the sulfides gen
considerable amount of H2S Pilot Testing
was Program by the clarif
released
The release of H2S at the clarifiers caused
A pilot program was initiated operational
to identify an effect
in addition to being an odor source.
technology. Based The six clarifiers
on a literature review, caustic
ered and ventilated. Even with
a chelatedventilation,
iron absorbent wereH2S levels
selected for pilot
clarifiers often exceeded Caustic
the maximum
scrubbing was chosen levels
because permit
it was kno
Hawaii OSHA standards, thattive in removing
is, H2S and the spent
an exposure of 10 solution
ppm co
of through the ocean outfall without further trea
the outfall, the solution would have to be discharg
This would require that the sulfides be oxidized
sulfur dioxide or sulfate to prevent the rereleas
the pH of the spent solution was reduced by dilut
The chelated iron absorbent was selected because
indicated it would be effective in removing hydr

H the levels and conditions encountered (Kohl, 1

sorbent consists of iron held in solution by an o
similar to EDTA. Iron participates in the absorp
a catalyst, promoting the oxidation of sulfide t
this technology had not been previously applied
had been used to treat gas emissions at oil refiner
H2S from natural gas. In addition, it appeared to o
PLANT SCREENINGS CLARIFIER BEFORE AFTER
INFLUENT INFLUENT WEIR WEIR cost savings and minimal chemical handling be
CLARIFIER EFFLUENT toxic iron catalyst is not directly consumed in th
Hypochlorite scrubbing was not considered be
Figure 3?Soluble sulfide concentration profile. case, it offered no inherent advantage and wou

122 Water Environment Research, Volume 6

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pensive. Hypochlorite scrubbing is similar to caustic scrubbing
except that the absorbed sulfides are oxidized by the hypochlorite
ion. This allows the spent solution to be disposed of within the
plant. Because the outfall would be used for disposal, there was
no need for this additional and costly treatment step.
Theory. Both technologies selected for pilot testing are gas
absorption processes that depend on the tendency of H2S to seek
an equilibrium between gaseous and liquid phases. Removal is
achieved when liquid-phase H2S concentrations are maintained
sufficiently below solubility levels such that H2S is transferred
from gas to liquid. The difference between the actual liquid
phase H2S concentration and its solubility limit is the driving
force for the transfer, and removal rates are directly proportional
to it. Caustic scrubbing minimizes the liquid-phase concentration
of H2S by converting it to HS" and S~2, a result of the elevated
pH of the absorbing liquid. The chelated iron absorbent mini
mizes liquid-phase concentration by oxidizing H2S to elemental
sulfur.
The reaction steps involved in the conversion of H2S to ele
mental sulfur by the chelated iron absorbent are presented below
(Hardison, 1987):
H2S(g) -* H2S(d Gas absorption (3)
02(g)-*02(I) (4)
H2S(i) 4- 2[Fe+3] -+ S? + 2[Fe+2] + 2H +
Sulfide oxidation ( 5 )
2[Fe+2] + y202(I) + 2H+ - 2[Fe+3] + H20
Catalyst regeneration (6)
where [Fe] denotes that the iron ions are chelated.
The active agent in the above reactions is iron. Ferric iron
reacts with dissolved sulfide, forming elemental sulfur and ferrous
iron. Ferrous iron then reacts with dissolved oxygen to reform
ferric iron. The overall reaction is obtained by adding equations
5 and 6 as shown below:
H2S(? + Vio?,)-* S? + H20 (?)
Iron participates in the reactions as a catalyst: it greatly increases
the reaction rate while not being consumed in the process. With
out iron, the oxidation of aqueous H2S by dissolved oxygen pro
ceeds at an imperceptibly slow rate.
Caustic scrubbing. The objectives of the pilot testing program
for caustic scrubbing were to measure those parameters necessary
to model H2S absorption and determine chemical demand. A
packed tower, as illustrated in Figure 4, was used for the tests.
The tower was 0.3 m ( 1 ft) in diameter and filled with 1.5 m ( 5
ft) of 2.5-cm plastic Tellerette? rings. The tower was operated
at a recirculation rate of 4.3 L/m2 s (6.4 gpm/sq ft) and an air
flow range of 1 to 1.7 m3/m2'S (200 to 340 scfm/sq ft). Air
rates were measured with an in-place averaging pilot tube while
the liquid rate was determined by measuring the time of fill for
a known volume. A 50% by weight sodium hydroxide solution
was fed continuously to the recirculating solution with a peri
staltic pump. The feed rate was manually adjusted to maintain
solution pH at 12, and usage was determined from volume
changes in the chemical storage bottle. In all, 21 separate trials
were carried out, with H2S concentrations ranging from 5 to
160 ppm. In each trial, H2S concentrations entering and leaving
the column were measured together with chemical usage.
March/April 1992 123
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Mansfield et al.
"OUT"
ro?
PACKING -
5*
-w
MAKE UP NoOH
CONCENTRATED
SOLUTION
Figure 4?Schematic of caustic pilot unit.
The data collected during the pilot tests were applied in de
termining a mass-transfer coefficient according to the mathe
matical relationship presented below (Macabe, 1967):
G(Ci - Co) = K[(Ci* - Co*)/ln (Ci*/Co*)]// (8)
Where
G = mass flow rate of gas per unit area,
Ci = gas-phase concentration entering column,
Co = gas-phase concentration leaving column,
K = mass-transfer coefficient,
Ci* = difference between gas concentration entering column
and that in equilibrium with the liquid at that point,
Co* = difference between gas concentration leaving column
and that in equilibrium with the liquid at that point,
and
H = column height.
This model is based on the assumption that the transfer is
first order with respect to concentration and is proportional to
the difference between actual gas concentration and that con
centration in equilibrium with the liquid. The equilibrium con
centrations were determined by applying Henry's law with a
coefficient of 609 atm (on a mole fraction basis) (Perry, 1963).
Based on the trials, a mass-transfer coefficient of 17.4 moles/
m2-s ? 1.9 (12.8 lb-moles/hr/sq ft ? 1.38) was calculated.
Determination of this coefficient allowed equation 8 to be applied
in sizing a full-scale unit.
Chemical consumption over the trials was surprisingly larger
than expected. An average consumption of 4.1 kg NaOH per
kg of H2S removed was measured, of which only 1.8 kg NaOH
could be attributed to H2S absorption at pH 12. The remaining
amount was due to the coabsorption of carbon dioxide, which
was present in the gas and is soluble in a caustic solution. While
the absorption of carbon dioxide was expected to exert a demand,
its consumption was larger than anticipated. Tests were then
carried out that measured caustic consumption when ambient
air was passed through the tower. By comparing the consumption
of these tests to that determined when odorous air is treated, it
was concluded that C02 levels in the odorous air were five to
Mansfield et al._
six times greater than ambient levels. This increase was attributed
to biological activities that generate C02 and, as a consequence,
supersaturate influent wastewater with respect to ambient air.
Based on the measured usage, chemical costs were estimated to
be $2.70/kg of H2S removed ($1.23/lb).
Chelated iron absorbent. The objectives of the pilot testing
program for the chelated iron absorbent were to determine its
effectiveness in removing H2S, establish chemical costs, and
demonstrate that the iron catalyst would not be adversely affected
by compounds that may be coabsorbed with H2S. The latter was
a particular concern because this process had not been previously
used at a wastewater plant and there was concern that certain
volatile organic compounds would inactivate the catalyst.
A sparge chamber, as illustrated in Figure 5, was used for the
pilot test. This was selected over a packed tower because, initially,
there was a concern that the sulfur formed would plug the pack
ing. The chamber consisted of a 15-cm (6-in.) diameter glass
column, 1.8 m (6 ft) in height. The unit operated with air en
tering at the bottom of the column through a perforated plate
and forming a froth with the chelated iron solution. Generation
of the froth encouraged absorption by producing a large surface
area. Both sulfide oxidation and catalyst regeneration occur in
the chamber. The oxygen absorbed from the odorous air regen
erates the catalyst as shown by equation 6. The chelated iron
catalyst was supplied by Rhone-Poulenc Chemicals, New
Brunswick, New Jersey, under the trade name Cataban?.
The pilot tests consisted of operating the unit continuously
for 25 days, shutting down only during weekends from Friday
afternoon until Monday morning. During the tests, H2S levels
into and out of the column were monitored at least three times
per day. Each day, settled sulfur was removed from the bottom
of the vessel and the iron content of the solution was checked
and, if necessary, adjusted to 0.20% by weight iron with the
addition of chelated iron from a concentrate. Iron concentration
TREATED AIR
WATER
GUSS CONTACTOR SPRAY HUMIDIFIER
z3~*- raw air containing h2s
jOdrain
PERFORATED PUTE
-N
N its absorption rate and, as a consequence, oxidation con
ABSORBENT ?
H20
SULFUR SLURRY ?
s?
Figure 5?Schematic of pilot unit for the chelated iron
absorbent.
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# aoW: 20 ?1 ocfm
pH > 8.5
IRON C0NC.?0.15% (BY WEIGHT)
J_i_u_j_I_i-?-i-i_I_i_i_i_i_I_i_i_i_I
10 50 100 150 190
INLET H2S CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 6?Performance of chelated iron absorbe
was determined through a visual color comparison t
standards. Solution pH was maintained at 9 during t
with the exception of 1 day during which it was varied to
its influence. During all tests, the static liquid level wi
chamber was maintained at 13 cm (5 in.) by the add
water. This was required because water was lost thro
oration, even though the incoming air was humidified
rate was constrained by the column to 9 L/s (20 scfm).
rate, the froth occupied nearly 50% of the chamber vo
Performance of the absorber is displayed in Figur
shown, the system was effective in reducing H2S concent
achieving an average removal of 96% over inlet air c
tions, which ranged from 10 to 190 ppm. The unit o
reliably over the 25-day period, with no signs of cat
radation. This was significant because replacement of t
catalyst solution at any time after this period would
significantly to the daily chemical cost.
The effect of pH and iron concentration on perform
assessed during the program. Values for pH varied b
and 10.5. Performance was found to decrease significan
solution pH fell below 8.5 and did not improve apprecia
the pH was raised above 9.0.
The effect of iron content was demonstrated by va
concentration from 0.12 to 0.25%. Results showed tha
mance remained unchanged for iron concentratio
0.15%. However, when the iron concentration was redu
0.15%, removals decreased linearly, dropping by 10%
0.015 reduction in percent iron content. These resul
show which steps, absorption or oxidation, control th
removal rate. At iron concentrations above 0.15%, the
and regeneration reactions ( 5 and 6 ) are sufficiently r
absorption controls the overall removal rate. Hence, i
the rate of these reactions by adding more iron has no
overall performance. Conversely, at iron concentrati
0.15%, the rate at which H2S is converted to sulfur is
overall removal rate. In this case, performance is im
iron content because the rate of oxidation and cataly
eration is directly proportional to iron concentration.
The major chemical cost in operating the scrubber is a
with catalyst replacement. Catalyst is lost from the
one of two ways. A significant amount is removed with t
as part of the slurry. Slurry concentrations typically r
15 to 20% by weight sulfur, with the remaining amount c
124 Water Environment Research, Volume 64, Nu

of the absorbent. A lesser amount of catalyst is lost due to sec
ondary reactions, which result in the precipitation of iron as
either a hydroxide or sulfide. The pilot program did not include
analysis for these precipitates because the catalyst life was more
than sufficient, but they were reported by others (Hardison,
1975). The formation of other compounds, such as thiosulfate
and polythionate, have also been reported but have not impaired
the performance of the catalyst (Hardison, 1975).
Chemical costs were estimated from the amounts of catalyst
and sodium bicarbonate added daily over the 25-day operating
period. Catalyst costs were found to be $0.76 per kg of H2S
removed ($0.345/lb) while sodium bicarbonate averaged $0.20/
kg ($0.09 /lb). Carbon dioxide absorption had no impact on
operating costs because, at the operating pH of 9, it quickly
established an equilibrium with the dissolved carbonates and
further uptake was prohibited.
Implementation
The chelated iron absorbent was selected over caustic scrub
bing for implementation. Although both processes were found
effective in removing H2S, the former offered a lower chemical
cost?$0.96 per kg of H2S removed versus $2.70?and reduced
and safer chemical handling. Operation of the chelated iron ab
sorber requires handling only a few liters per day of a nontoxic
organic iron catalyst, while caustic scrubbing would require
handling as much as 800 L/d (200 gpd) of 50% sodium hy
droxide solution. In addition, chemical costs with the catalytic
scrubber are directly proportional to the amount of H2S removed.
This is not the case for caustic scrubbing because C02 absorption
exerts a significant chemical demand.
The full-scale odor treatment system was designed to handle
10.9 m3/s (23 000 scfm) of air having an average H2S concen
tration of 75 ppm and a peak value of 150 ppm. This air was
drawn from covered influent channels and clarifier launders.
The latter were covered to control emissions while the covers
GAS SCRUBBERS
BLOWER
RECIRCULATING
ABSORBENT
Figure 7?Schematic of the odor control system.
March/April 1992
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Mansfield et al.
on the clarifiers were removed to improve the working environ
ment.
Packed towers were selected as the gas-liquid contacting
equipment. This decision was based on experience gained during
the pilot program and interviews with a number of users. During
the pilot program, the precipitation of sulfur did not appear as
likely to plug the packing as once thought and several users
reported success with packed towers, although all had experi
enced some plugging.
The towers were sized based on the mass-transfer coefficient
measured during the caustic pilot tests. This is appropriate be
cause pilot tests demonstrated that absorption was the rate-con
trolling step as is the case with caustic scrubbing. The design
uses two fiberglass packed towers that operate in series. Each
tower is 2.7 m (9 ft) in diameter and contains 3 m ( 10 ft) of
packing that consists of 7.6-cm (3-in.) diameter plastic Tellerette?
rings. Provisions were included that allow either tower to be
bypassed and taken out of service for maintenance.
The catalyst used in the system is manufactured by ARI
Technologies of Palatine, Illinois, under the trade name of Lo
Cat?. This catalyst was able to function at a lower iron content
than the catalyst used during the pilot tests. Iron concentrations
in the recirculating solution range from 200 to 250 ppm. Control
of the iron content is through a visual comparison to known
standards. Solution pH is maintained at 8.5 by addition of so
dium bicarbonate.
The system operates with catalyst solution sprayed onto the
top of the packing at a rate of 63 L/s ( 1000 gpm), while gas is
passed upwards through the tower. A separate 1.5-m (5-ft) di
ameter vessel is included for sulfur removal. A small portion of
the recirculating solution from each tower, approximately 0.6
L/s (10 gpm), is continually diverted to this vessel to allow
sulfur to settle and be removed from the system. A sulfur slurry
of 15 to 20% concentration is pumped from this vessel to the
primary clarifiers where it cosettles with primary sludge. The
CLEAN AIR
DUAL BED
ACTIVATED CARBON
ADSORBENTS
125
Mansfield et al.
150
100 h
E
Cl
CL
00
X
50 h
EFFLUENT H2S CONCENTRATION < 3 ppm
1/29 2/8 2/18
FEBRUARY
Figure 8?Performance over a typical 2-month period.
scrubbers are followed by three activated carbon adsorbers, which
serve to reduce hydrogen sulfide concentrations to undetectable
levels and remove mercaptans, which are not effectively removed
by the scrubbers. The carbon absorbers are 3-m ( 10-ft) diameter
dual bed vessels that operate in parallel. Each bed consists of
0.9 m (3 ft) of sodium hydroxide impregnated activated carbon
manufactured by Calgon Carbon Corporation of Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. A schematic of the full-scale unit, without the
sulfur settler, is presented in Figure 7. Construction costs for the
facility were $ 1 800 000 and included the launder covers for the
clarifiers and replacement of the influent channel covers.
The system went into service in June 1986 and has been in
continuous operation since that time. It has shown itself to be
effective in controlling odors, nearly eliminating odor complaints
received by the plant. Performance of the scrubbers is displayed
in Figure 8 for a typical 2-month period in 1990. During this
period and, in fact, during most of 1989 and 1990, discharge
concentrations of H2S from the scrubbers have been below the
analytical detection limit of 3 ppm. This corresponds to removals
in excess of 96%. Influent H2S concentrations have averaged
100 ppm throughout the year, with periodic peaks as high as
200 ppm.
The system has shown itself to be economical as well. A review
of actual chemical purchases from January 1988 through July
1990 has shown chemical costs to be $0.68 per kg of H2S removed
($0.31/lb). Energy costs averaged $1.30/kg ($0.58/lb) over the
same period. The activated carbon units have not been regen
erated or replaced since start-up. These are most likely saturated,
but the treatment offered by the scrubbers alone, combined with
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150
INLET H2S CONCENTRATION, ppm
100
2/28 3/10 3/20 3/30/90
MARCH
Stack dilution, has been sufficient in eliminating odors at the
plant and its surrounding areas. The discharge from the carbon
absorbers is not currently monitored and the units may even
tually be bypassed altogether. This would reduce overall energy
consumption by 30%.
Plugging due to the precipitation of sulfur has been an op
erational problem. When the facility first went into service, the
scrubbers required cleaning as frequently as once every 4 months.
Several changes were made in the operational procedures that
reduced this frequency to once per year. This involved main
taining better control of dissolved sulfur concentrations and pe
riodically removing one or the other scrubber from service to
flush the packing with water.
Conclusions
Based on the findings of the field survey, it was concluded
that off-gas collection and treatment afforded the best strategy
for odor control at the Sand Island WWTP. A chelate iron ab
sorbent was selected over caustic scrubbing for the treatment
method. Both were found to be effective in removing H2S; how
ever, the chelated iron absorbent was shown to be more eco
nomical in pilot tests. While energy costs were similar for each
process, chemical costs were less for chelated iron: $0.96 per kg
of H2S removed versus $2.70 for caustic scrubbing. In addition,
the former does not require handling a hazardous chemical nor
does it generate a caustic solution that must be disposed.
For the full-scale design, the chelated iron absorbent was ap
plied in packed tower scrubbers and found to function effectively
in a pH range of 8.5 to 9.0 and at iron concentrations between
126 Water Environment Research, Volume 64, Number 2

200 and 250 ppm. Future applications of this technology should
consider a packing that could be fluidized periodically to remove
precipitated sulfur and prevent plugging. This would greatly re
duce or eliminate the need for cleaning while not incurring the
larger energy costs associated with operation of a fluidized bed
scrubber. Currently, the City and County of Honolulu is imple
menting such a design at the Honouliuli WWTP in West Oahu.
The Sand Island experience has demonstrated the effectiveness
of a chelate iron absorbent in controlling odors resulting from
the release of H2S. The system has been in continuous service
for 4 years, allowing the plant to function unobtrusively in its
recreational and urban setting.
Acknowledgments
Credits. The investigation and the construction of the odor
control system was funded entirely by the City and County of
Honolulu, Department of Public Works, Division of Wastewater
Management.
Authors. Lee A. Mansfield is Vice President and Peter B. Mel
nyk is Senior Vice President of GMP Associates, Inc., a con
sulting engineering firm based in Honolulu, Hawaii. George
Richardson is superintendent of the Treatment and Disposal
Branch of the City and County of Honolulu's Division of
Wastewater Management. Correspondence should be addressed
to Lee A. Mansfield, Vice President, GMP Associates, 841 Bishop
Street, Suite 1501, Honolulu, HI 96813.
Submitted for publication November 2, 1990; revised manu
script submitted June 25,1991; accepted for publication Septem
ber 10, 1991. The deadline for discussions of this paper is July
15, 1992. Discussions should be submitted to the Executive Ed
March/April 1992 127
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_Mansfield et al.
itor. The authors will be invited to prepare a single Closure for
all discussions received before that date.
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