Introduction of Single Line Key

Diagram of Grid Station

A single-line diagram (also known as an SLD or one-

line diagram) is a simplified representation of an
electrical system and Grid Station Scheme. Symbols
and lines are used to represent the nodes and
connections in the system. A single-line diagram is
used to visualize the power distribution system to
improve planning and troubleshooting, ensure
redundancy, and reduce potential outages.
 High Impedance
Differential Protection
(87Z)
Engr. Irshad Gul
Electrical Power System and its Protection Engineer
 High Impedance Differential
Protection (87Z)

 As the name signifies, differential protection (87)

works on the principle of difference of current
that develops during abnormalities, unbalance
governed by or according to KCL.
 Differential Protection is Unit Protection; its
boundaries CTs location defined, type is either low
impedance or high impedance.
 High Impedance Differential
Protection (87Z)

 In high impedance differential protection (87Z)

high resistance (Rs) is intentionally included for
stabilization and security reasons; against current
errors and CT saturation. R-stabilizing (Rs) be of CT
class on part of thermal rating, robust enough.
 87Z can be set more sensitive than 87 low
impedance one. CTs Class PX of proper Vk.
Protection 87Z is applied to transformer windings,
generator winding, Busbars (BB).
 High Impedance Differential
Protection (87Z)

 When used for Phase to Ground faults, 87Z is

called Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection;
used for star winding, auto transformer. It can be
applied to delta winding as well.
 In Y or auto transformer winding, 87Z can be used
for inter-phase faults as well, working on
circulating current principle; also called High
Impedance Circulating Current Differential
Protection.
 High Impedance Differential
Protection (87Z)
 As 87Z is sensitive and high impedance is involved
in the differential circuit, high accuracy CTs
required like PX class; in order to have minimum Id
development during heavy loads and external
faults; CT saturation issue something else.
 Due to high impedance in the differential circuit,
high voltage spikes up to 8-10KV are expected in
the secondary system during internal fault. Thus
proper surge arresting devices are installed;
Metrosils; basically Voltage Dependent Resistors
(VDR), to avoid insulation breakdown in the wiring
& P&C devices.
 High Impedance Differential
Protection (87Z)
 First setting requirement is current pickup setting
that is the initial Id. In transformers the viable
setting band is 5-25% of the winding current rating,
blind zone be minimum possible. In 87Z BBP
current pickup sensitivity not an issue; security is
preferred. The Id can be set just above the
heaviest circuit load of the zone; purpose is to
safeguard against a CT open circuiting but it
entails requirement of CT supervision and
subsequent CTs shorting arrangement.
 High Impedance Differential
Protection (87Z)
 CT Supervision setting is of voltage, usually very
low say 15-25 volts but well above the voltage
impressed on the relay during heavy system
loading and current mis-matches. Time delay (TD)
usually set 3-5s to initiate alarm and short circuit
the CTs. It saves the 87Z system, also taking it out
of service but it may not save the CT in trouble,
depending upon the CT opening location.
 All the CTs are identical; no intermediate/matching
CTs allowed.
 High Impedance Differential
Protection (87Z)
 In 87Z the effective pickup is somewhat higher
than the relay Id pickup for some current spills will
be there in circuits of the scheme parallel to the
relay. These spills are due to I-exciting absorbed
by CTs of the group, CTs ratio errors and I-Metrosil
that is hardly 2-20mA at Vs of the relay.
 Vs setting not excessive & always well below 0.5Vk
of the CTs; a bit speed issue. It is neither set too
low to endanger selectivity nor too high to speed
down the relay; also causing somewhat decrease
in sensitivity due to increase in current spills.
 High Impedance Differential
Protection (87Z)
 I-Metrosil drastically goes up during in-zone fault,
also called internal fault, because the net
differential current does not find low impedance
path and instantly all CTs undergoing saturation,
partial or full. The saturated CT generated voltages
are like spikes, and can go up to the tune of 8-10KV
in absence of Metrosils.
 Metrosils are commonly of 450V and 900V classes;
very rarely used 1100V class.
 High Impedance Differential
Protection (87Z)
 87Z is highly secure protection if properly set.
 Its operating time has to be less than 25ms if it has
to escape adverse effect of CT saturation;
otherwise, very likely leading to failure to operate
during in-zone severe fault or at least phenomenal
delays, offset dc current decay dependent. The
delay can be of many cycles and the decay speed is
L/R or X/R ratio dependent.
 Time Delay (intentional) in 87Z not desirable rather
detrimental and risky during internal fault; always
be instantaneous.
 High Impedance Differential
Protection (87Z)
 If Rs is not applied; simply low impedance 87,
stability issue will be there due to some reasons
viz current errors, varying CT distances, during
transient through fault situation differential
currents more pronounced, leading to spurious
tripping. CT saturation issue major and on the top.
 Low impedance differential protection has to be
biased with restraining elements otherwise
security issue rather, one can say, no security.
 High Impedance Differential
Protection (87Z)
 In 87Z protection Rs is applied and thus it is
converted to voltage build-up based differential
protection, current setting with wide range.
 In 87Z a viable compromise is made among setting
of current, Rs and protection and power system
requirement on part of sensitivity and security.
 For 87Z, proper PX Class CTs required; a matter of
high precision.
 Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

Example-1: 87Z BBP

• Let’s say the BB has 10 circuits. All the identical CTs are of PX
Class, ratio 3000/1, Rct = 10Ω at 20 , Vk=1600 V, Ie=30mA at
Vk
• CT cable 6 sq mm of copper
• Cable length of the farthest bay from BBP location: 300m
• Bay CTs secondary wiring leading to the BBP location (RP)
can be 4 wire or 6 wire system; opted for the latter one.
• CT secondary wiring earthing shall be on one side only, also
called single point earthing; its confirmation part of SAT.
Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

• CTs shorted out if earthing on both sides mistakenly done;

rendering protection out.
• To be on the safe side, CT winding and cable resistances will be
referred to 75 for setting calculation, avoiding chance of
trimming down of the safety margin.
• For BBP (87Z), highly sensitive current setting is not required;
no issue of any blind region. Rather for stability and security
purpose high current setting is required, following the highest
circuit load say 1000A here.
• To avoid setting revisions due to increases in fault levels due to
multiple reasons, switchgear breaking capacity say 40KA is
taken as maximum fault reference for setting calculations.
 Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

• Stabilizing resistor is essentially required due to CT ratio errors

and particularly mismatch developed due to CT saturation
during a through fault.
• During the worst situation of full saturation, the magnetizing
impedance of the CT renders zero and only secondary winding
resistance is left behind, in series with 2x300m cable.
• During a 40KA through fault if the farthest CT saturates, the
voltage developed across the relay shall be worked out with a
safety factor of 1.5 or 2.0 here the former one opted for.
 Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

Is = 1000/3000= 0.333A (Relay setting)

If = 40KA Primary so If Sec = 40000/3000 = 13.333A
Rct at 20 = 10Ω
Rct at 75 =10(1+0.00393(75-20)) = 12.1615Ω
R cable at 20 = xL/A where Ωmm2/m
Length (L) =2x300=600m, A = 6 mm2
R cable at 20 = 0.0175x600/6 = 1.75Ω (actually Cable loop resistance)
R cable at 75 = 1.75(1+0.00393(75-20)) = 2.1283Ω
Vs (voltage set) = 1.5xIf(Rct + R-cable loop)
=1.5x13.333(12.1615+2.1283) = 285.789V
Rs (R-stabilizing) = 285.789/0.3333 = 857.453Ω (relay internal resistance hardly 0.1Ω thus
negligible)
 Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

• At Relay pickup threshold voltage (Vs=285.795V), 0.333A will

flow in the relay circuit and some current spills will be in all the
parallel loops viz 10 CTs, and Metrosil (VDR or MOV C900 class;
C450 class Metrosil only applicable up to Vs=125V)
• Iect total at Vs=10x30x285.789/1600= 53.585 mA
• I Metrosil at Vs = 0.52(285.789xsqr2/900)1/.25 = 21.11mA
• Thus, effective pickup current will be sum of Is and all the
current spills.
• I effective= 333.33+53.585+21.11= 408.025 mA
• On primary side the effective pickup = 3000x0.408025 =
1224.075A (against 1000A equivalent setting on the relay)
 Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

• Note: For stability and security Safety Factor of 1.5 has

been selected but actually it is more than that because
fault level will be phenomenally less than 40KA; the
switchgear rating.
• Metrosil of C900 Class, for in-zone fault of 40KA that is
13.333A secondary differential current will restrict the
Vpeak to 2000V thus safe for secondary system.
Irms = 0.52(Vrms√2/C)1/β
Vpeak = 1.09C(Irms)β
 Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

Example-2: 87Z REF Protection of Y Winding

• The power transformer is 132/11KV, Dyn11, 40MVA rated, Impedance
12% at Sb = 40 MVA. All the four CTs are of PX Class, ratio 3000/1,
Rct=10Ω at 20 , Vk=800 V, Ie = 30mA at Vk; identical in all respects.
• CT cable 6 sq mm of copper
• Cable length of the longest one is 200m
• CT secondary wiring earthing shall be on one side only, also called
single point earthing; its confirmation part of the SATs otherwise
protection will be absolutely failed or say out.
• CTs shorted out if earthing on both sides mistakenly done. To be on
the safe side, CT winding and cable resistances will be referred to
75 for setting calculation, minimizing rather avoiding chance of
trimming down of the safety margin.
 Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

• Sensitive current setting is required to keep the blind region minimum

in the neutral area. Generally, for the differential current setting the
viable setting band is 5-25% of the transformer rating. In the wake of a
compromise between sensitivity and security (stability), 10% is
selected.
• For stability, maximum through fault is the criterion; for safety margin,
a factor of 1.5-2.0 further applied, here in example 1.5 selected.
• Stabilizing resistor is essentially required due to CT ratio errors and
particularly mismatch developed due to CT saturation during a
through fault. During the worst situation of full saturation, the
magnetizing impedance of the CT renders zero and only secondary
winding resistance is left behind, in series with 2x200m cable.
 Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

During a maximum through fault if the longest loop CT

saturates, the voltage developed across the relay shall be
worked out, also applying a safety factor of 1.5.
IFLC: 40000/(√3x11) = 2099.456A
I-through fault maximum = 2099.456Ax100/12
= 17,495.4627
10% of IFLC = 209.9456 A
 Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

Thus, Is of relay = 209.9456/3000 = 0.06998 say 70 mA

If = 17495.4627A Primary so If Sec = 17495.4627/3000 = 5.8318A
Rct at 20 = 10Ω
Rct at 75 =10(1+0.00393(75-20)) = 12.1615Ω
Resistance (R) at 20 = ρxL/A
where ρ is 0.0175Ωmm2/m
Length (L) =2x200=400m, A = 6 mm2
R cable loop at 20 = 0.0175x400/6 = 1.1667Ω
R cable at 75 = 1.1667(1+0.00393(75-20)) = 1.4189 Ω
Vs (voltage set) = 1.5xIf(Rct + R-cable loop)
=1.5x5.8318 (12.1615+1.4189) = 118.797V
Rs (R-stabilizing) = 118.797/0.070 = 1697.1Ω (relay internal
resistance hardly 0.1Ω thus negligible)
Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

 At Relay pickup threshold voltage (Vs=118.797V) 0.070A will flow

in the relay circuit and some current spills will be in all the
parallel loops viz 4 CTs, and Metrosil (VDR or MOV; C450 class
Metrosil applicable up to Vs=125V)
 Iect total at Vs=4x30x118.797/800= 17.820 mA
 I Metrosil at Vs = 0.52(118.797xsqr2/450)1/.25 = 10.1mA
 Thus, effective pickup current will be sum of Is and all the
current spills:
 I effective= 70+17.82+10.1= 97.92 mA
 On primary side the effective pickup = 3000x0.09792 = 293.76A
(against 210A equivalent setting on the relay)
 Examples of High Impedance Differential Protection

 Metrosil of C450 Class, for in-zone fault of 2x17495A that is

2x5.831A secondary differential current will restrict the
Vpeak to 1000V thus safe for secondary system; 2
incorporated for two transformers in parallel.
 Irms = 0.52(Vrms√2/C)1/β
 Vpeak = 1.09C(Irms)β
31