Consciousness and Attention 1

Consciousness and Attention
Consciousness &
Attention
Attention
The action of giving importance to something; being interested in a given
content.
Attention
We are more likely to remember information to which we paid attention than
information we ignored.
Consciousness
❑ The state of being aware of and being
able to perceive one’s surroundings,
thoughts, sensations, and emotions.
❑ Consciousness includes both the

feeling of awareness and the content of
awareness, some of which may be
under the focus of attention.
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Conscious Attention
Conscious Attention
❑ Conscious attention refers to the mental process of

deliberately focusing one's awareness on a particular
object, task, or experience.
❑ It involves actively directing cognitive resources toward a

specific stimulus or goal while filtering out distractions.
Four (4) main functions of attention:

Four (4) main functions of

attention:
1. Signal detection and

vigilance
2. Search
3. Selective attention
4. Divided attention
Signal detection and vigilance
1. Signal detection and vigilance:
❑ We try to detect the appearance of a particular stimulus.
❑ Air traffic controllers, for example, keep an eye on all traffic near
and over the airport.
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Signal-detection theory (SDT)
❑ Signal-detection theory (SDT) is a

framework to explain how people pick out
the few important stimuli when they are
embedded in a wealth of irrelevant,
distracting stimuli.
❑ SDT is used to measure sensitivity to a

target’s presence.
❑ When we try to detect a target stimulus

(signal), there are four possible outcomes.
Four (4) possible outcomes when we try to

detect a target stimulus:
1. In hits also called “true positives”
Correct identifications or detections of relevant items.
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2. False alarms (or false positives)
Incorrect identifications or detections of items that are not

actually present or relevant.
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3. In Misses (or False Negatives)
Misses occur when the system fails to identify or detect a target or

relevant item that is actually present.
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4. Correct rejections also called “true

negatives”
Correct rejections happen when the system correctly determines

the absence of a target or relevant item.
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Mental processes that interplay in the

Signal-detection:
Attention — paying enough attention to perceive objects that are there.
Perception — perceiving faint signals that may or may not be beyond your
perceptual range (such as a very high-pitched tone).
Memory — indicating whether you have/have not been exposed to a

stimulus before, such as whether the word “champagne” appeared on a list
that was to be memorized.
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Vigilance: Waiting to Detect a Signal

Vigilance refers to a person’s ability to attend to a field of stimulation over a
prolonged period, during which the person seeks to detect the appearance of
a particular target stimulus of interest.
Vigilance
Typically, vigilance is needed in settings where

a given stimulus occurs only rarely but
requires immediate attention as soon as it
does occur.
Vigilance
❑ In vigilance tasks, expectations regarding
stimulus location strongly affect response
efficiency.
❑ And the abrupt onset of a stimulus (i.e., the

sudden appearance of a stimulus) captures our
attention.
❑ Thus, we seem to be predisposed to notice the

sudden appearance of stimuli in our visual field.
Search
2. Search: Actively Looking
❑ Search refers to a scan of the environment for particular

features.
❑ Search happens when you are not sure where the stimulus will
appear. As with vigilance, when we are searching for something,
we may respond by making false alarms.
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Search
2. Search: Actively Looking
❑ When we actively look for something, we try to find a signal

amidst distracters.
❑ Search is made more difficult by distracters.
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Search
Distracters
❑ Distracters are nontarget stimuli that

divert our attention away from the target
stimulus.
❑ In the case of search, false alarms usually

arise when we encounter such distracters
while searching for the target stimulus.
Search
Distracters
Search
Distracters
❑ Display Size: This is the number of items in

a given visual array.
❑ The display-size effect: is the degree to

which the number of items in a display
hinders (slows down) the search process.
Search
Feature Search
❑ Feature Search happens when we look for an item with a

distinct feature (like color or shape);
❑ we simply scan the environment for that feature.

Search
Feature Search
The “pop-up effect”

Search
Conjunction Search
❑ We look for a particular combination of features. (conjunction—

joining together)
❑ None of which uniquely distinguishes the target.

Search
Conjunction Search
Search
Three (3) theories that tries to

explain search processes:
Search
1. Feature-Integration Theory:
❑ Developed by Anne Treisman.
❑ Feature-integration theory proposes that during visual perception,

the brain initially processes individual features of objects (such as
color, shape, and orientation) separately in parallel across the visual
field.
❑ However, to perceive an object as a coherent whole, the features

must be integrated or bound together.
Search
Feature integration is suggested to

occur in a "master map" or "master
salience map“ in the brain where
features are initially processed before
being integrated.
Search
Example:
❑ Imagine you're searching for your

red mug on a cluttered kitchen
counter.
❑ In this scenario, the red color of the

mug is a single feature that
distinguishes it from the other
objects on the counter.
Search
2. Similarity Theory:
❑ Developed by Duncan and Humphreys, this theory suggests that we

search for objects that are similar to a mental representation of the
target.
❑ According to this theory, when the target and distractors are similar,
visual search becomes less efficient, leading to slower reaction times.
Search
Example:
❑ Consider searching for a specific

type of flower, a red rose, in a
garden where there are many red
tulips and yellow roses.
❑ In this scenario, the target (red

rose) is similar to the distractors
(red tulips and yellow roses) in
terms of color but differs in shape.
Search
3. Guided Search Theory:
❑ Guided Search Theory, proposed by Jeremy Wolfe, integrates elements

of both Feature-Integration Theory and Similarity Theory.
❑ It suggests that during visual search, attention is guided by both bottom-

up (stimulus-driven) and top-down (goal-driven) processes.
Search
❑ Bottom-up processes involve the salience of individual features,

guiding attention to potentially relevant objects based on their
distinct features.
❑ Top-down processes involve the influence of cognitive factors such

as expectations, goals, and prior knowledge on guiding attention.
Search
Example:
❑ Imagine you're looking for a specific book on a

crowded bookshelf. You know the book's cover is
predominantly blue and has a large title written in
yellow letters.
❑ In this scenario, both bottom-up processes (such as

the salience of the blue color and the large yellow
letters)
❑ and top-down processes (your knowledge of the

book's appearance and your goal to find it) guide your
visual search.
Consciousness &
Attention

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Consciousness and Attention

❑ Consciousness includes both the

❑ Conscious attention refers to the mental process of

❑ It involves actively directing cognitive resources toward a

Four (4) main functions of attention:

Four (4) main functions of

1. Signal detection and

1. Signal detection and vigilance:

❑ We try to detect the appearance of a particular stimulus.

Signal-detection theory (SDT)

❑ Signal-detection theory (SDT) is a

❑ SDT is used to measure sensitivity to a

❑ When we try to detect a target stimulus

Four (4) possible outcomes when we try to

1. In hits also called “true positives”

Correct identifications or detections of relevant items.

2. False alarms (or false positives)

Incorrect identifications or detections of items that are not

3. In Misses (or False Negatives)

Misses occur when the system fails to identify or detect a target or

4. Correct rejections also called “true

Correct rejections happen when the system correctly determines

Mental processes that interplay in the

Memory — indicating whether you have/have not been exposed to a

Vigilance: Waiting to Detect a Signal

Typically, vigilance is needed in settings where

❑ And the abrupt onset of a stimulus (i.e., the

❑ Thus, we seem to be predisposed to notice the

2. Search: Actively Looking

❑ Search refers to a scan of the environment for particular

2. Search: Actively Looking

❑ When we actively look for something, we try to find a signal

❑ Search is made more difficult by distracters.

❑ Distracters are nontarget stimuli that

❑ In the case of search, false alarms usually

❑ Display Size: This is the number of items in

❑ The display-size effect: is the degree to

❑ Feature Search happens when we look for an item with a

❑ we simply scan the environment for that feature.

The “pop-up effect”

❑ We look for a particular combination of features. (conjunction—

❑ None of which uniquely distinguishes the target.

Three (3) theories that tries to

❑ Developed by Anne Treisman.

❑ Feature-integration theory proposes that during visual perception,

❑ However, to perceive an object as a coherent whole, the features

Feature integration is suggested to

❑ Imagine you're searching for your

❑ In this scenario, the red color of the

❑ Developed by Duncan and Humphreys, this theory suggests that we

❑ Consider searching for a specific

❑ In this scenario, the target (red

3. Guided Search Theory:

❑ Guided Search Theory, proposed by Jeremy Wolfe, integrates elements

❑ It suggests that during visual search, attention is guided by both bottom-

❑ Bottom-up processes involve the salience of individual features,

❑ Top-down processes involve the influence of cognitive factors such

❑ Imagine you're looking for a specific book on a

❑ In this scenario, both bottom-up processes (such as

❑ and top-down processes (your knowledge of the

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