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ALMA MATER STUDIO-UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA

MASTER'S DEGREE COURSE IN SCIENCE AND TECHNIQUES

OF SPORTS ACTIVITY

Effects of training load on perception of recovery in young female soccer players

Presented by: Speaker:

Francesco Gariselli Rocco Di Michele

Serial number no

0000997335

Academic year 2023/2024

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INDEX
INTRODUCTION................................................. .................................................. .................................................. ....3

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS AND FOOTBALL TRAINING................................................................ ..........................................4

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS AND TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN FOOTBALL .......................................................... ............6

1.2.1 Gender differences ................................................................ .................................................. ....................................7

2. ASSESSMENT SCALES AND QUESTIONNAIRES .......................................................... .................................................. ................9

3. STUDY PROTOCOL ................................................ .................................................. ...................................... 12

3.1 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ................................................................ .................................................. ......................................12

3.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................ .................................................. ................................................13

3.2.1 Weekly microcycle ................................................. .................................................. ....................................14

3.2.2 Statistical analysis................................................. .................................................. ................................................16

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................ .................................................. .................................... 17

4.1 TRENDS OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES (S-RPE, SLEEP, STRESS, MUSCLE SORENESS) COMPARED TO TIME ..17

4.2 EFFECTS OF TRAINING LOAD ON DEPENDENT VARIABLES ON DAY 1 AND 2 AFTER

TRAINING .................................. .................................................. .................................................. ................................................20

4.3 EFFECTS OF THE TRAINING LOAD ON THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES COMPARED TO THE WEEKLY AVERAGE................................24

5. CONCLUSIONS................................................. .................................................. .................................................. ... 29

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INTRODUCTION

This experimental work was conducted from February to June 2023, involving a group of Modena

Calcio U19 female footballers aged between 17 and 19. AND

the trend of some variables such as the s-

RPE, values of the modified Hooper scale for sleep, stress and muscle fatigue.

The underlying principles are presented in the first chapter

of sports and football training. In general, the parameters that are usually kept

considerations in athletic training are volume, load, intensity and density,

each of which is fundamental for correct weekly and monthly planning

and annual. In addition to these, it is important to consider the times of the year that require a

adequate psycho-physical rest, which can affect the sporting performance of each individual
athlete.

In the second chapter the main ones have been described specifically and in depth

scales and questionnaires used in the study. Specifically, the RPE scale and

the modified Hooper scale. The first represents the level of perceived fatigue

subsequently a training session, while the Hooper scale contains information

linked to recovery levels.

The third chapter reports the description of the sample of athletes involved in the study and the data

obtained from the relationships between the s-RPE and the modified Hooper scale in the 4 months under study,

coinciding with the second part of the competitive season.

The results, as will be described in the thesis, overall show various relationships

positive, null or negative among the dependent variables analyzed (sleep, muscle fatigue, stress

e s-RPE).

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1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS AND FOOTBALL TRAINING

Sports training is understood as the set of procedures that involve processes

of adaptation to psycho-physical efforts, aimed at improving sports performance and well-being

an athlete. So, training can be called a complex process directed at

improvement of sporting performance in situations of confrontation with the opponent.

This practice can have specific and different objectives based on the sporting discipline practiced

or to the motor activity that characterizes the daily life of an athlete (Bangsbo, 2015).

In order to talk about training it is important to know the performance model, understood as

the set of factors determining sport, such as age/category (youth/junior/senior), the

gender (male or female), training/fitness status, playing role (in sports

team). Each of these components must be taken into consideration to create gods

differentiated training programs. The sports performance model is reflected in the

knowledge and improvement of some aspects, such as the rules of the discipline concerned

(distances, race times, duration of training sessions, dimensions of the playing area,

number of seasonal competitions, etc.), the external load, the internal load, the level of

the athlete's physical capabilities and the biomechanics of the sport-specific gesture (Thomas et al., 2022).

The term "training load" is used to describe the set of stimuli capable of

induce anatomical-functional adaptations with the aim of improving sports performance.

Generally, the parameters that constitute the load are:

§ volume (or quantity), is evaluated and expressed through time, tonnage,

distance and number of repetitions;

§ intensity, represents the effort made by the athlete during an exercise;

§ density, is the ratio between load and recovery;

§ level of difficulty, it can be low, medium, high, high (Thomas et al., 2022).

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There are two types of training load, which can be external or internal. In the first
case, reference is made to an objective parameter that can be assessed through specific measurements,

GPS and LPS systems, accelerometers or video tracking systems (automatic or semi-automatic).
The internal load is a mainly subjective factor that can be identified by
scales of perception of fatigue/physical effort (Rating of Perceived Exertion, RPE) or the
measurement of physiological parameters (heart rate, respiratory rate, pressure
arterial, saturation, etc.).
Sports performance represents the essential component that allows the athlete to
achieve individual or collective seasonal goals. It depends on the technical aspect-
sporting, cognitive, tactical, psycho-physiological and social (Bangsbo, 2015).

The principles underlying sports training are the following:

Ø overload, presence of a training load that creates a stimulus

significant;

Ø reversibility, if there is a cessation of training stimuli, one faces

disappearance of the anatomical-physiological adaptations obtained up to a certain point

time;

Ø progressiveness, the loads must be increased gradually and progressively

time;

Ø individualization, the training program must take into account the

psycho-physical characteristics of the athlete in order to be as specific as possible;

Ø periodization, training must include systematic programming and

consistent with the athlete's needs;

Ø specificity, the effectiveness of training derives from the coherence between the characteristics

metabolic, neuromuscular, biomechanical and the sports discipline involved

(Kingham, 2022).

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1.2 THE CHARACTERISTICS AND METHODOLOGIES OF TRAINING IN FOOTBALL

Football is considered an intermittent sport because it is within the same sport

action the player can alternate low intensity running situations with sprint situations

maximum, each of which can take place with or without the guidance of the ball at the foot. Phases

of the game can be differentiated into the possession phase and non-possession phase, which come

alternating with positive or negative transitions. When we talk about transition we are referring to

moment of the game in which you go from having possession of the ball to losing it; there

positive transition indicates the situation in which the team was able to recover the ball

to try to materialize the game action, while it is called negative transition

when possession of the ball is lost.

Image 1- the game cycle

In the context of athletic preparation and training it is important that a footballer yes

focus on training all the phases just described within an entire week.

Training should be based on improving strength and physical conditioning

aimed at the game of football. It is easy to think of it as the application of the main ones

training methodologies play an elite role in the game of football.

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Among the main methodologies necessary to increase the sporting and physical performance of

individual players and the entire team, the following are found:

Ø technical exercises with specific field dimensions, durations and number of

players (with or without goalkeeper);

Ø training of coordination and conditional skills "dry" (without ball)

(Sherwood et al., 2022).

In recent years it has become increasingly important to analyze certain parameters

to evaluate sports performance, which are measured through GPS systems,

helping the kinesiologist and the trainer to adequately structure the work in the microcycle

weekly based on the performance obtained on the match day (Oliva-Lozano et al., 2022).

These parameters include high intensity (HSR; arbitrary, 19.9–25.1 kmÿh-1 ; individualized

100% MAS – 29% ASR) e lo sprinting (arbitrary, ÿ25,2 kmÿh-1 ; individualized, ÿ30% ASR

– 100% MSS) (Rago et al., 2020; Gualtieri et al., 2023). These two parameters, related to the

number of events above 19.9 km/h and above 25.2 km/h are related to a performance

positive or negative on the part of the players and often make the difference on the outcome of a match

Rago et al., 2020; Gualtieri et al., 2023). Both parameters are based on the MAS, i.e
the maximum aerobic speed obtained through the YoYo-Test Level-1.

1.2.1 Gender differences

From a purely anatomical-physiological point of view, subjects differ from birth

among themselves based on some aspects that derive from the correlation of genetic factors and

hormonal. The recognition of gender differences appears to be more recognizable from the early stages of

development. It has been demonstrated that many characteristics of the

brain and human behavior vary based on gender and hormonal fluctuations a

it correlates (Szadvári et al., 2023).

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A study carried out by Garcia and Quintana-Domeque (2007) highlighted that, on average, i

males are approximately 10-15 cm taller than females. For example, in the United States,

the average height recorded between 2011-2014 was 176.4 cm for males aged 20

and 29 years and 162.9 cm for females of the same age, although differences were observed

regarding the relative sizes between different ethnic groups of both sexes (Fryar et al., 2018).

Some observable differences between the two genders are reported in Table 1, which shows the

anthropometric variables, such as body size (forearm-forearm), weight,

BMI and foot size. In addition these parameters are taken into account

physical variables, such as resistance, muscle strength and fat percentage

body, and the differences in performance, i.e. speed, jumping height and speed of

technical gesture of football. According to the study by Pedersen et. to the. (2009), in fact, were

different parameters observed in the two genera.

Table 1- Gender parameters (Pedersen et al., 2019)

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2. ASSESSMENT SCALES AND QUESTIONNAIRES

In competitive sport, data collection represents a fundamental component for

creation of specific and individualized training programs aimed at improving

physical-biomechanical mechanisms that correlate with the athlete's performance. The use of

Adequate instruments allow the kinesiologist to transform qualitative phenomena into data

quantitative and objective.

This data can be analyzed and summarized through tables or graphs from which

results are extrapolated which need to be monitored and possibly improved

time.

In football there are some types of scales and questionnaires validated from the point of view

scientific. Questionnaires and scales are a relatively simple and economical means of

determine the training load and the consequent responses to which it correlates. However, these

Assessment tools are based on subjective information, so confirmation is necessary

athletes' responses through physiological data. In sports it is possible that the athlete does not

provides reliable answers causing an overestimation or underestimation of the actual value at which
correlates the training load.

2.1 QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCALES USED IN FOOTBALL

The literature identifies numerous questionnaires that can be administered in football for
evaluate the athlete's internal load:

Ø POMS (Profile of Mood States) questionnaire . It's a psychometric test that comes

usually used to quantify the athlete's moods during training sessions. It has always been used in

the field of sports psychology and

of physical exercise to investigate the antecedents, correlates and consequences

behavioral states of mind. In particular, we look for the effects that these

states have on the performance and psychological well-being of the athletes themselves;

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Ø BRUMS scale (Brunel Mood Scale). It is a scale derived from the POMS questionnaire

which takes into account the gender and age of the athlete;

Ø TQR scale (Total Recovery Scale). It is a scale structured around another instrument

evaluative (RPE-Scale) used to evaluate the effort perceived by the athlete during and

after training. This scale emphasizes both the perception of recovery by

of the athlete that the importance of active measures to improve the recovery process. From the

From a scientific point of view it has been observed that it is a scale with poor properties

psychometric as it is based on the analysis of a single value;

Ø Wellness-Questionnaire taken from Hooper. The principle that governs the questionnaire on

Hooper's welfare is to collect a set of individual data arising

from the subjective evaluation of the athlete in relation to the quality of sleep,

muscle soreness, stress and fatigue. Based on these data, yes

determines an index, called the Hooper index, which is inserted into

a specific rating scale ranging from a minimum of 1 (“very very low” or

good) to a maximum of 7 points (“very very high”).

Image 2- Fukuda Hooper Scale

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In this study the Wellness Questionnaire was used in the game of football (Barça

Innovation Hub, 2019).

This questionnaire allows you to quickly obtain useful information on the answers
emotional and mental deriving from training, moreover, it is easy to process and does not require

an individual interview with each member of the group. According to UEFA, the data that
are collected with the administration of the questionnaire are considered a tool

important monitoring to reduce the probability of injury. In fact, the

subjective assessment of fatigue through levels of sleep quality, stress and

rest is able to predict the possibility of developing injuries the following month
findings. Researchers at John Moores University in Liverpool observed that moles

For elite footballers, well-being questionnaires are more sensitive to fluctuations

daily training load compared to physiological indicators of fatigue, such as
for example, submaximal heart rate, recovery heart rate or

heart rate variability. The authors of this study state that fatigue
perceived is related to the total distance traveled at high speed intensity (Thorpe et al.,

2015).

In this thesis study we focus only on three indices used by both Hooper and the

Barcelona FC, such as muscle fatigue, perceived general fatigue and

associated with stress and sleep quality.

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3. STUDY PROTOCOL

3.1 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

In this thesis I analyzed the relationships between the session-RPE and the parameters present inside

of the modified-Hooper Scale in a group of young female soccer players. They were kept in

consideration of training-related fatigue levels and physical-emotional fluctuations, such as

sleep, stress and muscle fatigue in the hours/days following training.

The data obtained on each player was compared with the measured session-RPE

individually to evaluate any effects related to the weekly training load.

The Session-RPE is an index related to the fatigue perceived by the subject and is obtained from

product between the RPE value and the training duration according to the formula:

ÿ
= ÿ
()

Image 3- Modified-Hooper Scale

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3.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study began in February 2023 and concluded in May 2023. They were

recruited the athletes belonging to the Regional Juniores U19 category of Modena Calcio

women (Modena CF). Initially, anthropometric parameters were measured, such as

weight and height, an interview was subsequently carried out regarding the role and years

of experience in the game of football: it is hypothesized that there may be a correlation between these two

latest parameters and the physical-emotional effects of training.

Table 2- Anthropometric data of the players belonging to the study

Before starting the experiment, the girls were educated about the Hooper Scale

(Barca Innovation Hub, 2019) and the RPE scale (Foster et al., 2001) and on the

weekly training performed in-season (Oliva-Lozano et al., 2022). During the season

competitive aspects related to healthy and correct nutrition were addressed several times

and hormonal effects resulting from the menstrual cycle (Wohlgemuth, et al., 2022).

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Image 4- Hormonal variations linked to the menstrual cycle

The squad of the U19 Junior women's category of Modena Calcio is made up of 16 players

aged between 17 and 19 (vintage 2008-2006). All players belonging to

this squad were included in the study and followed the same program as

training.

3.2.1 Weekly microcycle

My experimental study was carried out in-season, i.e. during that period of the sports season which includes the

training week. It is possible to describe the microcycle

weekly as follows:

§ day after the match (Match-Day+1) is a rest day;

§ second day after the match (Match-Day+2) is differentiated HIIT training, in

based on the minutes played, to recover the "Training Load" of the

match played over the weekend. Three types of physical work can be distinguished,

i.e. the one concerning the players who did not play the match (no play),

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those who played less than 60' and the girls who played more than 60'. TO

activation work has been added to this type of differentiated training

neuromuscular in the field;

§ three days before the match (Match-Day -3) is strength and power training on

field to which a volume of HSR (High Speed Running) or HScR (High

Speed Curvilinear Running);

§ two days before the match (Match-Day -2) is training focused on

acceleration and agility;

§ the day before the match (Match-Day -1) is a rest day;

§ Match.

Table 3- Weekly microcycle

MD+2 MD-3 MD-2

FOCUS CONDITIONING (no play & POWER ACCELERATION SESSION:

players <60’): SESSION: Accelerations in the short term

HIIT is made up of a Complex trait trying to avoid

part at 100% VAM and one Training impactful decelerations.

part at 120/130% VAM Often, accelerations

are accompanied by

Changes of Direction (COD).

SUB-FOCUS STRENGTH SESSION: HSR SESSION: AGILITY SESSION:

1) Circuit Of Force Program of Training of agility

isometric in activation.; race carried out both in focused on the technique of

2) Exercises Of Force straight that in change of direction and of

eccentric at the end of the curva (HScR). change of meaning.

training session.

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3.2.2 Statistical analysis

All data are reported as mean ± standard deviation. For all variables of interest, they are
seasonal trends in the period of interest were analysed . To evaluate the effect of the load of
training on the different variables regarding recovery, linear effects models were used
mixed with random intercepts on individual athletes. The analyzes were carried out with Excel software
ed R. For all analyses, the significance level was set at p<0.05.

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This experimental thesis study was conducted from February 2023 to June 2023,

involving the U19 players of Modena Calcio, aged between 17 and 19

years.

The trend over time of the s-RPE was analyzed, the modified Hooper scale for

sleep, stress and muscle fatigue. In the first four graphs it is shown on the axis

the time on the x-axis and the value of the dependent variable on the ordinate axis. Secondly

place, the effects of the training load (Training Load: TL) on the variables were analyzed

dependent during the two days following training, and compared to the weekly average.
The study aims to highlight the trend of the variables analyzed during the

period of the sporting season taken into consideration. From the statistical analysis carried out it is

It is possible to obtain some useful information to explain the following results.

4.1 TRENDS OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES (S-RPE, SLEEP, STRESS,

MUSCLE SORENESS) COMPARED TO TIME

The graph below shows the trend of the average session-RPE which was obtained in all

the days during the period considered. The variable is shown on the x-axis

independent, i.e. the period of time examined, while on the ordinate axis it is

It is possible to observe the s-RPE measured in arbitrary units. You can see how the curve of

graph undergoes an initial increase until a tapering period (from mid-May 2023 to

June 2023), i.e. a period of time in which the training volume was halved and

during which the team was involved in national tournaments. Tapering is followed by

a descent of the curve that coincides with the last part of the competitive season marked by

only weekly training load, as it does not include matches. So, in the period included

between mid-April 2023 and early May 2023 the perceived fatigue (s-RPE) by players during

the weekly microcycle was greater than in previous months.

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Graph 1- Average s-RPE trend in the period examined

The graph below shows the sleep trend obtained daily during the
competitive period. Time is reported on the x-axis, while on the x-axis
sorted you can find the modified Hooper scale score for the measured "sleep".
from 1 (“very very good”: best awakening ever experienced so far) to 7 (“very very bad”: worst
awakening/insomnia never experienced until now).

It is possible to observe a rather linear trend of the curve from mid-February 2023
April 2023, and then underwent a slight increase (with a slight worsening, from 3 to 3.5)
in the last part of the season. However, the detected values cannot be taken into account
excessively negative regarding the quality of sleep, since the value “3” corresponds to a
“good” level of sleep quality.

Graph 2- Trend of the "sleep" scale in the period examined

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The graph below shows the trend of stress detected daily during the

competitive period. The independent variable, i.e. the, is reported on the x-axis

time, while on the ordinates p the score of the modified Hooper scale is reported for lo

stress, taking into account a scale from 1 (“very very good”) to 7 (“very very bad”). The

Stress is a variable dependent on many factors in personal life. In fact, the curve of

reference takes on a wave-like pattern, probably influenced by more or more factors

less positive, such as the Emilia-Romagna Cup final (end of February-early March), the break

Easter, the end of the championship (end of April) and the national tournaments (mid-May). It's important

take into account that all the female players participating in the study were engaged in

school exams during the last phase of the season examined.

Graph 3- Trend of the "stress" scale in the period examined

The following graph shows the trend of "muscle soreness" detected daily

during the competitive period. The independent variable is reported on the x-axis,

that is, the time, while on the ordinates there is the score of the modified Hooper scale for the

“muscle soreness”, taking into account a scale ranging from 1 (“very very good”: total

absence of DOMS and other forms of muscle fatigue) to 7 (“very very bad”: maximum

perceived neuromuscular fatigue).

From the graph you can see that muscle soreness tends to improve in response to training

carried out during the "typical" week proposed in the second part of the season (February 2023-

May 2023). The increase in the curve is observed during the latter part of the season when
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the team was no longer engaged in competitions, therefore, the training volume of the

strength in the "typical" week could be increased.

Graph 4- Trend of the "muscle soreness" scale in the period examined

4.2 EFFECTS OF TRAINING LOAD ON THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES IN

DAY 1 AND 2 AFTER TRAINING

In this second part, the effects of the training load measured in are analyzed

based on the Training Load (multiplied by 1000 arbitrary units) on the dependent variables

obtained in the following days and in relation to the weekly average.

The first six tables report the coefficients of the regression analyzes relating to the load in

two days following the training under consideration. The regression coefficient

indicates how many units the dependent variable varies when the variable varies by 1000 units

independent, while the p-value explains whether the detected effect is significant (p-value< 0.05).

Analyzing the coefficients obtained, it can be seen that there is no significant trend (p-

value >0.05) in any dependent variable analyzed in the following two days

to training.

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Table 4- Effect based on the "sleep" scale (daily value)

Coefficient of Standard error p-value

regression (SE)
Intercept 3,64 0,27 <0,001
Training load -0,34 0,32 0,297
(previous day) x 1000 au

The regression model shows a slight negative relationship, in fact at the increase of 1000

au of the previous day's training load corresponds to a slight decrease

(improvement) in the value of the scale relating to the perception of sleep quality. This

aspect could be due to a short-term impact of the training sessions

more intense and demanding races, which involve a greater need for rest and

better sleep quality. However, this is a non-statistical trend

significant (p>0.05).

Table 5- Effect based on the “stress” scale (daily value)

Regression Standard error p-value

coefficient
Intercept 3,21 0,21 <0,001

Training load 0,002 0,28 0,994

(previous day) x 1000 au

From the values of the regression coefficient reported in Table 5 it is possible to observe that not

there is no effect of Training Load on the value of the modified Hooper stress scale

detected the day after training. Evidently, the factors that determine the

players' level of "stress" may be linked to other aspects of daily life

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which were not taken into account in this study and are independent of the load

training in the short term.

Table 6- Effect based on the “muscle soreness” scale (daily value)

Coefficient Standard error p-value

of regression
Intercept 2,59 0,23 <0,001
Training load 0,49 0,29 0,088
(previous
day) x 1000 au

As regards "muscle soreness", compared to the values of the previous variables, it is

It is possible to observe a tendency towards statistical significance (p-value=0.088) of the effect of

training load recorded the next day. In fact, at an increase of 1000 au of the

load, the muscle soreness value increases on average by 0.49, explaining the presence of a

greater soreness the following day. This result is easily interpretable

considering the impact of a more intense load on the muscular structures, which translates into

an increased perception of muscle pain the following day.

Table 7- Effect based on the "sleep" scale (daily value)

Coefficient of Standard error p-value

regression
Intercept 3,44 0,27 <0,001
Training load 0,19 0,33 0,565
(second previous
day) x 1000
At

The values relating to the value of the "sleep" scale, or the quality of the night's rest in the second

day following the training session, did not show an effect statistically

significant (p>0.05) compared to daily training load.

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Table 8- Effect based on the “stress” scale (daily value)

Coefficient of Standard error p-value

regression

Intercept 3,28 0,22 <0,001

Training load -0,33 0,29 0,262

(second day

previous) x 1000 au

In this case, a slight negative effect of the training load on the training load can be observed

value of the "stress" scale measured on the second following day: this is a non-effect

statistically significant (p=0.262).

Table 9- Effect based on the “muscle soreness” scale (daily value)

Coefficient of Standard error p-value

regression

Intercept 2,53 0,24 <0,001

Training load 0,24 0,31 0,434

(second day

previous) x 1000
At

From the table it is possible to observe that the value of “muscle soreness” does not show an effect

statistically significant based on the training load of the second previous day

(p=0,434).

Overall, it can be stated that the sample of female footballers belonging to the study,

although they are part of a good competitive team, they are not considered

professional athletes, therefore, are not subjected to extremely intense training. AND

It is easy to think of it as the short-term effect of a specific training session

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tends to reduce after 24 hours, without impacting the level of recovery and perceived fatigue

morning of the second following day.

4.3 EFFECTS OF TRAINING LOAD ON DEPENDENT VARIABLES

COMPARED TO THE WEEKLY AVERAGE

In this second part, the effects of the training load measured in are analyzed

based on the Training Load (multiplied by 1000 arbitrary units) on the dependent variables

obtained in the following days and compared to the weekly average.

The following tables show the coefficients of the regression analyzes considering

the weekly averages of the total sample of female footballers belonging to the study.

Table 10- Effect based on the "sleep" scale (weekly average)

Coefficient of Standard error p-value

regression

Intercept 2,85 0,19 <0,001

Training load (media 0,16 0,03 <0,001

weekly) x 1000 au

Taking into account the weekly averages (load effect in the medium term) it is possible

observe a statistically significant effect (p<0.001) although there was a slight

increase in the average value of the “sleep” scale as the load increases. In particular, to a

total increase in weekly training load of 1000 au corresponds to an increase of 0.16

points in the “sleep” scale value. This indicates the presence of a sleep perception of

worst quality in the group of athletes.

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Graph 5- Relationship between the team's weekly Training Load and the average value of

“sleep” scale

The graph shows the relationship between the sum of the average weekly team values of the TL (axis

of the abscissae) and the scores of the Hooper scale regarding “sleep” (ordinate axis). In the

graph above we observe a linear trend between the two variables, which are in

directly proportional relationship: the higher the weekly TL, the greater the score on the Hooper sleep scale

(perceived "worse" values). It is possible to say that it exists

an effect deriving from the training carried out (measured through the TL) on the value of

dependent variable analyzed. This phenomenon may be linked to phases of fatigue

very intense weeks, which lead to a worsening of recovery and quality of

sleep.

Table 11- Effect based on the “stress” scale (weekly average)

Coefficient of Standard error p-value

regression

Intercept 2,49 0,15 <0,001

Training load (media 0,26 0,03 <0,001

weekly) x 1000 au

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As regards the weekly moving average values of the "stress" scale, it can be observed

an increase in value (which also in this case is associated with a worse condition in

recovery terms) of 0.26 every 1000 units of increase in training load

weekly. Therefore, it can be said that weeks are more intense in terms of load

overall perceived as more demanding and therefore more "stressful", such as

emerges by considering the average values of the "stress" scale in the weeks themselves.

Graph 6- Relationship between the team's weekly Training Load and the average value of
scala “stress”

The graph shows the relationship between the average weekly team values of TL (au) and the scores

of the Hooper “stress” scale. A trend can be observed in the graph above

linear between the two variables, which are in a directly proportional relationship: the higher the

weekly TL, the more the score on the Hooper scale regarding "stress" increases (values

perceived as “worse”). The “stress” variable is influenced by both training and style

of daily life and social activities of each athlete (school, private life, relationships). Furthermore,

it is a parameter related to the physiological aspects that characterize the female gender, such as

the hormonal responses deriving from the menstrual cycle, nutrition, lifestyle and

from psycho-physical health. So far, the literature has some limitations regarding

the results obtained on a female sample compared to a male sample due to the

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presence of these hormonal physiological aspects, largely dependent on the resulting effects

from the menstrual cycle.

Table 12 - Effect based on the “muscle soreness” scale (weekly average)

Coefficient of Standard error p-value

regression

Intercept 1,92 0,16 <0,001

Training load (media 0,29 0,02 <0,001

weekly) x 1000 au

As noted in the previous load-dependent variables, an effect was observed

statistically significant (p<0.001) of weekly training load on the average value

weekly "muscle soreness". This result shows that in the weeks of greater

load and physical effort there is a greater sensation of muscle pain.

Graph 7- Relationship between the team's weekly Training Load and the average value of

scala “muscle soreness”

Graph 3 shows the relationship between the average weekly team values of TL (ua)

and scores on the Hooper scale regarding “muscle soreness”. In fact, it is possible to observe

a linear trend between the two variables, which are in a directly proportional relationship:

the higher the weekly TL the more the score on the Hooper scale regarding "muscle" increases

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soreness” (perceived “worse” values). However, the slope of the line is smaller

compared to the previous graphs, in fact muscle soreness is the variable that tends to rise less
compared to the TL.

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5. CONCLUSIONS

The athletes who participated are footballers from the Junior Female U19 category

Modena Women's Football club. After an initial period of about three

weeks of familiarization at the proposed scale, the athletes carried out daily

(always in the morning, upon waking up) and independently collect the requested data.

Football is considered an intermittent sport because it is within the same sport

action the player can alternate low intensity running situations with sprint situations

maximum, each of which can take place with or without the guidance of the ball at the foot. Phases

of the game can be differentiated into the possession phase and non-possession phase, which come

alternating with positive or negative transitions.

This study aimed to primarily analyze variables such as sleep, muscle fatigue,

stress (modified Hooper scale) and session-RPE in relation to the period of time in which it is

the research was carried out (independent variable). Next, the focus was on

on the effect of Training Load (TL), measured in the single training session, on the variables

employees obtained on day 1 and day 2 following it and the weekly average

of the entire team.

The parameters analyzed and detected in the hours following training were obtained

through Excel software and constantly updated every morning

which the study took place.

On the basis of the microcycle proposed weekly, it was possible to analyze and derive the

following results:

• positive trend of the S-RPE relationship and period analyzed (4 months);

• neutral linear trend of the "sleep" relationship and the period analyzed (4 months);

• wave tendency (crescendo-diminuendo) of the “stress” and period relationship

analyzed (4 months);

• negative trend of the “muscle soreness” relationship and period analyzed (4 months);

• absence of a statistically significant effect of the training load on the parameters

analyzed in the two days following training (day 1 and day 2);

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• presence of a statistically significant effect of the TL on the parameters analyzed in the

training week.

In conclusion, observing the data collected it is possible to state that there is the presence of values

higher regarding S-RPE, sleep, stress and muscle soreness (values tending towards “very

bad”). These values cannot be considered "red flags" from over -reaching

functional and from over-training syndrome, but resulting acute and chronic physiological responses

from the weekly training load. According to some studies in the literature, the various

Psycho-physical and physiological disorders resulting from training do not distinguish systematically

between functional and non-functional over-reaching, but classify the induced states of fatigue

from training, based solely on a decline in performance, could

be considered an oversimplification (Bellinger et al., 2010).

The analysis of the data collected can be useful to kinesiologists specializing in strength and

conditioning to better understand the state of shape of your athletes and the state of "readiness"

in view of the weekly meetings, evaluating together with the technical staff which choices to prefer

compared to others and what useful changes to make to the program of the typical week

coach.

Although the study revealed the parameters necessary to best conclude the analysis

of female footballers, it is necessary to take into consideration some limitations which have been inevitable

to undergo. Among the main limitations is the team group analyzed, which is not included

within a category of "professionalism", in fact, the athletes are all student girls-

workers, who practice football as an amateur activity. Therefore, it is understandable to think

that the values collected through the modified Hooper scale could not be influenced

only from the Training Load of the training sessions, but also from the daily activities carried out by

girls.

From a future perspective, it would be interesting to explore the existence of a possible correlation

between the Training Load and the values proposed by the Hooper scale modified in footballers

professionals, both in young athletes and in expert athletes. Also, it would be functional to include

in the analysis the variable "menstrual cycle", trying to understand whether a certain phase of the cycle

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ovulatory can influence more or less the parameters analyzed through the Hooper scale
modified and the response to the weekly TL. Hormonal characteristics could be reported
within a physiological-personal "passport", especially in gender athletes
female.

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