Training: Planning and programming
Mladen Jovanović
Faculty of sport and physical education
University in Belgrade
Serbia and Montenegro
Planning and programming
represents integral and unseparatable part
of menagement/control of athlete
preparation system (6,9). Training
represents only one sub-system of athlete
preparation system (picture 1), and it is
mostly considered as technological process
(9). Other sub-systems are competition and
recovery.
Picture 1. Athlete preparation system, as a
technological process, consists of three sub-
systems: training, competition and recovery.
To functionate/operate, athlete
preparation system must be controlable
and for this same reason it has to be
controled from some other system (7,8,9).
Coach has a function of control system (9).
To describe the relation coach-athlete, or
the control-controlled system, we can use
cybernetical model (picture 2).
One of the numerous tasks of the
coach is to define a model that represents
control goal. These are mostly some
internal and external factors that determine
success in competition. We will return on
the modelling process in the folowing text.
Coach, before everything else, must
to know what does he want to achieve
(goal), and only then how to achieve it. To
achive this, he must continuously control
1
Finished 12. November 2005.
Translated 3. March 2006.
duxx82@gmail.com
the exit from athlete preparation system
and compare it with desirable state (feed-
back), and according to these differences,
he must create his control decisions.
Nevertheless, coach must also pay
attention to disturbing effects/actions from
environment/periphery, try to minimize
them acting on the athlete preparation
system or on the environment itself.
Altough the theme of this seminar
work is planning and programming, it was
necessary to make this short explanation of
cybernetical model, because it is imposible
to isolate these two processes from the
wholness of control system.
Picture 2. Cybernetical model of athlete
preparation system control. M – Disturbacing
actions; U – Controlling actions; EA – Executive
aparatus (method, mean/exercise, load); Y –
system exit (performance); MD – Measuring
device (competition, tests, monitoring); Ys –
Signal which contains informations about system
exit (performances); Yref – Desirable system
behaviour (performance) and factors that
determine it; Yref’ – Informations about the
model; Ms – Signal which consists of
informations about disturbing actions from the
system environment; Us – Cotrol signals; Note:
Altough it isn’t depicted, coach can affect system
environment (school, parents, friends etc) in
certain degree.
Training
Training, as stated, represents one
of the sub-systems of athlete preparation
system. For better apprehensions of nature
of the training phenomenon, it is
neccessary to quote variour authors.
In Sport lexicon (2) under term
training, it is written:
„Trening, kompleksni sportsko-
pedagoški proces kojim se odgovarajućim
tjelesnim vježbama sportaš osposobljava
za viša dostignuća u izabranoj sportskoj
grani. Trening je specijalni proces
tjelesnog odgoja pri kojem se formiraju i
usavršavaju fizičke, psihičke, moralno-
voljne i karakterne kvalitete sportaša radi
postizanja maksimalnih rezultata u
određenoj grani sporta. Pojam treninga
obuhvaća kondicionu (ili fizičku) pripremu,
tehničku, taktičku, psihičku i teorijsko-
stručnu pripremu. Sve vrste priprema
međusobno su vezane i uvjetovane,
međusobno se dopunjuju i pretežno
ostvaruju procesom treninga, ali dijelom i
putem trening-natjecanja i natjecanja.
Trener kao rukovodilac ovog sportsko-
pedagoškog procesa procjenjuje
mogućnosti, potrebe i svrsihodnosti udjela
pojedinih vrsta priprema i prema tome
usmjerava sadžaj i određuje metodiku
rada. Konkretni sadržaji treninga, naročito
u pogledu primjene pojedinih vrsta
tjelesnih vježbi, znatno razlikuju po
pojedinim sportovima, ali se u općoj
periodizaciji treninga, metodsko-
didaktičkim, fiziološkim i psihološkim
principima kao i zakonitostima razvoja
sportske forme nalaze zajedničke
karakteristike za sve sportske grane. U
treningu svih sportova osnovno sredstvo
za ostvarenje neposrednih ciljeva su
tjelesne vježbe, a njihov izbor, sastav,
redoslijed i doziranje po obujmu i
intenzitetu su od presudne važnosti za
i
razvijanje sportaša“ – page 481.
Translation is as follows
„Training, is complex sport-pedagogical
process which uses adequate
bodily/physical exercises to preparare the
athlete for higher accomplishments in
choosed sport branch. Training is
specalized process of physical education
under which physical, psychical, moral-
i
The words in this citation and the followings are
purposely bolded by me.
2
volition and character qualities of athlete
are formed and perfected, because of
acquirement of maximal results in certain
sport branch. Concept of training
comprise conditional (or physical)
preparation, technical, tactical, psychical
and theoretical-professional preparation.
All mentioned types of preparation are
interrelated and interdependent, and
mostly realized with training process, but
also in part with training-competition and
competition. Coach, as a
menager/controller of this sport-
pedagogical process evaluates
capabilities, requirements, rationales and
ratios of different preparations, and
according to this, guides contents and
define methods of work. Concrete content
of training, especially in the usage of
different physical exercises, is very
different in various sports, but in general
training periodisation, methodical-
didactical, physiological and psychological
principles and laws of sport form
development, there are common
characteristics for all sport branches. In
the training for all sports, the fundamental
means for reaching direct goals are
bodily/physical exercises, and their
selection, content, sequence, volume and
intensity dosage are of crucial importance
for athlete development.“
Altought only a part of training,
conditioning training is, according to Jukić
at al (5), defined on following way:
„Kondicijski trening se može definirati
kao proces unapređenja motoričkih i
funkcionalnih sposobnosti, morfoloških
karakteristika, zdravstvenog statusa
sportaša te za tu svrhu potrebnih
motoričkih znanja.“ - page 26.
Translation is as follows
„Konditioning training can be defined as
the process of promotion of motorical
and functional abilities, morphological
characteristics, health status of the
athlete and for this purpose needful
motorical knowledges/skills.“
The following, maybe the worth and most
general definition of training is given by
Malacko (9):
„Pod sportskim treningom podrazumeva
se specifičan transformacioni proces
antropoloških sposobnosti i
 karakteristika sportista, u kome se
postizanje sportskih rezultata postiže
kontinuiranom primenom specifičnih
trenažnih sredstava, metoda i words, human is transforemed to human
opterećenja kroz određeno vreme.
Shodno napred definisanom pojmu,
osnovni zadatak sportskog treninga
sastoji se u tome, da se sportista
prevede iz tzv. polaznog ili inicijanog
stanja (Si) u neko novoformirano,
finalno stanje (Sf), odnosno Si → Sf.
Međutim takva transformacija, kao što je
poznato, ne može se učiniti trenutno,
već se mora proći kroz seriju
sukcesivnih transformacija u određenim
vremenskim intervalima.“ - page 37-38.
„...Prema tome, formalno se sportski
trening definiše kao operator (kao niz
postupaka) pomoću kojih se čovek (ili
grupa ljudi) iz nekog inicijalnog stanja
(Si) menja u neko novoformirano stanje
(Sf), odnosno čovek se pretvara u
čoveka koji je definisan na isti način,
samo su mu vrednosti parametara
drugi (viši, bolji). Iz ovog proizlazi, da se
moraju pronaći takvi operatori (trenažni
sadržaji) transformacije, kojima se
finalno stanje postiže što je moguće
većom aproksimacijom, odnosno što je
moguće bolje, a da se pri tome utroši
što je moguće manje vremena i
energije. Zbog toga se najpre mora
definisati šta je to finalno stanje, jer
samo onda kada se zna šta se želi
postići, može se definisati
transformacioni proces.“ – page 38.
Translation is as follows
„Under sport training, it is implied
specifical transformational process of
antropological abilities and
characteristics of the athlete, under
which sport results are achieved by
continuous application of specific training
means, methods and loads during
specified time. According to defined
term/notion, the fundamental task of sport
training is to bring athlete from initial
state (Si) to some new formed state, final
state (Sf), or Si → Sf. However, as
already known, this kind of transformation
cannot be done in the instant of time, but
rather, it has to pass through a series of
succesive transformations in specific time
intervals.“
„... According to this, sport training can be
formaly defined as an operator (sequence of
3
actions) by which is an athlete (or group of
athletes) from some initial state (Si) changed
to some new-formed state (Sf), or in other
which is defined in the same way, only the
values of his parameters are different
(higher, better). From this comes, that it has
to be find that kind of transformation
operators (training contents), by which final
state is achieved with as much as larger
aproximation, or to say better, in minimum
time and energy. For this very reasons, the
final state must be first defined, because
only when you know what do you want to
achieve, the transformational proces can
be defined.“
Futhermore, Malacko (9) states that
„..reč trening (training) je engleskog
porekla i upotrebljava se kao sinonim za
vežbanje, pripremu i učenje, a često se
upotrebljava u vidu neodređenog
termina, koji je preko sporta ušao u
svakodnevni život za mnoge aktivnosti
koje nemaju veze sa sportom...“ - page
37.
Translation is as follows
„... word traning have english origin and it
is used as synonim for exercising,
preparation and learning, and it is used
often as undefined termin, which entered
via sport in everyday life for various
activities that have no connections with
sport...“
If we extract key-words form the
definitions above, we can assemle
following definition:
Training is a complex transformational
process which qualifies athlete for
higher accomplishments/performances
in sport competitions. Besides this,
training exert transformation of
athlete’s abilities, characteristics and
skills from some initial state to some
new, final state, which represents
indispesable/vital prerequisite for succes
in his/her sport branch. The way this
process is run, depends on the selection
of methods, means and loads.
 What is ment under term athlete factors are at the beggining, and at the end
state (synonim with system state)? The are those factor with less importance.
athlete state is defined by the set of values Here is the example of linear
(variables, characteristics, abilities, skills) mathematical model:
which determine his behaviour (7,8).
Besides this, not all variables are important Y = f(S)
for success in competition, but only
specific ones. The current athlete state is Where the
allocated in the state-space (7,8) whos Y – succes in some sport,
dimensions are determined by the number f - function,
of coordinates (characteristics, abilities). S – athlete state
The athlete state in the state-space can be
only in allowed zone/space (picture 3). If we know that the athlete
(system) state is determined by n
coordinates (factors, characteristics,
abilties etc.) then it follow
n
Y = ∑ (ai X i ) + e x
i =1
Where the
Y – success in some sport
n – number of factors
a – weight index
X – factor which determine success
in choosed sport activity
Picture 3. State-space of the system (athlete), in e x - error factor (variance error)
this example, is determined by two coordinates
(X1 and X2) which represents factors of success
in some sport (for example speed and strength). The modelling goal it the finding
The system state can be found only in the of those specific factors which defines
allowed region/zone (which is depends on
success in given sport. This is not an easy
heredity factors and interactions between
factors/abilities). job, because not all factors are discovered,
some of them are very hereditary (picture
The vital prerequisite of training 4), and among gross of factors there is
success is the definition/knowledge of someking interrelation (picture 5).
athlete initial state (Si) and desirable final Situation is more complicated by the
athlete state (Sf). As stated before, the unknown weight index of specific factors.
athlete state is determined by specific
characteristics/factors which determine
success and result in chooses sport branch.
One of numerous tasks of a coach is to find
and define those factors which determine
success in sport competition. This task is
solved during the modeling process (9).
Models are often defined as linear
mathematical model, altough there is more
and more usage of non-linear mathematical
models (9). Model must provide Picture 4. Display of allowed state-space for one
hierarchical struture of factors which highly hereditary X2 and one very low
define success, so does the most important hereditary X1 charactericstic.

4

Picture 5. Some factors are in interaction, so
does change of one factor induces change of
other facor(s). These interactions can be very
complex if there are numerous factors involved.
At the moment when coach
indentify factors of success, their
interactions, heredity and attainability for
every individual athlete, he must define
the final state (Sf) which represents the
training goal. This action represents
optimization of final state (picture 6).
Picture 6. Selection of the most optimal final
state for each individual athlete represents key
detail, according to which all control actions of
the coach are guided.
The example of final state
optimization is classical case of soccer
player preparation. Namely, for the
success in soccer, athletes must possess,
among high technical-tactical
ii
preparedness and SAQ qualities, the
ability to manifest SAQ qualities over
90mins of game, which is mostly
determined by their level of aerobic
endurance (which combined with SAQ
becomes specific soccer endurance). Too
much increase in aerobic endurance
ii
Speed Agility Quickness
5
negatively infuences SAQ abilties and vice
versa. For this very reason, coach must
find the optimal ratio between these two
abilties, so does their combination brongs
maximum results on the field (and this
depends on the athlete position and tactical
role). When doing this, coach should
remeber these quitations:
„Moderation is merit“
„The truth is allway somewhere in the
middle“
„Everything is a matter of a degree“
After he (coach) has optimized
final state (Sf) and evaluated and
identified initial state (Si), coach have
numerous/infinite ways to reach this final
state, but under different „prices“. I would
like to quote Charlie Francis who stated
that „there is a lot of ways to skin a cat“,
but I would add if you choose appropriate
one (final state, training goal). Moreover,
coach have to optimize the control process
(8) so does he chooses optimal methods,
means and loads which are going to bring
the athlete in the final state (Sf)
considering various criteriums (picture 7).
Picture 7. Optimization of control process by
searching optimal path for reaching final state
(Sf) form initial state (Si) according to
predetermined criteriums.
Criteriums may be aviable time,
competition calendar, resources, money,
energy, effort, objects, paraphernalia,
instruments, apparatus, knowledge etc.
Every sitiation in training is specific
according to criteriums and as a
consequence in the quest of optimal
control. This practically means that, there
is no optimal control for all situations,
athletes, criteriums, initial and final states.
There are no patterns in training! We will
return on the issue of patterns and
templates later in the text.
Planning of training
Planning represents one
unseparatable/integral process of control
of athlete praparation system. According
to Malacko (9), control of athlete
preparation consists of following elements
(processes):
modelling
diagnosis
planning
programming
opearacionalization
(realization)
registration
classification
control (verification)
processing
analysis
correction
comparation
It is crutial/vital to note that those
mentioned elements (processes) are not
discreete actions in specific instant of
time, but rather continuous processes that
run during every training session (every
moment). Coach must allways pass
through these elements, to do the
correction of the models, to check current
athlete state, his performance, to check
criteriums and to do corrections of
beforehand detrmined plan and programm
of training.
According to Malacko (9):
„Pod planiranjem u sportskom treningu
podrazumeva se određivanje ciljeva,
zadataka, termina, postizanja sportskih
rezultata i trenažnih kontrolnih normativa.
Planirati trenažni proces, to znači početi
od analize dijagnostikovanja pojedinaca ili
grupe sportista, kao i drugih uslova koji
označavaju osnovne pokazatelje procesa
sportske pripreme i rasporediti ih po
vremenu
6
Uspešno planiranje trenažnog procesa,
kao veoma složene upravljačke akcije,
prvenstveno zavisi od:
¾ utvrđivanja željenog stanja u
skladu sa zahtevima sportske grane
ili discipline, kao realnih mogućnosti
da se sportski rezultat postigne u
zadato vreme,
¾ utvrđivanja početnog stanja
osobina, sposobnosti, karakteristika
i kretnih znanja sportista ili sportske
ekipe, i
¾ proveravanja operacionalizovanja
plana, te njegovog korigovanja pod
uticajem povratnih informacija o
postignutim tranzitivnim (stanjima) i
efektima.
To konkretno znači, da se na
osnovu utvrđivanja relacija između
modela hijerarhijske strukture primarnih
sposobnosti i karakteristika sportista u
određenoj sportskoj grani (jednačini
specifikacije sportova), s jedne strane,i
rezultata dijagnostikovanja istih
sposobnosti i karakteristika sportista, s
druge strane, određuju konkretne
projekcije, ciljevi i zadaci trenažnog
procesa, koji treba da se rešavaju u
rezultatu celokupne pripreme u
određenim etapama i ciklusima. Posle
toga određuju se sadržaj trenažnog
procesa, što konkreno znači, da se
sistematizuju sredstva, približna količina
rada, tipična trenažna opterećenja,
konkretni normativi i drugi pokazatelji.“ -
page 249.
Translation is as follows
„Under the term of planning in sport
training it is considered determination of
goals, tasks, terms, reaching of sport
results and training control norms. To plan
a training proces, that means to beggin
from the analysis of individual or group of
athletes, as with other requirements which
determine fundamental indicator of the
process of sport preparation and allocate
them in time.
Successful planning of training process,
as very complex control action, primary
depends on:
¾ Determination of desirable state
in compability with the requirements
of sport branch or discipline, and
realistic posibilities to achive sport
result at predefined time,
 ¾ Determination of initial state of
attributes, skills, abilties and
movement knowledges of the
athletes the sport team, and
¾ Checking of the plan realization,
and his corrections under the
influence of feed-back informations
about reached transient states and
effects.
This concretely means that, according to
determinication of relations between
model of hierarchical structure of primary
abilties and characteristics of the athletes
in specific sport branch (equation of
specification of sports), on one hand, and
results of diagnosis of the same abilties
and characteristics of the athletes, on the
other hand, concreete projections, goals
and tasks of training process are
determined, which shoud be solved as the
result of the overall preparations in
defined phases and cycles. After that, the
contents of training proces are defined,
which concretely means that the
means/exercises are systematisized,
aproximate amount of work/effort, typical
training loads, concrete norms and other
indicators.“
From this quotation, it is visible that the
border between modelling, diagnosis,
planning (and programming) is very thin,
and thus their diferentiation is complicated
because they all represent an intergral
whole in the controling process.
According to plan length (which
are the results of planning) Malacko (9)
differentiate:
Long term planning
ƒ Perspective planning
ƒ Two-olympics planning
Middle term planning
ƒ Olympic cycles
ƒ Two year cycles
Short term planning
ƒ Macrocycle (year, half
year) planning
ƒ Macrocycle periodical
(preparation, competition,
transitional period)
planning
It can be said that the plan is not
forced and non-flexible template or
pattern, but rather flexible and in
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general lines defined collection of goals,
actions for achieving those goals and
criteriums, which represents the result
of planning as an integral and
continuous process of the control of the
athlete praparation system, but in the
same time the result of coach’s
philosophy, creativity, and the
experience.
What is the purpose of the training
plan which must be undertaken by all costs
if it doesn’t drings the desired results?
Realization of training plan and program
direclty influences (in feed-back manner)
the creation and modification of those
same plans and programs.
The ability of the athlete to recover
from fatigue, ability to adapt on the given
training stimulus (adaptability), maximal
reachable level of abilities (genetically
influenced), oscilations in his working
capacity, biorhythms etc, represent key
criteriums in the creation of realistic
training plans and programs. This
practicaly means that, if the athlete is
unable to recover from 5 times a week of
long ditance runs, then their forced usage
(as common when coping elite athletes
programs) can only harm the athlete, to
induce overtraining and result in injury as
a consequence of accumulated fatigue and
micro-traumas.
Creation of realistic and reachable
plans, does not only depends on athletes
but also depends on the environment.
Offcourse that part-time athletes make
part-time results, but the coach must
repsect other athlete necessaries beyond
training. Some things coach can’t (and
must not) control. As stated by Charlie
Francis (3):
„You are on planet Earth, like it or leave it!“
Programming of training
According to Malacko(9):
„Prilikom programiranja treninga potrebno
je imati u vidu da ono predstavlja veoma
složenu upravljačku akciju, u kojoj se na
bazi makrocikličnog (godišnjeg,
 polugodišnjeg) i periodičnog (pripremnog,
takmičarskog i prelaznog) plana određuju
konkretniji programski postupci, koji
sadrže informacije o trenažnim sadržajima
(sredstvima), volumenu opterećenja
(ekstenzitetu i intenzitetu) i metodama
trenažnog rada i sportskog takmičenja.“ -
page 253.
Translation is as follows
„During the programming of training, it is
necessary to note that it represents very
complex control action, in which, on the
basis of macrocycle (year, half-year) and
periodical (preparation, competition,
transition) plan, the more concrete
training/program contents are determined,
which have more information about
training content (means), load (volume
and intensity) and methods of training and
sport competition.“
According to programs length
(which is the result of training
programming) Malacko (9) differentiate:
Current/ongoing programming
ƒ Mezocyclical
ƒ Microcyclical
Operative programming
ƒ Daily
ƒ Individual/singular
If the training plan represents, in
general lines, defined training goals, but
also the actions for achieving those goals
taking into the consideration laws and
principles of sport training (6), principles
of development of sport form (6,9),
specificity of sport branch/position,
coaching experience and creativity then,
training program represents, for
shorter period of time, a precise set of
actions defined by the methods, means
and loads and their relative durations,
periods/phases, interelations and their
ratios to achive short-term goals defined
by training plan.
For the same reasons as plan,
training program must also be flexible to
adapt on individual athlete reactions on
training stimuli, but also to adapt to
unforseen actions/effects from the
8
environment on the athlete (but also on the
coach). For the same reasons, training
program must not be too long nor too
precise, because it (training program)
cannot take into consideration changes in
the environment and oscilations in the
working capacity of the athlte and his
biorhythm (9). Attempts to develop
precise training programms for longer time
period, are in start „doomed“ and represent
mis-spend time and energy. We should
remember Lofti Zadeh’s quotation:
„As complexity rises, precise statements
lose meaning and meaningful statements
lose precision.“
but also Alberta Einstein’s:
„So far as the laws of mathematics refer to
reality, they are not certain. And so far as
they are certain, they do not refer to reality.“
Altought, these words of wisdom
are not in direct relation with the control
of athlete preparation system, they are
related to the control of complex systems,
and they are very simmilar in nature, so
these word ar very usable in the control of
athlete preparation system.
It is common in today training
practice, to plan and program unloading
microcycles/weeks in advance. The
example for this is the usage of 3+1
microcycle in the strength training, by
which first 3 weeks are used to
progresively increase loads, and in the last
week this load is reduced. However, is this
approach correct? Is this kind of planning
and programming of strength training
justificated? Naimely, how does the coach
really knows if the athlete is really going
to need an unload in the last week?
Another posibility is to progresively
increase the load until the athlete is able to
tolerate it (adapt, increase the results), and
the variations in work capacity are
considered by altering load at particular
time. In another words, this means that the
athlete should get the optimal stimulus in
optimal time instant, when he need it the
most. But this way of at hoc solving the
variations in working capacity, in most of
athletes, usually leads to injuries and
overtraining. Reason for planing of
unloading period in advance is justificated
because of heterochonical development of
athelete physiological systems, whos
differences in functions can lead to
injuries, so it is important to apply one
short period of unloading to allow these
system to synchronize. The method of
unloading, be it reduction in volume,
intensity or both, depends on lot of factors
and it will not be considered in this article.
All this leads to the conclusion that the
training plan and program should be
enough flexible to adapt to natural
oscilations in athlete working capacity, his
ability to adapt and recover, biorhythm
and changes in the environment, but they
should be also optimally rigid to allow the
athlete to adapt to them (plan and
program). In other words, training plan
should have one rigid-component which
is defined by the training goals, oprimal
methods of achieving those goals which
follows the principles and laws of training
and development of sport form, specificity
of sport branch, coach’s experience,
philosophy and creativity, but should also
have one flexible-component which is
affected by changes in the environment,
rhythmical oscilations in athlete’s working
capacity and biorhythm (picture 8).
Picture 8. The example of rigid and flexible
component of training plan and program. Those
components are synonims with planned/realized
aspects of training plan and program.
9
This is neccessary to achive best results at
most important competitions. For this
same reason it is vital to allow adaptations
in the athlete’s biorhythm to new regime
of work and rest which should provide him
ability to perform maximally at particular
instant of time (this is function of rigid-
component). As it is obvious, training plan
and program affects the athlete, but in the
same time the athlete affects them, and all
for the reasons of achieving, in advance
planned, optimized goals.
This is one complex an non-linear
interelation, which should always be in
coache’s attention. This means that coach
should have, in advance, prepared training
goals, but also the ways of achieving those
goals, generaly implied in the training
plan, and precise implied, for shorter
period of time, in the training program
(mostly using wave-like progression of
training load (6,9)) which should be
optimally flexible to adapt to variability of
the environment (patha rei – everything
flows), oscilations in athlte’s working
capacity and even changes in the coach
himself. This task is achieved with
continuously running of controling
processes (modelling, diagnosis,
planning...) over and over again, from one
training to another, from one moment to
another.
Malacko (9), also realize
importance of this kind of control:
„... U vezi sa tim, valja naglasiti, da se
obavezno na svakom pojedinačnom
treningu prati ponašanje (reakcija) svakog
sportiste, što konkretno znači, da
pojedinačni treninzi budu podešeni prema
talasima smanjene ili povećane radne
sposobnosti njegovog organizma.
Prilikom programiranja pojedinačnog
treninga moraju se unositi korekcije u
odnosu na količinu i intenzitet trenažnog
rada, koji proističu iz brzine odvijanja
procesa oporavka. Prilikom toga treba
uzimati u obzir i samoosećanje sportiste,
uz objektivne pokazatelje stanja njegovog
organizma. Očigledno da je takav pristup i
postupak, ondosno takva vrsta
programiranja pojedinačnog treninga
zahteva veliko iskustvo, široko znanje i
 njihovo kontinuirano produbljivanje“
page X.
Translation is as follows
„...in relation to this, it should be
emphasized, that on each training session
coach must monitor behaviour (reaction)
of each individual athlete, which means,
that individual training session should be
adapted accordingly to waves of
increased or decreased working ability of
athlete’s organism.
During the process of programming of
individual training sessions, corrections
should be entered in relation to volume
and intesity of training work/load, which
derive from the speed of athlete’s recovery
processes. During this process, athlete’s
self-feeling should be taken into
consideration besides objective indicators
of the state of his organism. It is obvious
that this kind of programming of individual
training sessions demands great coaching
experience, knowledge and their constant
expansion.“
Control of athlete’s state and
preparedness
If we describe the state of the
system S(t) as dependent on the control
actions in the system input U(t), and the
exit of the system Y(t) as dependent on the
system state, we will get the following
relations:
U(t)⇒ S(t) ⇒ Y(t) (8)
or
S(t) = f1[ U(t) ]; Y(t) = f2[ S(t) ]
This practically means that the
system exit (in our case with athlete
preparation system, the exit is athlete’s
performance) is dependent on the system
current state. The current state of the
system is a dot in n-dimensional system
state-space, enclosed within n-coordinates,
and in our case, those n-cordinates
represent nothing more than factors (skills,
abilities, characteristic etc.) which
determine success in given sport/position.
For example, 100m sprinter needs optimal
levels of strength, power, starting and
acceleration ability, maximal speed, speed
– endurance and, last but not the least, skill
or technique. Those seven factors make
seven-dimensional space, in which the
state of the individual athlete is locating.
Coach is making conclusions about
athlete’s state based on his performances.
This means that they (state and
performance) are interrelated and
interconnected (picture 9).
Picture 9. Interrelation between athlete’s state
and performances.
Hence, for the best performances
(success at the competition) athlete should
be in the best (optimal) state, however, we
make judgements about this state based on
athletes performances.
About the importance of
controlling the athlete state (or
performnce), Malacko (9) wrote:
„Efikasno upravljanje trenažnim procesom
moguće je samo pod uslovom dobijanja
pouzdanih informacija o stanju primarnih
sposobnosti i karakteristika sportiste,
odnosno o promenama koje su izazvali
primenjena sredstva, metode i operećenje
treninga“ - page 264.
Translation is as follows
„Efective/efficient control of the training
process is only possible under the condition
of getting the safe/secure informations about
the state of primary abilities and athletes
characteristics or, about changes which
were induced by the usage of training
means, methods and loads“
If we take a look at cybernetic
model of control of the athlete
preparation system (picture 2), we will
soon see that for measuring
performance we will need some kind of
measuring device (MD on picture 2).
10

This device can be:
Competitions
Tests
Monitoring
Competitions (with the strongest
opponents) „...represents the best and the
most objective tests and indicators of the
athlete (or team) preparedness level.“. The
original quote is from Malacko (9):
„...predstavljaju najbolje i najobjektivnije
testove i pokazatelje nivoa pripremljenosti
sportista, odnosno sportskih ekipa. “ - page
265.
Tests represents the measuring
instrument for geting the informations
about athlete’s state. Some tests do this
by measuring and evaluating
performances (and on this basis they
judge about athlete state), and some
tests do this on the basis of physiological
indicators, and based on them they
evaluate the athlete state and predict his
performances. Based on what tests
measure we can classify them to
Performance tests
State tests
The example for performance
tests is the competition itself, but also
and beep-tests, 1RM, 100m time, shot
put, poligons etc. This group of tests
includes all the tests in which athlete
must do somekind of movement, or
some motor action etc.
State tests are that kind of tests in
which the athlete can lay down and rest,
or to say, he doesnt need to do any
motorical action (to perform). In those
tests, some physiological and even
psychological data are aquired, and
based on them, those tests predict the
athlete potential performance and
potential success on the competition.
The example for this kind of tests are all
psychological tests, antropometry
(measuring body dimensions), resting
heart rate (HRrest), basal metabolism,
brain waves, blood analysis etc.
11
Based on the criteria where are test
done (and with what instruments) we can
futher classify them into:
Laboratory tests
Field tests
Based on which characteristic (or
factors) are tests measuring, and how
much do these factor affect sport success,
we can divide them into
Specific tests
Non-specific tests
About testing, Malacko (9) wrote
the following:
„...Iz ovog proizlazi da se na osnovu
laboratorijskih ili nekih drugih ispitivanja
(eksperimentalnih merenja, testiranja)
mogu dobiti samo komplementarni
(pomoćni, dopunjujući) podaci o
fundamentalnoj trenažnoj pripremljenosti,
odnosno, da li sportisti poseduju tzv.
«fundamentalnu podlogu» za dalji rad na
specifičnim i genetičkim uslovljenim
antropološkim osobinama, sposobnostima
i karakteristikama. Primarne (vodeće) i
relevantne (značajne) antropološke
osobine, sposobonosti i karakteristike od
kojih zavisi sportski rezultat, obavezno sa
što preciznijim kontrolnim pokazateljima i
normativima, mogu se na optimalan način
razvijati samo kod sportista u pojedinim
sportskim aktivnostima za koje poseduju
genetičke potencijale i ako treniraju u što
specifičnijim (situacionim) uslovima,
približno onim u kojima će se i takmičiti.
Dakle, samo integralna
(laboratorijska i situaciona) kontrola
treniranosti sportista u sistemu upravljanja
procesom treninga omogućuje efikasno
ostvarivanje planova i programa rada,
određivanje efikasnosti primenjenih
sredstava, metoda i opterećenja, kao i
blagovremenu korekciju trenažnog
procesa“ - page 265.
Translation is as follows
„... and from this arises, that on the basis
of laboratory or some other examinations
(experimental measurements, testing) we
can get only auxilary data/information
about fundament training preparedness,
or does the athlete possess „fundamental
background“ for the futher work on
specificaly and geneticalaly determined
antropologic qualities, abilities and
characteristics. Primary (leading) and
 relevant (significant) antropological
qualities, abilities and characteristics by
which sport success is dependent, with
most specific control indicators and
normatives, can be optimaly developed
only with the athletes in individual sport
activities for which they possess genetical
potential and if they train in most specific
(situational) environments, simmilar to
those in which they will compete.
So, only the integral (laboratory and
situational) control of athlete
preparedness in the system of control of
training process enables efective
realization of training plans and programs,
determining eficiency of applyed means,
methods and loads, same as on time
correction of training process.“
From this quotation, it is evident
that we should not give great importance
to non-specific laboratory tests and testing.
Altought Malacko wrote this in his book,
later he spend a lot of space explaining
laboratory testing of anaerobic threshold
and blood lactates and how to, on the basis
of this information, make the training
corrections.
Todays systems for athlete
preparations and their control, have gone
so far, that they are not so interested in
improving objective athletic performance
but rather in improving the VO2max and
other simmilar physiological indicators. It
is the question, do the increases in
VO2max and LT (lactate threshold)
represents cause for increasing athlete’s
performance or their result or is it vice
versa. This is a classical problem – who is
first, chicken or the egg? However, todays
reasearch question the validity of VO2max
and LT, but also all other old theories of
fatigue (cardiovascular/anaerobic model)
(10,11). As a consequnce, it is more and
more evident that their usage in sport
training will be very decreased, same as all
programs who are based on their usage
(intensity zones according to HRmax,
Carvonen etc.). It is very true that the
training is not intent on increasing
VO2max, LT, or any other phyisiological
indicator, but it is rather intent on
increasing athlete’s performance (4). First
12
increase the performance, and then worry
about physiological indicators! After all,
when the performance increases, the same
will happen to physiological indicators and
not vice versa.
To expand more on this subject, at
one faculty course, teacher said that the
goal of a swimmer sprinter training is to
increase bLA production. I reacted by
stating that the goal of training is to enable
that swimmer to cover same distance in
less time, and bLA curve can go wherever
it wants to go!
We should direct more of our
attention on improving athlete’s objective
and qualitative performances as a
integral/wholistic representation of his
state, and to forget over-emphasising
improvement is physiological indicators,
which have no power to describe athletes
state. Athletes state (and performance) are
very complex in nature, so why do you
belive that just one numerical data
(VO2max, LT) can explain/predict
complex athletes performance? We should
pursuit more integral approaches in control
and forget about reductionism in training,
because it is misleading and lack usable
information. The whole is allways bigger
then the sum of its parts, especially when
you are familiar with very little number of
parts.
It has to be remembered that the
tests are done only periodically, however,
the thing that is more important is constant
and continual control of athletes reaction
to training stimuly.
„... Pored toga, koristi se i tzv. operativna
kontrola, čiji je osnovni zadatak da se vrši
ocena podnošenja trenažnog i
takmičarskog opterećenja, ispravljanje
individualnih kolebanja nivoa pojedinih
antropoloških sposobnosti i karakteristika i
dr. Ovakva kontrola treba da se odvija uz
pomoć dobijanja tzv. «brzih povratnih
informacija».“ – Malacko (9), page 266.
Translation is as follows
„...besides this, operative/realization
control is also used, whos main task is to
 assess and evaluate reaction to training
and competition load, correction of
individual variations in level of individual
antropological abilities and characteristics
etc. This kind of control should be run with
the help of „fast feedback informations“.“
The thing that Malacko (9) called
„fast feedback informations“ refers on
training monitoring.
Monitoring represents, continual
and constant, control of athlete’s reaction
to training loads, and in the same time,
usage of those informations for corrections
in training plan and program. Same as
tests, monitoring can be
Performance monitoring
State monitoring
State monitoring represents control
of athletes reactions (before, during and
after the prerfomance), primary by
measuring someking of physiological
reactions/indicators (bLA, HR during
work, recovery, in the morning etc). But,
same that have been said for state tests can
be said here. Human organism is way to
complex for his complex reactions to be
described by heart frequency, blood
lactates etc. It is well know that HR vary
with the occurence of affective states
(anger, fear etc), changes in enviroment
temperature, humidity etc.
Charlie Francis (3) is famous as a
coach who does not use periodical tests
(laboratory or simmilar) nor the state
monitoring (HR, bLA), but he rather „look
and listen“ to the athlete while he perform
(it is about sprinting in this case). Effects
of fatigue, and also rhythmical cycles in
work capacity, will primary manifest in
performance, so the sound of feet striking
the floor will change, tightness and lifting
of the shoulders will occur and running
rhythm will change etc. On the basis of
these information, which are integral,
Charlie Francis do training corrections,
switch the exercise or call it a day.
Performing less quility movements in
sprinting will lead only to lower results
13
and deterioration of technique. Some of
his famous quotes are the following:
„First do it right, then speed it up“
„Less is more “
„Quality preceeds quantity “
One of the most popular stories
from Charlie Francis training is that he
once approved measuring of bLA levels of
his athletes during and after the training.
Everytime the bLA levels were increased,
instead of feeling fatigued and drained, his
athletes felt great and showed great results,
and every time the bLA levels were lower
than usual, his athletes performed poorly
and felt drained and fatigued. This is
primary the result of CNS fatigue (3) and
has nothing to do with bLA. This is just
one more proof that our opinion on bLA as
(only) causes of fatigue will have to
change (4,10,11), and as a result changes
in HR and bLA testing during a training
and creating training correcitions based on
these tests.
Besides already mentioned
informations for state evaluation, Charlie
Francis also uses massage, which tells him
about the existance of optimal muscle tone
needed for sprinting. If the muscle tone is
disturbed, this can lead to lower results
and greater likehood of injury, and for this
very reasons Charlie Francis uses special
methods of massage and stretching to re-
set muscle tone to optimal levels for
particular athlete.
The only shortcoming of
performance monitoring is that the fatigue
must first manifest on performance for the
coach to make training corrections. So
basicaly this means, that the coach cannot
correct training until the athlete performs,
and that is already late. So coach should
have great practical experinece to
optimally use performance monitoring.
One device that is growing
popularity among coaches can monitor
athlete’s state without the need for
evaluation of performance. So, basically
this device can predict athlete’s
performance while the athlete is at rest.
This device is OmegaWave (12). Altough
very popular in the USA, there are very and their classification, by which we
few people who heard about it in my achieve training goals. Relations and ratios
country. OmegaWave was developed in between individual training phases from
Russia as a result of searching for the the aspect of application of methods,
device that can evaluate readiness of means and loads should be also included
astronauts for space travel, and also the in training plan.
readiness of heart patients for serious The most popular training plan,
surgical operation. OmegaWave is based which shows relation between training
on couple of non-invasive, very fast tests intensity and volume is Matveyev’s
(everything is done in matter of minutes) classical training plan (1,14); (picture 10).
and all integrated in very complex expert
system which can explain the results and
bring the usable (for coach and athlete)
judgement and recomendations. The most
common measures are HR variations and
omega brain waves, which represent an
physiological indicator of the ability of the
athlete to optimaly respond to training
stimuly. OmegaWave system is able to
give the usable informations in which part
of the adaptation curve is the athlete and is
he ready for different types of training.
Gross of coaches believe that OmegaWave Picture 10. Matveyev’s traditional training plan.
represents „holy grail“ of training, because Altough the descriptions of this plan differ from
author to author, the notable thing is the trade-
it gives informations, that before its
off between training intensity and training
apperance, coaches only guessed. volume as the competition period approaches.
I belive that besides monitoring of Picture taken from Francis(3), page 93.
performance, it is advisable to monitor
From the picture 10, it is notable
RPE (rate of percieved exertion), HR in
that in the beggining of preparations,
rest (emediately after work, and 1min
training volume dominates while the
later) and morning HR as a good
training intensity is fairly small, and as
indicators of athlete reactions to training
competitions approcahes, intensity tend to
stimuly and overtraining markers.
rise while the volume falls. This is a
classical story.
Old vs. New planning
Example of the usage of this model
is the recomendations of long slow cross-
Training plan as a result of
country distance running at the beggining
planning, as already mentioned, is a
of preparations of 100m sprinter runners,
collection of training goals and ways of
which is according to Charlie Francis (3)
achieving those goals described in general
absurd, because „You don’t plough a field
lines for some time period, taking into
with a Ferrari“.
consideration principles and laws of
This method of training planning
training and sport from development,
leads to decreased speed and to loss of
changes in training environment and
already gained abilities reached in
rhythmical variations in athletes working
preceding season. Francis (3) uses different
capacity, his ability to adapt and recover,
method (picture 11) of planning, in which
but in the same time the experience,
the training intensity is progresively
knowledge and creativity of the coach.
incresed at the very beggining of
Besides this, in training plan it should be
preparations and plateaued during the
also included means, methods and loads,
whole macrocycle (season), and the

14
training volume varied, but it also
plateaued for sime time. This method of
planning enables the sprinter to „always do
everything“, or in other words, not to loose
speed.
Picture 11. Modern training plan, in which the
intensity have been maintained whole year, and
the volume varied. Picture taken from
Francis(3), page 94.
If we take a closer look at
Matveyev’s classical model (picture 10),
and question ourselves how does he
calculated volume and intensity, we will
soon realize that those graphs doesnt say
anything. Particulary, how it is possible to
sum up the volume of gym work with
speed work? And their intensities? This is
posible only if they are expressed in
minutes, but this also doesnt says anything.
Don’t mix apples and oranges! Volume
and intensity are primary parameters of
specific mean (or better so say his load)
and cannot exist undependent from each
other, as separated entities. Intensity
without volume doesn’t exist and vice
versa. For this very reason, it is necessary
to show volume of usage of individual-
specific mean (and his intensity) during the
macrocycle.
On picture 12, it is shown the
model of Charlie Francis (3) – Charlie
Francis Training System – which shows
the volume of speed work (running above
95% of maximal speed) and tempo running
(below 75% of maximal speed) reported in
meters. It noticable that the volume of
15
tempo runnings is maintained during the
whole macrocycle, and that the volume of
speed work is progressively increased,
maintined and decreased, primary because
of the use of short-to-long approach in
sprint training and taper period.
Picture 12. Display of volume of different means
in sprinter training. Picture taken from
Francis(3), page 90.
Now that we have reached to
conclusion that training plan should also
provide relative volumes of usage of
different means (and their intensities), the
following question arises, which is the best
way in their alterations/rotations? If the
success in some sport/event depends on
two factors (abilities, characteristics) X1
and X2, and they can be developed by
using X1 and X2 means, the question arises
when and how much to apply those means
during a macrocycle.
The first solution is
linear/sequential method (picture 13). In
linear/sequential method, during one
period of time, only one ability is
developed, and after some time, work is
switched on other ability. So, basically
abilities are developed in sequential
manner, one after the another! This method
is very useful when working with the
Picture 13. Linear/sequential method of
developing X1 and X2. This method is also called
conventional plan (15).
begginers, for example in the gym you can
first teach them technique for some period
of time, then stress the structural work,
followed by hypertrophy work and then
finally finished by max strength work etc.
But as soon as athletes reach certain
„minimal“ level of GPP and SPP (to
tolerate max strength and power work, for
example in the gym) this method is no
more optimal, because while developing
one characteristic, the other will certainly
fall (unless they are somehow related), and
this will lead to „miss“ of final state
defined by training goal (plan) as depicted
in picture 13.
Second method is Complex,
Conjugate, Parallel or Concurent (picture
14). In Complex method the development
of all abilities have same emphasis/volume
during some period of time. So basically,
in complex method everything is done
during one period of time. I belive that this
method can be also used with begginers
(for example working on aerobic and
strength development at the same time),
16
Picture 14. Complex/Conjugate/Concurent
method of developing X1 and X2 characteristics.
but it is more appropriate for mediocre
developed athletes with „minimal“ levels
of GPP and SPP. In elite athletes, complex
method cannot allow for greater
adaptations, because the athlete is unable
to optimaly adapt to larger number of
stimuly at the same time (15). Elite athletes
also need intesification of training load to
adapt and this is not provided by this
method. Another shortcoming of this
method is when there are numerous
abilities that should be developed, un-
experienced coaches, by the premise if they
do everything they will get everything
(shotgun principle) erroneously uses this
method, which doesn’t lead anywhere.
The combination of the two
mentioned methods is „New“ method of
planning as defined by Zatsiorsky (15) or
Conjugate Sequence System (CSS) –
picture 15. With this method, abilities are
sequentally developed, but in the same
time, those abilties that are important and
currently not developed are maintained by
minimal volume of work. This method
shows great results with elite athletes,

Picture 15. „New“ way of planning, or
Conjugate Sequence System in which work on
one ability dominates while the others are
maintained with minimal volume of work.
because they need concentrated loading to
develop one ability, but in the same time
they need some work on secondary ones
for their maintenance. With this method,
elite athlete achive to develop primary
abilities while maintaining secondary ones.
I belive that there are two different
methods of CSS, naimely, Block system
and Smoothed system. The Block system
uses concentrated loading on one ability
during one period of time and then sharply
switch to another (while maintainng
secondary ones). The one block usually
lasts for couple of microcycles, and this
kind on unidirectional concentrated
loading usually leads to „acute
overtraining“ which is needed to stimulate
greater adaptation in elite athletes. After
this block, same time is needed for the
athlete to achive supercompensation of the
previously stressed ability. Smothed
version, as the name says, have no distinct
blocks, but is rather very simmilar to
Complex method with very smooth
17
transiton betwen developing and
maintenance sequincing.
I must note that it is very hard to
distinguish between those three mentioned
methods in real-life training. For example,
Charlie Francis Training System (CFTS –
„everything is done only the volume varies“) is
very simmilar to smoothed version of CSS
when viewed as a whole, but if you look at
the periodization of its components (speed
work, tempo work, strength, plyos,
medballs, core work etc) you will soon
realize that Charlie uses sequential and
concurent approaches too. This is very
clear when looking at his short-to-long
approach with speed work, because he
firsts develop acceleration, followed by
max speed and speed endurance in
sequential manner. It is neccesary to
remember that the whole is allways bigger
than the sum of it components. And for this
same reason, multiple periodization models
can be used within one training plan (when
developing numerous abilties). So, the
coach have the choice, not just to pick one
of those three, but rather to combine them
and modify them to achive predefined
goals.
It is interesting to note that in the
athlete preparation system, the shortest
distance between two points is not usually
straight line. It sounds strange, but it is
very evident in picture 15, and this is why
CSS is sometimes called non-linear
periodization.
Human vs. machine
This is one interesting issue, which
throughout exploration is not the goal of
this article. However, I believe it is
necessary to mention it. For those who are
more interested in the following topics, I
recomend reading „Emperor’s new mind“
from Rodger Penrose (13).
For a while it is evident more and
more usage of computer systems in
training. The question raises, can a
computer (expert system) replace coach in
his role of controlling athlete preparation
system (picture 16.)?

Picture 16. Cybernetical model of athlete
preparation system control, but this time
without the coach.
In some fitness clubs/centers,
member just input into computer his goals
of training (and some parameters regarding
his current state), and the rest is the
problem of computer. Computer creates
training plans and programs for those
clients and re-adjust it every training
session according to clients reaction to
training load, as he passes through various
stations (machines).
What if one day, computer
technology reaches very high levels, to
allow creation of an expert system that is
homomorphic, analogous or even
isomorphic to coach? Would that expert
system be more succesfull than „ordinary“
coach? Would it be possible to lead
athletes better to final goals, to better
performances and greater success at
competitions?
To create such an expert system, we
should first „break-through“ algorythm of
coach which he uses to control athletic
preparation system. According to this,
training plan and program and their
corrections are nothing more than the
results of this algorythm, whose task is to
reach training goals predefined by model.
18
This is a problem of determinism iii ,
which could apply to life itself not just on
training. Is human consciousness only one
complex algorythm or his result? I don’t
believe this is the case, because in that
situation there would be no „free will“.
Also, Penrose (13) agrees with this. This
have direct implitacions on problem human
vs. machine in training control. How could
machine be creative, how could it have
„creation gift“? Machine can study, adapt,
but I think that machine will never be an
artist (creative creator) and will never have
„free will“ as coach. It must be
remembered, that the control of athlete
preparation system, is in one way an art as
it is a science. And the machine can never
be an artist...
Conclusion
In this short section, I will summ-
up everything that is written in this article.
Training represent integral and un-
separatable part of athlete preparation
system, whose other parts are competition
and recovery (out-training and out-
competition additional factors according to
Koprivica (6)).
Training is a complex
transformational process which qualifies
athlete for higher accomplishments-
performances in sport competitions.
Besides this, training exert transformation
of athlete’s abilities, characteristics and
skills from some initial state to some new,
final state, which represents
indispesable/vital prerequisite for succes in
his/her sport branch. The way this process
is run, depends on the selection of
methods, means and loads.
Planning is an action but it is also a
process of formation and corrections of
training plan. Training plan is a collection
of training goals and defined ways of
achieving those goals described in general
lines for some period of time, taking into
iii
Determinism is in-advance knowledge of the
behaviour of one system which depends on his
current state, thus if we know system’s current state
we can predict his future (and past) behaviour.
consideration laws and priciples of sport
training and sport form development,
changes in environment, rhythmical
fluctuations-oscilations in athlete’s
working capacity, his ability to adapt and
recover, but also the experince, knowledge
and creativity of coach and criteriums for
specific situation. In training plan are also
included classification of means, methods
and loads and their usage over certain
periods, and all with the main goal of
achieving defined desirable state.
Futhermore, training plan should have one
rigid component that forces the athlete to
adapt to training plan (work and rest
regime), but it should also have one
flexible component that forces training plan
to adapt to athlete and changes in
environment (and criteriums).
Training program represents, for
shorter period of time, a precise set of
actions defined by the methods, means and
loads and their relative durations,
periods/phases, interelations and their
ratios to achive short-term goals defined
by training plan.
Control of athlete’s state is done via
competitions, tests and monitoring. It
should be remebered that the current state
determines performances, but that we
judge about current state according to
performances. Monitoring should be done
all the time, using all aviable senses, and
should be mostly relied on integral
performance of athletes and not some
laborathory measurements, HR and bLA.
In training, everything should be
done all the time (development of those
factors that determines success, but also
those non-specific factors), but with
variable emphasis (volume). It should be
remebered that the whole is allways bigger
than the sum of its components.
Altought, every described actions
and processes of control of athlete
preparation system can be algorhythmical
nature (to be determinated), machine will
never replace coach, because it will never
have free will and creativity. Machine will
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never substitute coach, because as it is a
scientific discipline, training is also an art.
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