Chapter 12: NERVOUS TISSUE

Question 1: Three functional properties found in all neurons; define the three most basic
functional categories of neurons.
The three basic properties of all neurons are excitability, conductivity, and synaptic transmission.
The first property refers to the ability of the neurons to respond to stimuli, the second allows for
the conduction of the electrical signals from one part of the body to the other and the third is the
ability of the neurons to communicate with other body cells or neurons through synapses. The
three basic functional categories of neurons are sensory neurons (receive stimuli), motor neurons
(produce a response), and interneurons which integrate the sensory and the motor neurons.
Question 2: List the six types of cells that aid neurons.
1. Oligodendrocytes
2. Astrocytes
3. Microglia
4. Schwann Cells
5. Ependymal Cells
6. Satellite Cells
Chapter 13-: THE SPINAL CORD, SPINAL NERVES, AND SOMATIC REFLEXES
Question 3: Explain the cross-section of a spinal cord- the organization with 3 principal
functions.
The spinal cord is mainly attributed to the function of transmitting sensory information from the
body to the brain and motor commands from the brain to the target body part (Harrow-Mortelliti
et al. 2023). The cross-section of the spinal cord reveals a highly organized structure, consisting
of both white matter (outside) and grey matter (inside). The 3 principal functions of the spinal
cord are sensory processing, motor control, and reflex integration. The sensory processing
includes the dorsal gray horns, which contain interneurons and sensory nerve cell bodies that
receive sensory information about pain, touch, temperature, and proprioception, and the dorsal
white columns which carry signals from the body to the brain. The motor control includes ventral
gray horns, which contain motor neurons whose exons relay to the target muscles, and ventral
white columns, which contain bundles of myelinated axons that carry motor commands from the
brain to the spinal cord. The reflex integration includes gray commissure which is the bridge of
gray matter which connects the dorsal and ventral gray horns, and reflex arcs, which is a neural
circuit mediated without the involvement of the brain.
Question 4: How do nerve signals travel up and down the spinal cord?
There are two pathways; firstly, ascending pathways (sensory information from body to brain),
the sensory information from the body reaches the spinal cord at the dorsal roots, these sensory
signals synapse with second-order sensory neurons in the dorsal gray horns, which then ascends
towards the brain the dorsal white columns, these ascending tracts relay information to specific
regions of the brain like the thalamus and cortex where it is processed for further action (Thau et
al. 2022).
Secondly, in descending pathways (motor command from the brain to the body), the motor
neurons located in the parts of the brain motor cortex and brainstem send their axons along the
descending tract, these tracts are present in the ventral white columns of the spinal cord. The
axons of the upper motor neurons synapse with the motor neurons in the ventral gray horns after
which the motor neurons send their axons towards skeletal muscles to perform the desired task.
Chapter 14: THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES
Question 5: Parietal lobs vs Temporal lobes- Compare and contrast function.
Both the parietal and temporal lobes are involved in sensory processing, the parietal lobe focuses
primarily on tactile and proprioceptive information while the temporal lobe focuses on auditory
and some aspects of visual processing. They are also involved in higher cognitive functions, such
as attention and perception, the parietal lobes involve special processing and body awareness
whereas the temporal lobes are involved in memory, language, and complex auditory processes.
Apart from these common functions they both also have their specific functions with emphasis
on the spatial processes and body awareness of the parietal lobes and temporal lobes focusing on
auditory process memory and language.

Question 6: I need sleep! 😃 Stages of sleep, and brain waves.

There are five stages of sleep with corresponding brain waves (Patel et al. 2022): 1) Rapid eye
movement, 2) Non-rapid Eye Movement; further divided into N1, N2, and N3. Stage 1 is the
transition to sleep, which marks the transition from wakefulness to sleep, the brain activity
during this stage starts to slow down, and alpha waves which are associated with relaxation
transition to theta waves which are characterized by light sleep. Stage 2 is light sleep, in which
one becomes further relaxed and unaware of the external environment and decreases muscle
activity. The brain waves in stage 2 are theta waves with occasional bursts of sleep spindles and
k complexes. Stages 3 and 4 are deep sleep also called slow-wave sleep. Brain waves in this
stage are slow-wave brain activity consisting of delta waves which are related to the
synchronized neural activity and are associated with physical and mental recovery. Finally, stage
5 is rapid eye movement sleep (REM), this stage is characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid
dreams, and physiological changes. Brain waves in this stage resemble that of wakefulness with
majorly desynchronized beta and theta waves.
References
Harrow-Mortelliti, M., Reddy, V., & Jimsheleishvili, G. (2023). Physiology, Spinal Cord.
Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544267/.
Patel, A. K., Reddy, V., Shumway, K. R., & Araujo, J. F. (2022). Physiology, sleep stages.
In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing.
Thau, L., Reddy, V., & Singh, P. (2022). Anatomy, central nervous system. In StatPearls
[Internet]. StatPearls Publishing.