Materials Today: Proceedings 56 (2022) 2388–2391

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Materials Today: Proceedings

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Equal channel angular processing on aluminium and its alloys – A review

Ankita Awasthi a,b,⇑, Akash Gupta a, Kuldeep K. Saxena a, Ravi K. Diwedi c
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IILM-CET, Greater Noida, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, MANIT, Bhopal, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Severe Plastic Deformation is a revolutionary process for achieving ultrafine grain (UFG) material with
Received 12 November 2021 high strength and enhanced properties. This property is acquired due to material undergoing high strain
Received in revised form 3 December 2021 deformation without changing its shape and size. Equal-Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) is a suggested
Accepted 11 December 2021
process for SPD. Because of its versatility, Aluminium and its alloys are the most commonly used mate-
Available online 30 December 2021
rials for a wide range of applications. This review article investigates the effects of processing Aluminium
and its alloys with various ECAP die process parameters to determine their properties.
Keywords:
Copyright Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Equal-channel angular pressing
Severe plastic deformation
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
Mechanical properties ence on Applied Research and Engineering 2021
Microstructural
Aluminium alloy

1. Introduction
In recent years, severe plastic deformation (SPD) has been widely
exploited with the exciting goal of developing ultrafine grains (UFG)
and highly performed materials [1]. SPD is primarily recognized as
one of the most successful techniques for microstructural changes
in metals and alloys to improve properties [2]. SPD techniques apply
a higher shear strain to the material to convert it to ultrafine grains
(UFG) (grain size 100 nm to 1000 nm) or nanocrystalline (NC) (grain
size 100 nm). The fundamental reason for the transition from
microstructure to nanostructure is the heavy plastic deformation per-
formed during SPD [3,4]. Numerous techniques and methods are
being developed in this regard, including equal channel angular press-
ing (ECAP) [5,6], high-pressure torsion (HPT) [7,8], accumulate roll
bonding (ARB) [9], hydrostatic extrusion (HE) [10], cryorolling [11],
and surface mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT) [12]. The proper-
ties of materials deformed using these techniques are highly depen-
dent on a variety of unique technical factors for each SPD process. It
is critical to emphasize that SPD techniques can successfully improve
various material properties, like physical and mechanical [13].
ECAP shows how to make materials with ultra-fine grain sizes
without changing the cross-section, which is the only method to
improve mechanical qualities [14–18]. Temperature, billet-to-die
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: anky22cool@gmail.com (A. Awasthi), saxena0081@gmail.com
(K.K. Saxena).
friction, die and corner angle, plunger force and velocity, process-
ing route, and the number of passes all impact the final properties.
Many factors affect the final result of the ECAP process in various
ways, and analyzing them all is quite challenging. Other research-
ers have worked on ECAP in the past to establish optimal parame-
ters [19–27].
The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of ECAP
and its impact on the mechanical and physical properties of alu-
minium alloys. This article focuses on the numerous ECAP research
and studies that have lately been completed.
2. The ECAP process’s fundamentals
ECAP is an efficient method for producing nanocrystalline mate-
rials because it allows for controlling numerous variables affecting
the final structure. Segal et al. [28] pioneered this procedure. Mul-
tiple investigations have been conducted on the metal flow process
across ECAP. The critical step in this process is the creation of the
die, which must be extremely precise. As illustrated in Fig. 1, the
die has an equal cross-sectional channel and serve as the die’s pri-
mary components.
Additionally, two angles, U, and w represent the angle of the die
and the angle of the corner curvature, respectively. Using a unique
plunger, cylindrical and rectangular-shaped samples are forced
through the die channel. The U angle indicated in Fig. 1 is frequently
set to approximately 90 or 120°. The samples can be severely
distorted several times to obtain a desirable strain, directing grain

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.12.207
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Applied Research and Engineering 2021
A. Awasthi, A. Gupta, K.K. Saxena et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 56 (2022) 2388–2391

[32]. In Route A, there is no rotation of samples done throughout

the process. After each pass on route BA, the rotation angle direc-
tion is changed by 90°. On odd-numbered passes of route BA, the
billet turned 90° clockwise, and at even-numbered passes 90°
counterclockwise. Between passes on route BC, the workpiece is
rotated 90 after each pass in the same direction. The sample is con-
stantly rotated 180° after each pass in route C. It is critical to note
that route A can promote heterogeneity, whereas route BCE can
results in homogeneity [1]. Numerous preceding papers [33–37]
discussed the ECAP idea in greater detail.

3. The influence of the ECAP process on the properties of

aluminium alloys

Mechanical qualities of metallic alloys are critical for various

applications, particularly in the aerospace and healthcare indus-
tries; with the help of the ECAP technique, they can be produced
easily [1]. The following summarizes the most significant efforts
by researchers and specialists to enhance the mechanical and wear
qualities of various aluminium alloys by the application of ECAP
technology:

3.1. Aluminum alloys

Low density, strong mechanical strength, and corrosion resis-

Fig. 1. The schematic sketch of the ECAP process [29].
refining. The number of ECAP passes plays a critical role in the defor-
mation process since it allows for a greater strain to be applied to the
samples. The equivalent strain reported after the ‘N’ number of
ECAP passes can be calculated from Eq. (a) [30]:
    
N uþ£ ðu þ £Þ
E ¼ pffiffiffi 2cot þ ucosec
3 2 2
Additionally, the samples can be rotated about their vertical
axis between passes to achieve a homogeneous structure. This is
a beneficial characteristic of the ECAP process because it enables
various slip systems [31]. The ECAP process generally employs four
primary pressing routes (A, BA, BC, and C), as illustrated in Fig. 2
tance make aluminium alloys popular in various applications.
Alumino-zinc-magnesium-copper alloys have recently attracted
significant attention for use in a range of industries, including aero-
space, automotive, and marine [39]. Determining the impact of
ECAP technology on Al alloy mechanical characteristics has been
studied extensively utilizing a variety of process parameters and
environments. Saeed et al. [40] implemented the ECAP process
on AA1050 using recently established ultrasonic vibration equal
channel angular pressing (UV-ECAP). The results indicate that
using ultrasonic vibration with a frequency of 20 kHz and an
amplitude of 15 m during the UV-ECAP process reduces the needed
load by 31%, removes the folding fault during the process, and
increases the effective length by decreasing the corner gap. The
maximum and average equivalent plastic strains anticipated for
the UV-ECAPed samples increased by 33% and 58%, respectively,
compared to conventional ECAP. This method provides the more

Fig. 2. Four different processing routes for ECAP [38].

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A. Awasthi, A. Gupta, K.K. Saxena et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 56 (2022) 2388–2391

uniform Mises stress distribution with a minor longitudinal strain

inhomogeneity factor. After the first pass of UV-ECAP on Al alloy,
the microhardness increased by a factor of roughly 2.1. After one
and two runs of the UV-ECAP procedure, the average grain size
of the sample was approximately 2.6 lm and m1.7 m, respectively.
Due to the heightened work-hardening generated by ultrasonic
vibration in the specimen, it is discovered that higher ultrasonic
energy is necessary to maintain the UV-ECAP method’s efficiency
in higher passes [41].
The first ECAP pass may improve the mechanical characteristics
of fully annealed aluminium alloys (such as 1100, 6061, and 7075).
ECAP yield strength optimum values of 80–90% were attained after
one run. Similarly, one hot ECAP pass followed by moderate tem-
perature aging can significantly improve the mechanical properties
of age hardenable Al alloys [42]. Increasing dislocation density
using ECAP also increased material strength and precipitation rate
during aging. As a result, fine precipitates are expected to occur, as
are mechanical characteristics [43]. In an investigation, Maryam
et al. [44] study the effect of thermal treatment on the properties
of the anodic oxide layer of Al6063 after the ECAP process.
Researchers used a two-step anodization process to create highly
ordered anodic coatings, including a hybrid pulse voltage. The first
and second stages of anodization were carried out using positive
and reverse pulse modes, respectively. The size of intermetallic Fig. 3. After four ECAPed passes, micrograph of Al7075 [49].
particles decreases with increasing deformation, and it also
enhances the order and uniformity of the Al2O3 layer. A rise in
anodic micro-and nanoscale order was attributed to this, and the ate number of passes should be used in place of Al-SiC composites.
ECAP increases the microscale order of the anodic structure. Compared to the cast state, the Vickers hardness and tensile
Micro- and nanoscale two-dimensional ordering increased with strength of the ECAPed Al-10% SiC composites were enhanced by
deformation. Their microhardness and brightness were improved, 18% and 20%, respectively. In terms of tensile strength, Al-10%
and roughness was reduced. Increased deformation results in a SiC outperformed pure aluminium and Al-5 % SiC in both cast
more uniform current flow between the anode and cathode, result- and ECAPed conditions. However, Al-10% SiC had a lower machin-
ing in homogeneous and well-organized anodic layers. As the ano- ing performance than pure aluminium and Al-5%SiC. At all condi-
dic layer ages, it loses order and homogeneity, increases roughness tions, SPD Al-5%SiC provided a better surface finish and minor
and porosity, and dims brightness [45]. tool wear than the other samples.
The tribological performance of engineering materials is widely In general, prior research suggests that the impact of severe
acknowledged as a crucial issue in practice, affecting component plastic deformation techniques on material wear properties is
durability and life. Increasing clearance and decreasing precision uncertain, with some procedures increasing wear resistance, some
can arise from wear on engineering components. Thus, when in a decrease, and others revealing that these techniques had no
developing engineering components, wear should be addressed. effect. It is important to remember that the wear property is con-
In the recent decade, SPD-induced micro- or nanoscale grain trolled by numerous factors, including the applied force, speed of
refinement has been acknowledged as a critical technical strategy plunger, lubrication, and counter surface type, affecting the system
for enhancing material wear characteristics while also adding [50].
mechanical and physical qualities essential for high-level applica-
tions [46]. 4. Conclusion
Single-pass post-ECAP aging on 6061 aluminium alloy was
studied by Rominiyi et al. [47]. SEM revealed the presence of the The following findings can be drawn from this review:
strengthening phase Mg2Si in the matrix of the received, T6 tem-
pered, and ECAP aged samples. Compared to the provided alloy,  ECAP is one of the most effective SPD techniques available and
the ECAPed alloy had a higher hardness but lower notch toughness. can be used on various materials, most notably aluminium
Post-ECAP aging enhanced the hardness and notch toughness of alloys.
the alloy compared to ECAPing. Due to the accelerated strengthen-  Ultrafine grain (UFG) structure can be produced after several
ing phase, which is responsible for most matrix recovery post- ECAP passes, which is helpful to get a more significant disloca-
ECAP. After ECAP artificial aging, the evaluated 6061 aluminum tion density and grain boundary area.
alloy’s properties were optimally combined [48].  Al alloys’ mechanical strength and hardness increase after the
Chegini et al. [39] studied the properties of Al7075 after cold ECAP process and decrease the ductility of the materials.
ECAP. After four ECAP runs, the equiaxed grains (Fig. 3) were cre-  By using suitable parameters, the mechanical and microstruc-
ated. Four ECAP runs dramatically reduced deformed alloy mass tural properties of ECAP deformed aluminium can be signifi-
loss. The fundamental cause of the improvement in the wear resis- cantly improved.
tance of Al-7075 alloy is refining the alloy grain from 40 mm to
500 nm in the ECAP deformed condition. Iyappan et al. [26] did
the ECAP process on three materials: pure commercial aluminium, Declaration of Competing Interest
Al-5%SiC, and Al-10%SiC followed by the Bc route and two passes.
The hardness of pure aluminium ECAPed with two passes was 4% The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
more than that of casted Al-5%SiC samples. This outcome shows cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
that the ECAP made entirely of pure aluminium with an appropri- to influence the work reported in this paper.
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