CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Human trafficking remains a global problem despite significant efforts to tackle it. Human

trafficking has become a major issue in the world today because people are not commodities and

should not be sold and also because of the inhuman treatment meted to victims. All over the

world, human trafficking exists. It is prevalent in Asia, Latin America, South America and the

Pacific countries. According to CNN’s report in its Freedom Day focus on human trafficking,

about 5 million people are trafficked and mostly women and children are the most affected in

human trafficking. According to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], more

than 51% of trafficking cases relate to economic needs, and low-income countries are

disproportionately affected. Thus, more than 80% of trafficking cases in West Africa relate to

labor exploitation.1 Nigeria is regarded as a major center of trafficking of people. The federal, the

states and local governments have been trying to stop human trafficking and have set up all kinds

of bodies to assist and resettle victims of human trafficking.

Human trafficking is a crime against humanity. It dehumanizes the victims and they lose their

freedom. It is also a sort of forced labor, sex trafficking, bonded labor, debt bondage, involuntary

servitude and this makes the victims to lose their humanity. 2 It is very complex and various

1
UNODC. (2022). NAPTIP, UNODC, IOM, OHCHR, expertise France, FIIAPP partner
with States to combat human trafficking in Nigeria. Retrieved Accessed September 06,
2022, from https://www.unodc.org/nigeria/en/naptip– unodc–iom–ohchr–expertise-
france–fiiapp-partner-with-states-to-combat-human-trafficking-in-nigeria.html
2
Irabor, D. (2019). Trafficking in Humans in Nigeria: A Major Socio-Cultural Problem.
Journal of Advances in Social Science and Humanities, 5(7), 896-926.
definitions have been proposed. It is a process of recruiting people from their native country to

other countries for forced labor and exploitation.3,4 Some other people have defined it as process

of people being recruited in their community and country of origin and taken to other

destinations where they are exploited for purposes of forced labour, prostitution, domestic

servitude and other forms of exploitation.5 It could also be defined as illegal trade in human

beings through abduction, threat, deception for the purpose of exploitation and forced labour.

Human trafficking has also come under the category of migration and immigration because in

this case there are traffickers in the process of bringing people through violence to another

country. This is the case in the trafficking of human beings in North Africa where migrants are

transported through the Mediterranean Sea to countries in Europe such as Italy and Spain.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Human Trafficking has become a Hydra Headed Monster especially in Nigeria. The issue of

human trafficking has caused a significant decline in the population of Nigeria as well as a loss

of productive individuals who could have contributed to country's economic development. The

issue of human trafficking has far- reaching consequences affecting not only the individuals who

are trafficked but also the country where it occurs, the state and its local governments, and the

3
Ohonba, A., and Agbontaen-Eghafona, K. (2019). Transnational Remittances from
Human Trafficking and the Changing Socio-Economic Status of Women in Benin City,
Edo State Nigeria. Women's Studies, 48(5), 531-549
4
Braimah, T.(2013). Sex trafficking in Edo state: causes and solutions. Global Journal of
Human Social Science, 13(3), 17-29.
5
Irele (2020). Human Trafficking in Edo State, Nigeria: Experiences of Some Young
Girls who have Survived Trafficking. A Journal of Contemporary Research, 17(2), 204-
224, 2020 ISSN: 1813-2227.
families of the victims, and the victims themselves. The weakness of Anti-trafficking policies in

Nigeria has also contributed drastically to this plight.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The main aim of the study titled "Human Trafficking in Edo State and Anti-Trafficking Policies

in Nigeria, 2003-2023" is to comprehensively investigate and analyze the phenomenon of human

trafficking within the specific context of Edo State, Nigeria, over the period from 2003 to 2023.

The specific objectives are:

1. To investigate the prevalence and patterns of human trafficking in Edo State over the

period 2003-2023.

2. To examine the key anti-trafficking policies implemented in Nigeria between 2003 and

2023.

3. To identify challenges faced by law enforcement agencies, NGOs, and others stake

holders in implementing anti-trafficking measures, explore opportunities for enhancing

the effectiveness of existing policies and practices in the fight against human trafficking.

1.4 Research Questions

What is the trend of human trafficking in Edo State from 2003 to 2023?

1. What are the trends of human trafficking in Edo State from 2003 – 2023?

2. How effective have anti-trafficking policies in Nigeria been in the past two decades,

particularly in Edo State?

 3. What are the main challenges and opportunities in the implementation of anti-trafficking

measures in Edo State and Nigeria as a whole?

1.5 Significance of the Study

Human trafficking has been a global issue and has assumed a dimension that is difficult to

control. It is an abuse of human rights of those who have been trafficked. In most researches it

has been found out that girls and children are mostly the victims of human trafficking. There is a

weak border control and this makes human trafficking in Nigeria a lucrative business. There is

also a sort of collusion between the traffickers and immigration officials. All these and more

fosters the need for a study of this magnitude, which intends to bring to light and broaden the

horizon of the general public about the menace of human trafficking in our society.

1.6 Scope and Delimitations of the Study

The scope of the study covers history of Human Trafficking in Edo State and Anti-trafficking

policies in Nigeria. The study focuses on trends of human trafficking in Edo State, Federal, State

and Community responses to the menace of human trafficking and attempt to identify gaps in

policies with a view to offer useful suggestions in tackling the problem.

However, the success of this study is not without challenges such as availability of reliable and

representative data on human trafficking, time constraint and financial difficulties.

1.7 Methodology

A qualitative inquiry utilising case study method was used for this investigation. The aim is to

understand the present situation of human trafficking in Edo State. The interviewees are

individuals who were victims of human trafficking and informants from government and non-
governmental agencies. The case study has provided detailed information on human trafficking

issues. This approach will provide the richness of data that is not available when using the

quantitative method. This is due to the special attention the approach pays to the real life

happening on the individuals involved.6

This study was purely qualitative in nature and the Key Informant Interview (KII) as well as the

In-depth Interview (IDI) were used to generate data for the study. Two categories of respondents

were purposively selected and used for the study. These were the Victims of Human Trafficking

(VOTs) and officials of government agencies as well Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs).

These individuals are directly or indirectly connected to the implementation of the anti-human

trafficking policy in Nigeria. The data collected were analyzed through content analysis while

the results were presented with quotations of expressions of the respondents to support the issues

being discussed.

1.8 Theoretical Framework (human rights approach)

A human rights–based approach is a conceptual framework for dealing with a phenomenon such

as trafficking that is normatively based on international human rights standards and that is

operationally directed to promoting and protecting human rights. It requires an analysis of the

human rights violations that occur during trafficking as well as of States’ obligations under

international human rights law. It seeks to identify and redress the discriminatory practices and

unjust distributions of power that underlie trafficking, that maintain impunity for traffickers, and

that deny justice to victims of trafficking. Adopting a human rights–based approach implies that

national, regional, and international responses to trafficking be anchored in the rights and

6
Yin, R. K. (2015). Qualitative research from start to finish. Guilford publications.
obligations of international human rights law. The key points of this approach include the

following:

 The main objective of policies and programs should be to promote and protect rights.

Victims of trafficking encounter several violations of their rights all through the cycle of

trafficking. They might be deprived of their liberty, their right to choose an occupation,

etc. Policies aimed at combating trafficking should address the violations of these rights.

 Identification of rights-holders (e.g., trafficked persons, potential victims, those accused

or convicted of trafficking-related offenses), their entitlements, and the corresponding

duty-bearers (usually States) and their obligations is required in order to strengthen the

capacities of rights-holders to claim their rights and of duty-bearers to meet their

obligations. States’ obligations stem from the well-established principle of due diligence,

which means that States have the responsibility to respect, protect, and fulfill the rights of

all individuals, including victims of trafficking.

 Principles and standards derived from international human rights law (such as equality

and nondiscrimination, universality of rights, and the rule of law) should guide all stages

of the response to human trafficking

1.9 Operational Definition of Key Terms

Human Trafficking

The recruitment, transport, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a person by such means as threat or

use of force or other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud or deception for the purpose of

exploitation".
The definition of trafficking consists of three core elements:

The act of trafficking, which means the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or

receipt of persons.

The means of trafficking which includes threat of or use of force, deception, coercion, abuse of

power or position of vulnerability.

The purpose of trafficking which is always exploitation.

Victim

Person who is the object of crimes or accidents. This is a term used for a person who suffers

adverse circumstances, often in relation to having a crime committed against them.

Anti Trafficking Policy

A plan of action pursued by a government or federations or Governing bodies to tackle and

prevent trafficking.

1.10 Review of Empirical Literature

Many researchers on human trafficking such as. 7,8,9 have stated that there is an exceptionally

challenge of obtaining a reliable, representative date on human trafficking. It is noted that human

7
Nwokeoma, B. N., Osadebe, N. O., Amadi, K. C., & Ugwu, N. H. (2019). Interrogating
the nature and push factors of human trafficking in Benin-city, Edo State Nigeria in the
context of the Africa we want. African Population Studies, 33(2).
8
Cho, S. Y. (2015). Modelling for determinants of human trafficking. Social Inclusion, 3,
2-21.
9
Mahmoud, T. O., & Trebesch, C. (2009). The economic drivers of human trafficking:
Micro-evidence from five Eastern European countries (No. 1480).
trafficking by its very nature is an underground criminal activity and the traffickers conceal the

crime and the victims are often unable to report the crime due to lack of access to information

and the barriers put on their ways. Aronowitz.10 opines that “because of its clandestine nature and

the hidden economies, in which trafficked victims are forced to work, accurate statistics on the

magnitude of the problem are elusive and available statistics are notoriously unreliable.”

Therefore, obtaining reliable data on human trafficking is extremely difficult and any literature

on human trafficking should just be considered as an estimate not necessarily an accurate one.

Numerous studies exist which attempt to provide reasons why trafficking takes place among

certain categories of individuals. Poverty, unemployment and inadequate educational attainment

are the socio-economic factors affecting individuals especially the women and girls which leads

to their vulnerability and consequent trafficking. 11 The impact of the desire to get-rich-quick

syndrome and deception on prospective persons to be trafficked as well as the impact of large

family size on family members which led to their vulnerability and subsequent trafficking were

also highlighted.12 They asserted that many people that came from large family size parenthood

are uncared for as many parents are unable to cater for them because of their inadequate

resources. Hence, they become vulnerable to exploitation by traffickers. Emenyonu, 13 conducted

10
Aronowitz, A. A. (2009). Human trafficking, human misery: The global trade in human
beings. Bloomsbury Publishing USA
11
Adepelumi, P. (2015). The root causes of human trafficking in Nigeria. African Center
for Advocacy & Human Development, Nigeria.
12
Okojie, C. E., Okojie, O., Eghafona, K., Vincent-Osaghae, G., & Kalu, V. (2003). Report
of field survey in Edo State, Nigeria. Programme of Action Against Trafficking in Minors
and Young Women from Nigeria into Italy for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitations,
United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute.
13
Emenyonu, K. (2009). Child Labour and Child Trafficking. Nigeria School Health
Journal, 4(11), 90-97.
a study on causes of human trafficking in Edo State. The purpose was to determine the factors

responsible for trafficking and ways of tackling the problem in Edo State. The survey research

design was used for the study. The population of the study consisted of all the employees of the

National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) in Edo State. The entire

population participated in the study. Data were collected using questionnaire. Analysis was done

using descriptive statistics (frequency counts and percentages). The results showed that the main

causes of Trafficking in Persons (TIPs) were high level of poverty in Nigeria, high rate of

unemployment, strong desire of youths to migrate to foreign land and low level of education. It

was recommended that the National Agency for the Prohibition of Traffic in Persons (NAPTIP)

should be empowered and advised to collaborate with government to wage war against TIPs in

the State. In a related study, Ogbodo, 14 became interested in finding out whether human

trafficking was declining in Edo State. The study utilized survey research design and a sample of

52 NAPTIP officials out of a population of 72. The instrument used for data collection was an

open-ended questionnaire titled, “Incidence of Human Trafficking Questionnaire”. Descriptive

statistics was used for data analysis. The results indicated that the incidence of TIPs was high in

the State. It was recommended that support (empowerment) and vocational training be given to

young people who otherwise would still be trafficked for exploitation being without means of

livelihood.

Policy implementation unites various organizations in pursuits of a harmonious relation to

achieve targeted goals. The link between implementing organizations are numerous that end in

creating a mutual correlation among the organizations. This interconnectedness requires

communication and coordination activities. However, a fragmented process of implementation is

14
Ogbodo, T. (2011). Child Protection Measures: Review of Policies and Laws Protecting
Children from Abuse in Nigeria.
a setback to attain human trafficking policy objectives. 15,16 Grindle,17 states that coordination is a

complex task and at the same time is a crucial part in any integrated program. Several programs

have negatively been affected as a result of limited communication and inter-agency

coordination due to organizational rivalry. A catastrophic human exploitation industry grows

every day.18 Gertson,19 and Quah,20 find that agencies that have coordination are more fruitful in

the fight against human traffickers compared with a non-coordinated organization. Similarly,

Nunez and Meylaerts state that communication reveals the effect of a policy, reflect a practical

and the extent to which the policy translates into implementation. Effective communication is

simply a way to protect and realize the policy into action. A policy can be successfully

implemented when a clear line of communication for its transmission is well stated. 21 Although

language may hamper effective communication, having a well-structured policy with a clear

guideline and financially supported mechanism can help in creating an enabling implementation

environment. Grindle and Hill & Hope mentioned territorial game as a significant obstacle to

inter organizational coordination. In this scenario, a fundamental aspect for most agencies is

15
Peters, B. G. (2018). The challenge of policy coordination. Policy Design and Practice,
1(1), 1-1.
16
Quah, J.S.T. (2016). The Role of the Public Bureaucracy in Policy Implementation in
Five ASEAN Countries. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
17
Grindle, M.S. (2017). Politics and Policy Implementation in the Third World. New York:
Princeton University Press.
18

Usman, U. M., Ariffin, R. N. R., & Othman, A. B. H. (2018). Trafficking Twin Terror:
Mysterious Madam and Voodoo Victimization in the Case of Nigeria. Journal of Public
Administration and Governance, 8(1), 392-408
19
Gerston, L. N. (2015). Public Policy Making: Process and Principles. New York: Taylor
& Francis Group.
20
Quah, J.S.T. (2016). The Role of the Public Bureaucracy in Policy Implementation in
Five ASEAN Countries. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
21
Nunez, G. G., & Meylaerts, R. (2017). Translation and Public Policy: Interdisciplinary
Perspectives and Case Studies. London: Taylor & Francis.
being able to manage its task independently. In the absence of clear and noteworthy advantages,

an agency or organization is unwilling to cooperate if coordination interferes with its

autonomy.22,23

22
Grindle, M.S. (2017). Politics and Policy Implementation in the Third World. New York:
Princeton University Press.
23
Hill, M., & Hupe, P. (2014). Implementing Public Policy: An Introduction to the Study
of Operational Governance. London: SAGE Publications.