Topic 1: COORDINATION

Introduction
Coordination as opposed to subordination, can link lesser constituents besides clauses.
The following example exhibits of NPs: {[my brother] and [his daughter]} went to see
Dinosaurs, the movie.
coordination of lesser constituents when the coordinated elements are lesser than
clauses, i.e., words, phrases, predication, predicates(or long verb phrases according to
Biber) “lower-level coordination” (Huddleston).
Coordination of both clauses and sentences are called by Huddleston “main-clause
coordination”.
Ellipsis can be postulated in most cases of coordination, and therefore still regard
these, though not in this surface, as a compound sentence. Hence, a deeper analysis of
the sentence above could be as follows:
my brother went to see Dinosaurs and his daughter went to see Dinosaurs.
However, to analyse all cases of below-the-clause coordination as instances of ellipsis
would mean to postulate that all coordination is indeed coordination of clauses. Apart
from yielding considerable complexity in some cases, this analysis is regard as
unsatisfactory, especially for a specific type of construction. Take Huddleston’s
example: “Ed and Liz are an amiable pair” where postulating corresponding clause would
render unacceptable clause: *Ed is an amiable pair.
Similar problems pose the following constructions: John and Mary met; I have a black
and white terrier; the main beneficiaries were Tom and Ed. Instances of combinatory
coordination, as Quirk refers to the phrasal coordination of types discussed by
Huddleston, can not be analysed as elliptical clauses.
Problems such as those encountered by Huddleston have made mainstream grammarians
analyse coordination in terms of it surface structure. For this type of analysis, Quirk
proposes the term CONJOIN to refer to each one of the coordinated elements
(Huddleston calls them coordinates) and CONJOINT for the resulting construction.
En resumen: como hay casos de coordinación que no se pueden analizar de una manera
profunda(DEEP STRUCTURE) (no se puede decir que haya elipsis), los analizaremos siempre de una
manera superficial (SURFACE STRUCTURE), siguiendo la terminología de Quirk de:
CONJOIN+CONJOIN+…=CONJOINT; teniendo en cuenta que lo que Quirk llama “conjoin”,
Huddleston lo llama “coordinate”

Coordination according to Biber (8.4.1 - 8.4.2 - 2.4.6 in SGSWE)

Coordination can link words, phrases, or clauses.
There are three major coordinators in English: and, or, and but.
Some special uses of coordinators:
- Sentence initial and turn-initial coordinators:
prescriptive grammars prohibit the use of coordinators at the beginning of a sentence.
Nevertheless, coordination often occurs in this position. Sentence initial or turn-initial
coordination is most common at the beginning of a turn in conversation:
A: They started late last year.
B: And what are your academic classes you’re taking next semester?

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 But it’s also relatively common in writing.
The coordinators show different preferences for initial position: but and nor, are much
more likely than and or or.
- Coordination tags:
They are a kind of vagueness marker or hedge: they are a grammatical way to say: “…of
course I could add more”.
They are common in conversation. The most common are the phrases: or something, and
everything, and things/stuff (like that).
In contrast, the tags or so, and so on, and etc. are mainly associated with expository
writing.
- Correlative coordinators:
Each simple coordinator can be combined with another word, to make a correlative
coordinator: both [X] and [Y]; not (only) [X] but (also) [Y]; either [X] or [Y]; neither [X]
nor [Y]

Classification
We can make three main classifications which depend on different points of view.
FIRST CLASSIFICATION
It depends on the number of coordinators:
Syndetic coordination
There is only one coordinator: { [the wind roared], [the lightning flashed] AND [the clouds
raced] } across the sky.
Polysyndetic coordination
There is more than one coordinator in the same conjoint: { [the wind roared] AND [the
lightning flashed] AND [the clouds raced] } across the sky.
Asyndetic coordination
There is coordination but there is not any coordinator: { [the wind roared], [the lightning
flashed], [the clouds raced] } across the sky.

SECOND CLASSIFICATION
It depends on the number of conjoins.
Simple coordination
There are two conjoins: he {[speaks] and [write]} French
Multiple coordination
There are three or more conjoins: Tomplins has neither {[the personality], nor
[the energy], nor [the exprime]} to win his election.

THIRD CLASSIFICATION
It depends on the kind of relationship that there is between the conjoins of a
conjoint:
Simple (according to Quirk) or basic (according to Huddleston)
coordination
If the conjoins are similar to each other on the way as why are elements or
units that are parallel in meaning, in function and generally in form. It can be made
clear more easily by some examples: People believe {[that the economy is improving]
and [that unemployment will decrease]}

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 Complex(according to Quirk)or non-basic (according to Huddleston)
coordination
If the coordinated conjoins are units with different function, form and meaning.
There are three types of complex/non-basic coordination:
 Type I: the conjoins have contiguous elements and are in a final
position:
We gave {[William a book of stamps] and [Mary a book on painting]} (Oi+Od)
Jack painted {[the kitchen blue] and [the bathroom white]} (Od+Co)
You should serve {[the coffee in a mug] and [the lemonade in a glass]} (Od+A)
 Type II: the conjoins are not in a final position and it can seem a
subordinate structure:
Gregory Peck {[always was] and [always will be]} her favourite star.(A+V)
{[John admires] but [Mary despites]} the ballyhoo of modern advertising. (S+V)
 Type III (gapping): a second or subsequent conjoin contains a
medial ellipsis, the elements are not contiguous.
Mary has written a poem and the other a short story (S+DO)( verb omitted)
S V DO AND S DO _
Conjoin1 Conjoin2
Smith completed the course in 30 minutes, and John in 37 (S+A)(verb omitted)
Jane has looked more healthy and Paul more relaxed, since their vacation.
(S+Cs) (verb omitted)

We can also find some especial kinds of coordination such as:

Appended coordination
It occurs when an elliptical clause is appended, added to a previous clause. At
first glance it seems an example of “gapping” but if there are too things elided
in the clause it would be an appended coordination. It usually occurs in informal
speech.
John writes extremely well and Sally, too. (too=/= extremely wellno gapping)
Peter pays football, but not John. (the second conjoin has neither verb nor DO)
Pseudo coordination
It is not real coordination because of, in spite of having a coordinator, it doesn’t
have any meaning since it has only an idiomatic role. There are several types:
-type I: verb+verb I’ll try and come it means: “I’ll try TO come”
I’ll go and see it means: “I’ll go TO see”
-type II: adj+adj  the first intensifies the second.(usually nice and good )
The room is nice and warm it means “comfortably warm”
It hit him good and hard it means “very hard”
-type III: comparative+comparative it gives the meaning of continuing
increase in degree.
She felt more and more angry (increasingly angry)
-type IV: two or more identical verbs or adjectives it gives the meaning of
continuation or repetition.
He talked and talked and talked
-type V: two identical nouns it indicates there are different kinds.
There are teachers and teachers (there are good and bad

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 teachers)
-type VI: three or more identical nouns it indicates a large number or quantity
There was nothing but rain, rain, rain from one week to the next
Quasi-coordination
Unlike pseudo coordination, in quasi-coordination there are not explicit
coordinators but their meaning. We can make a list with the quasi-coordinators
which are formed with some comparative forms like: as well as, as much as,
rather than, more than...
He is to be pitied rather than disliked.
They are not fully coordinative, since in subject position they normally don’t
cause plural concord if the first noun phrase is singular.
John, as much as his brothers, was responsible for the loss.

Coordinators
Main or pure coordinators

AND
“and” can have different meanings which can also be reinforced by a conjunctive
adverb. We can use it to indicate:
- addition: “and” is often associated to an additive meaning. e.g.
{[the weather was very nice] and [everybody was having a good time]} (the 2nd clause can
be regarded as an addition to the 1st)
When “and” is additive, it can not be reinforced by any conjunctive adverb.
- chronological sequence: I {[went into the room] and (then) [opened
the windows]}
- result-consequence: He {[heard a shot] and (therefore) [phoned the
police]}
- condition: {[Overuse your credit cards] and [ you will find yourself in
debt]}
- concession: She {[studied very hard] and (yet) [failed]}
- paraphrase: {[We came to an agreement] and (similarity) [we solved
the conflict]}
- contrast: {[Peter is secretive] and (on the other hand) [David is
open]}
- comment: {[Charles became addicted to gambling] and [that
surprised no one]}

OR
“or” can have different meanings which can also be reinforced by a conjunctive
adverb. It can be:
- exclusive: “or” coordinates two exclusive possibilities or choices.
e.g. shall we {[go out to the cinema] or [stay at home]}?
- inclusive: it has to avoid the insertion of an “ever” and there must
be a negative world in the 1st conjoin. e.g. Sonia {[never cleans] or even [offers to wash
the dishes]}

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- negative: it is used to express the wish of avoiding bad results.
{[Wear your coat] or (else) [you’ll catch cold]}
- corrective:{[it’s going to snow tomorrow], or [that’s what the forecast
says]}
{[John picked us up in his car], or rather [ his dad’s car which he’d borrowed]}
We’ve cleaned {[it all up], or at least [most of it]}
- proof: it’s a rare use of “or”. It occurs between two clauses and
the second one proves that the first is true. {[He must be at home], or [his car wouldn’t
be here]}
{[It’s obviously not urgent] or else [they would have called us
straight away]}

BUT
The coordinator “but” carries the meaning of contrast/concession, but sometimes it
can also indicate positive paraphrase or reformulation, i.e., the second clause
expresses in positive terms what the first clause does in negative.
- Contrast/concession: the second clause adds something different
or seems surprising after the first one. {[It’s an old car], but [it’s very reliable]}
{[They rushed to the hospital], but [they were too late]}
- explains: the second clause introduces a statement that explains.
{[I’d like to go] but [I’m too busy]
{[They would have married sooner], but [they had wait for her divorce]}
- reformulation: “but” is used after a negative to emphasize that it
is the second part of the sentence that is true.
He lied to the court {[not just once], but [on several occasions]}
The purpose of the scheme is {[not to help the employers], but [to provide work for young
people]}
- exception: This “but” has the same meaning as “except” in spite of
they can not be used in the same context. It is not acting as a coordinator.
What can we {[do] but [{[sit] and [wait]}]}?
{[I had no choice] but [to accept the challenge]}

Correlative or correlative coordinators

The endorsing item that pair with these coordinators to form correlative coordinators
are simply regarded as emphasizers, i.e.:
EITHER...OR... simply emphasizes the exclusive meaning of “or”:
You may wear either {[the dress] or [the skirt]}

BOTH...AND... it emphasizes the segregatory or distributive meaning of

“and”; it can only go with lesser constituents.
Both {[Mary] and [Peter]} washed the dishes.

NEITHER...NOR...: “neither” has different meanings, depending on its role in

the clause:
-pronoun: ‘ningun@’ ( when there are only two elements)
which one?-neither (of them) –none=’no one’ (when there are more than two)

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 -coordination: ‘ni’ (endorsing item) has the opposite meaning of “both...and...”, so it
emphasizes that there aren’t or it doesn’t happen something. (“neither… nor…” can’t
link clauses) He is neither {[wounded] nor [dead]}
-adverb: ‘tampoco’. If “neither” is the first element in a clause, there must be
inversion If he won’t eat, neither will I.
-determinant: ‘ningun@’  in neither case / Neither book is good

NOT (ONLY)...BUT (ALSO), it can also be analysed as one of the meanings of

“but” which emphasizes the second part of a negative one, in this case: “not (only)”
he didn’t come {[to help] but [to lie us]} in formal English people start the sentences
with “not only”

Layered coordination, and main-clause and lower-level coordination

It is important to say that the conjoins or coordinated units should be of the same
category. Depending on what unit these conjoins belong to, we could differ between
lower-level or main-clause coordination.
Only when we will have known these terms, we will be able to understand the layered
coordination.

Main-clause coordination
This term is used by Huddleston to talk about the coordination between clauses or
sentences. For example:
{ [I would sometimes lie down, and let five or six of them dance on my hand.] And at last [the
boys and girls would venture to come and play at hide-and-seek in my hair] }(c.of sentences)
They are commanded {[to show their skill], and [to convince the Emperor that they have not
lost their faculty]} (c.of clauses)

Lower-level coordination
This term is used by Huddleston to speak about the coordination of lesser
constituents as the following units are:
Words: {[John], [Peter], and [Mary]} arrived yesterday
Phrases: She always visits us {[at Easter] and [during the Summer]}
Predications: I would sometimes {[lie down], and [let five or six of them
dance on my hand]}
Predicates or long verb-phrases: Whoever {[performs his part with most
agility], and [holds out the longest in leaping and creeping]},will win.

Layered coordination
It is a simple concept that means a conjoint is embedded in another conjoint.
What can we {[do] but [{[sit] and [wait]}]}? The conjoint “sit and wait” is embedded in
another conjoint: “do but sit and wait”
We should not mistake layered coordination for multiple coordination: when the conjoins
are at the same level, it is multiple coordination, however, when they are in different
levels, it is layered coordination. It can be made clear through two examples:

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 Layered coordination: They used to show it before the {[{[Emperor] and
[Empress]}], and [first minister]} on particular occasions.
A conjoint (Emperor and Empress) is embedded in another conjoin ( Emperor and Empress,
and first minister).
Multiple coordination: {[One is blue], [the other red], and [the third green]}.
The three conjoins are at the same level. There are not hierarchies.

Practice of coordination

We have to say:
- level: lower level or main clause coordination
- layered?: yes or no
- Threefold classification:
-system A: asyndetic, syndetic or polisyndetic
-system B: simple or multiple
-system C: simple (basic) or complex (non-basic)
- Meaning of the coordinator
- Units: which kind of units are linked by the coordinator.

(annex 1: forever amber)

1. Entombed in some fragments are the remains of {[plants] and1 [various animals]}, the
most common being the bodies of insects.
This is a lower-level coordination since the linked units are two noun phrases or the
two units which form a compound prepositional complement. We can classify this
coordination as syndetic (it has a sole coordinator), simple (there are only two conjoins)
and basic or simple (the conjoins are similar to each other). The coordinator is an
additive “and”, which can’t be following by any conjunctive adverb to reinforce its
meaning. It is not layered coordination.

2. For {[sheer beauty], [mystery], and2 [the capacity to astonish]} these fossils are
difficult to surpass.
This is also a lower-level coordination since the linked units are three noun phrases
or the three units which form a compound prepositional complement. We can classify this
coordination as syndetic (it has a sole coordinator), multiple (there are more than two
conjoins) and basic or simple (the conjoins are similar to each other). The coordinator is
an additive “and”, which can’t be following by any conjunctive adverb to reinforce its
meaning. It is not layered coordination.

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3. …when a predator {[arrived] and3 [knocked him {[off his perch] and4 [into the
amber]}]}.
“and3”It is a lower-level coordination where two predicates or long verb-phrases
are linked. This coordination is syndetic (it has one coordinator), simple (there are two
conjoins) and basic or simple (the conjoins are similar to each other). The meaning of the
coordinator is of sequence, so we can add a conjunctive adverb like “then” which
reinforces it. The lower layer is embedded in its second conjoin.

“and4” This is a lower-level coordination where the linked units are two prepositional
phrases or two CPreds (or a compound Cpred). We can classify this coordination as
syndetic (it has one coordinator), simple (there are two conjoins) and basic or simple (the
conjoins are similar to each other). The meaning of the coordinator is of sequence, so we
can add a conjunctive adverb like “then” which reinforces it. The lower layer is embedded
in its second conjoin.

Topic 2: COMPLEMENTATION
(of verbs and adjectives)
Introduction

Verbs and adjectives are capable of “controlling” what should follow them; what
follows verbs and adjectives is something that is determined by those verbs and
adjectives.
(adj) GLAD ____________ ”GLAD” can only be followed by certain structures:
Prepositional phrase
That-clause
Inf-clause
(adj) KEEN ON__________  “KEEN” allows only a prepositional phrase; “on” is the
preposition controlled by “keen”
(verb) OPERATE ON______

Complementation of verbs // Verbs complementation

Prediction of the number and type of clause elements different from the S and the V
which are necessary to produce a clause that expresses a complete thought.
Complementation is about: Object; Predicative or complement; and Adverbial. We can
call these elements (O,P,A) complements.
If you refer to all of the clause elements, you are making a CLAUSE PATTERN:
SV+complementation.
Verbs valency
English complementation ranges or goes from nothing to 2 complements.
I called John a liar at the station
V O P A
There are 3 elements but only 2 are obligatory for the verb “call so. sth.”

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 From Valencies to Clause Patterns

Main idea
>> a verb has/ a VP is followed by
A number of complements
As determined by its valency/ the valency of the (main) verb.
>> Complementation varies according to each verb
>> A given combination of complements, as instance of complementation, in terms of
number and types (=syntactic functions) constitutes a valency pattern.

Result
>> while a verb valency is the basis for a valency pattern, a valency pattern is the basis
for a clause pattern.
I think that you’re crazy. O complementation or valency pattern
S V O SVO clause pattern
>> A clause pattern is made up of the syntactic function associated with
(a)the valency of its verb (the valency pattern),
(b) a Subject and
(c)a VP
>> the syntactic function associated with clause patterns are referred to as clause
elements.
>> there are not dozens of clause patterns combination of clause elements conform to a
limited number of patterns.
>> all clause patterns contain a S and a VP, though the S is not visible in imperatives and
some dependent clauses.

VALENCIES
 Intransitive (no complementation)
 Transitive:
- copular
- mono-transitive
- complex-transitive
- ditransitive

CLAUSE PATTERNS
 S
 V (with one, two or three words)

 O -direct DO/ Od
-indirect IO/ Oi
-prepsitional Oprep

 C or P -Subject complement or predicative SP/Cs

-Object complement or predicative OP/Co

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 -Predication complement / adjunct Cpred

 A (adverbial)

Major grammatical classes of verbs (=GCoVs)

Two classifications
1- GCoVs as determined by clause patterns (the Biber’s system)
 ONE-PLACE verbs (SV)
 TWO-PLACE verbs (SV+1 clause element)
 THREE-PLACE verbs (SV+ 2 clause elements)
2- GCoVs as determined by valency patterns (the traditional system or á la Quirk)
 INTRANSITIVE verbs (‘zero complementation’)
 (MONO)TRANSITIVE and COPULAR verbs (‘single complementation’)
 DITRANSITIVE and COMPLEX-TRANSITIVE verbs (‘double complementation’)

Remark
Many verbs allow more than one clause pattern (CP)/ more than one valency pattern.
Therefore, those verbs are not, for example, intransitive verbs but verbs used with an
intransitive valency.
Example:
AWAKE has two valencies, intransitive and transitive, so you can’t say it’s an intransitive
verb or a transitive verb, because of that, in a given clause, it’s used with an intransitive
valency or with a transitive valency.
- [It was midday [when she awoke]] [SVCs [SV]]
[two-place V [one-place V]] or [copular V [V used with an intransitive valency]]
- The gesture awoke an unexpected flood of tenderness toward her] [SVOd]
[two-place V] or [ verb used with a transitive valency]

VERB COMPLEMENTATION is concerned with the kinds of complements (= clause

elements or syntactic functions) that follow a verb according to its valency. It is the
basis for clause patterning.
ADJECTVE COMPLEMENTATION is concerned with the kind(s) of grammatical
structure(s) that follow(s) a head adjective as part of its adjective phrase, thus
postmodifying it.

Example:
The adjective KEEN, as head in an adjective phrase (*), can be complemented by:
a) a to-infinitive clause (with or without subject)
b) a prepositional phrase (then beginning with ON) or,
c) a that-clause
In these examples “keen” is the head of an AdjP., its syntactic function is postmodifier:
He told John that he was keen to help
The government is keen for peace talks to staff again soon  infinitive clause
I wasn’t keen on going there on my own  PrepP ( beginning with ON)
The chairmain is keen that the company should expand its product range that-clause

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 (*) KEEN is not head of an AdjP, but it’s a (pre)modifier of a NP in:
>She takes a keen interest in politics
>She has a keen eye for talent
>As she walked away, Joe felt a keen sense of loss

As the adjectives don’t have valency patterns, we have to say that what follows the
adjectives is the complementation.

Why to study adjective comp. and not noun comp. alongside verb comp.?

Because:
a) categories of complementation in AdjPs are similar in variety to those of verb comp.
b) those categories are controlled or determined by the adjective in the phrase.
On the other hand, most nouns also
a) control or determine their complementation (postmodification); and
b) their categories of comp. are similar in variety to those of verb comp. or adj
comp.
but correspondences between words and types are less restricted:
- complementation by a PrepP is associated with a closed set of adjectives,
- complementation by an of-PrepP is NOT associated with a closed set of nouns

- complementation by a that-clause is associated with a closed set of

adjective,
- complementation by a that-clause is NOT associated with a closed set of
nouns.

Why?:
If followed by a PrepP, GOOD AT, WITH or FOR
FOND will be followed by OF
KEEN ON
SATISFIED WITH
… …

Similary DREAM (n) ABOUT

TRAIN (n) collocates with TO and OF
RESEARCH (n) INTO and ON
… …

Examples:
It wasn’t my intention to upset you.

I have no intention of coming

d h postmod a relative clause
S V OD or CPred

VERB COMPLEMENTATION

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 There are 4 main types of complementation:
-copular: John is only a boy
-monotransitive: I have caught a big fish
-complex transitive: She called him a hero
-ditransitive: He gave Mary a doll
-intransitive: where no complementation occurs, or where the verb has an intransitive
use. Some verbs are always intransitive (She has arrived). Other can also be transitive
with the same meaning (He is reading (a book)).

COPULAR VERBS:
VB + Cs (subject complement) /CPred
This elements cannot be dropped without changing the meaning of the verb. The main
verb “be” is the most central copular verb, and the most neutral in meaning; it’s also the
most common.

+ Cs/SP subject complement or subject predicative quality

 Adjective as Subject complement (Cs):
Subject complement (Cs) as current attribute or as resulting attribute.
-Current attribute an attribute that manifests itself at the same time of
speaking, the idea of “it’s going on” . The girl seemed very restless
-Resulting attributean attribute that is the consequence of a previous action.
The girl became very restless
Current copulas are stative and cannot co-occur in the progressive aspect.
The most common copular verbs are:
-current: appear (happy), be (friendly), feel (annoyed), look (pretty), seem (very
restless), smell (sweet), sound (surprised), taste (bitter), remain (uncertain), keep
(silent).
-resulting: became (older), get (ready), go (sour), grow (tired), prove (rather useful),
turn (cold).

 Noun phrase (NP) as subject complement (Cs)

The verb “be” is the principal copula used in this pattern:
William is my friend
-Current: be (my friend), appear (the only solution), feel (a fool), look (a fine day),
seem (a genius), sound (a reasonable idea).
-Resulting: become (an expert), end up (her slave), prove (his equal), turn (traitor),
turn out (a success).

+ Cpred/Apred predication complement or adjunct circumstance (time, place,

manner)
 Complementation by an adverbial (Cpred/Apred)
The principal copula that allows an adverbial as complementation is “be”. The
adverbials are mainly space adjuncts (the children are at the zoo), but there are also
time adjuncts (the outing is tomorrow). We can called them Predication complement
(Cpred) or Predication adjuncts (Apred) (Quirk). Other copular verbs that occur
with space adjuncts are “get” and “keep”:
At last we got home

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 How did you get there?
“be”, “get” and “keep” are clearly copular verbs in this function because of their
inability to occur without the adverbial: *At last we go. / * How did you get?

Obligatory Cpreds Predication complements(Predicative) or adjuncts (A)

ADVERBIALS Both are A but only the obligatory can be Cpred
Optional A

Circumstantial adverbials adjuncts time, place, manner

Linking adverbials conjuncts and subjuncts connectors with meaning
Stance adverbials disjuncts point of view

Example: I found the book there

S V DO Cpred  because if you take it away, the sentence is complete
A so, it’s an A and it can’t be a Cpred
Cpred it isn’t exclusive of the copulative complementation

MONOTRANSITIVE VERB:
Monotransitive verbs require:
-A direct object (DO): which may be a noun phrase, a finite, or a non-finite clause
or -a prepositional object (Oprep)
complementation by a noun phrase as DO
DOs are typically NPs that may become the Subject of a corresponding passive
clause: Everybody understood the problem / The problem was understood
Numerous monotransitive verbs may be used in the passive: believe, bring, call, close,
do, enjoy, feel, find, get, hear, help, know, lose, love, need, remember, see, take, use, win.

A few stative monotransitive verbs do not allow the passive: have, fit, resemble, mean,
lack ; then, we will rather speak of a predicator complement (Cpred), instead of DO.
They have a nice house / * a nice house is had (by them)
S V Cpred
Unlike it’s semantically a DO, it can’t become the
subject in a possible passive construction, and
therefore, what we call DO with these verbs will be
Cpred.

complementation by a noun phrase as prepositional object (Oprep)

The Oprep of prepositional verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs resembles the DO:
(1) in accepting the passive and (2) in being elicited by a pronoun in questions:
I don’t
Verbsapprove of your actions / Your actions are not approved of.
with particle
People look down on him / He is looked down on.
Phrasal verb (1) Make up
Verbs with particle can be Phrasal-prepositional verbs(2) Look down on
Prepositional verbs(3) Look for

Opreps only occur with (2) and (3). The easiest way to identify a phrasal
verb is to insert a pronoun between the verb and the particle. Ex: make up
Smith = make Smith up. So, phrasal verbs don’t allow prepositional objects.
I don’t approve of your actionsit’s not free combination because the 13
preposition is controlled by “approve”, not by the NP.
 DOs and Opreps are identical, both are realized by NP. The particle before the Oprep
always goes with the verb.
He was waiting at Harrods (wrong)
S V Oprep
He was waiting at Harrods (right) FREE COMBINATION (of prep & complement)
S V A
The function of Oprep is as frequent as DO with monotransitive verbs.

complementation by a finite clause:

a) that-clause as object
the conjunction that in that-clauses functioning as object is optional: I hope (that) he
arrives soon, but obligatory when the clause is made the passive subject: That he arrives
soon is hoped.
Three categories of verbs are complemented by that-clauses:
- FACTUAL VERBS: admit, agree, announce, insist, mention, deny, explain, hope,
suggest.
They agree / admit / claim that she was misled.
- SUASIVE VERBS: followed by a putative SHOULD (usar should +inf en vez
del subjunctive), or with the SUBJUNCTIVE, or a THAT-CLAUSE with an indicative
verb, more common in BrE: agree, ask, demand, insist, intend, order, propose.
People are demanding that she should leave (putative should(BrE))
leave (present subjunctive (AmE)) the company
leaves (present simple (BrE))
- EMOTIVE AND HYPOTHESIS VERBS: followed by a that-clause with either
the indicative or the putative should: annoy, concern, rejoice, regret, surprise, wonder,
worry. Hypothesis verbs comprise: wish, suppose and the modal idiom would rather
(+past simple)
worries
I regret that she should worry about it
* worry
I’d rather you didn’t mention the price

b) Wh-clause as object
Many of the verbs which take a that-clause as object can also take a wh-interrogative
clause: Can you confirm which flight we are taking?
I asked her to confirm whether the flight had been booked.
It’s common with many factual verbs: ask, care, decide, depend, know, notice, realize,
think.
I didn’t know what to say

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 I haven’t decided (on) which flight they will take

c) Complementation by an extraposed subject (Sextra) that-clause

The that-clause is not an object of the verb, but rather an extraposed subject. It
resembles other that-clauses in having a deletable “that”. The main verbs occurring in
this pattern form two groups of synonyms: (i) seem and appear; and (ii) chance and
happen.
It seems (that) they are mistaken.
It appears that Frank lost his temper.
It happened that the weather was exceptionally cold end-height
S V Sextra
They are not monotransitive, they are intransitive because what follows them is not a
DO but a Sextra.

Complementation by a non-finite clause

Non-finite clauses as Od: Five types that function as Od:
1) wh-infinitive clauses:
they know HOW TO GET HE HOUSE
2) subjectless infinitive clause: the “understood” subject of the infinitive clause is
always the same as the subject of the superordinate clause:
She prefers TO GO BY BUS
3) subjectless –ing participle clause: the “understood” subject of –ing clause is
always the same as the subject of the superordinate clause:
She likes GOING FOR WALKS
4) to-infinitive clause with subject:
They want YOU TO STAY
5) –ing participle clause with subject:
I hate HIM WATCHING FOOTBALL  (he is watching football)

Choice between the infinitive and the participle constructions: (4) =/= (5)
When construction 4) and 5) are admitted, there is usually felt to be a difference of
aspect or mood which influences the choice. As a rule, the infinitive gives a sense of
more “potentially” for action, as in she hopes to learn French, while the participle gives a
sense of the actual “performance” of the action itself, as in she enjoyed learning French.
In the case of “TRY” the double meaning is particularly clear:
- TO TRY  to + inf lo intenta, pero no se sabe si lo consigue o no
 -ing  lo consigue
Sheila tried to bribe the jailor es sólo un intento, no se sabe si lo consiguió, potencialidad
Sheila tried bribing the jailor lo consiguió, sobornó al carcelero
- TO FORGET  to + inf te lo recuerdan, pero puede que te acuerdes o no
 -ing  sí que te has acordado
Don’t forget to collet the Hill ‘no te olvides…’
I won’t ever forget collecting the bill ‘no se me olvida…’
- TO LIKE to + inf te gusta hacerlo, pero al final, por un motivo u otro, no lo haces
 -ing  disfrutas al hacerlo
I like to go to the dentist
I like going to the dentist

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 COMPLEX-TRANSITIVE and DITRANSITIVE VALENCIES:
Unlike intransitive verbs, though in line with copular ones, monotransitive verbs
require complementation, but its is simple, since it consists of one singe syntactic
function, either Od (with its Cpred variant) or Oprep, whatever the construction or
structure that realises it.
However, the two other transitive valencies, complex-transitive and ditransitive,
require double complementation, that is, two different syntactic slots or functions after
the verb. One of the function will be Od, but the other varies according to the valency,
basically Co for complex-transitive, and Oi for ditransitive.
The terms used to refer to these valencies highlight different aspects of their
nature, that is, the differentiating characteristics. Ditransitive is quantitative: two
objects, in fact the clause pattern associated with the ditransitive valency is SVOO –
note the double “O”. On the other hand, complex-transitive constitutes a qualitative
reference, that is, an indication that one of the two complementing functions is NOT an
object, but some type of Complement (Co, Cpred).

COMPLEX-TRANSITIVE VERBS
This type of complementation corresponds to the patterns SVOC (C as Co or as
Cpred) (it’s SVOA for Quirk). The term is also used when an object is followed by
another element which is not an object. (eg a non-finite clause)
We considered HER MOTHER (to be) A SENSIBLE WOMAN (SVOC) (SVOd Co/OP)
Only HER MOTHER can be subject in a passive construction.
These verbs always express: considering, judging, attributing qualities to so. or
sth., special qualities includes.
Attribute ca be express as an AdjP or NP= Co(Quirk)/OP(Biber)= Object predicative
non-finite clause
What happens if a pattern SVOC appears in passive?
Her mother was considered (to be) a sensible woman SVC passive (a usual pattern
S V Cs/SP in a copulative valency)

Complementation by O and Co
In SVOC, the object complement is an AdjP or a NP:
The secretary left all the letters unopened (AdjP)
I have often wished myself a millionaire (NP)
Common complex-transitive verbs are: believe, consider, choose, declare, elect, find,
prove…
a) The SVOC pattern in which the Co is an AdjP is found with verbs which,
like copular verbs, may be divided into “current” and “resulting” types:
You should keep a cabbage fresh (current)
That music drives me mad (resulting)
b) Most of these verbs can occur also with a NP complement. In addition,
there are a few verbs which occur with a NP, but not with an AdjP as
complement, eg: appoint.
He considered Sheila a good person
They appointed her managing director

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 Complementation by O and Cpred
In the SVOC (SVOA in Quirk) pattern, the complex-transitive verb is
complemented by a DO followed by a Cpred (predication complement) (predication
adjunct in Quirk). The adjuncts are characteristically PrepP of space (direction) or
metaphorical extensions of the notion of direction:
I slipped the key into the lock. slip-‘resvalar’ slip into- ‘introducirla deslizándola’
Take your hands out of your pockets. take-‘coger’  take out-‘sacar las manos de’

Variants of complex-transitive complementation: Od+ non-finite clause (Cpred)

The Od is followed by a non-finite clause acting as Cpred:
They knew him to be a spy (to-infinitive)
I heard someone slam the door (bare infinitive)
I caught Ann reading my diary (-ing participle)
We saw him beaten by the World Champion (–ed participle)
Fortunately, these verbs occur with mental process.
a) Od and to-infinitive clause:
Most are factual verbs that can also take a that-clause with an indicative verb:
I know the story to be true
*I know the story true (=/= consider)
I know (that) the story is true
b) Od and bare infinitive clause:
Two small groups of verbs take this pattern:
-three causative verbs: have, let, make
-some perceptual verbs of seeing and hearing (”feel, hear, notice”), and ”help”
(esp. in BrE)
She let me go
I saw you steal the money
He made me jump over the fence
__ ____ __ __V A______
S V Od/DO Cpred
c) Od and –ing participle clause:
Three small groups of verbs:
-perceptual verbs (feel, hear, notice, observe, overhear,…)
-verbs of encounter (catch, discover, find, leave)
-the two causative verbs get and have
I saw you stealing the money
She was caught smoking pot
d) Od and –ed participle clause:
Three small groups of verbs:
-perceptual verbs (see, hear, feel, watch)
-volitional verbs (like, need, want)
-causative (get and have)
I’ve had my car repaired
She needed her hair cut

Examples of complex-transitive complementation

Complex-transitive valency patterns:
Consider Od + Co / DO + OP

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 Hear Od + Cpred / DO + Cpred

-They claimed that he had worn a black trench coat and considered him to be a security threat
Co/OP (bc “to be”
can be elided)
-Mr Clemens was more often serious than humorous in conversation, and I never knew him
to be funny

-I never knew him to be violent but often to be hostile…

Cpred (bc “to be” can’t be elided)
- Familiar history told him to be careful. His father fought alcoholism during his life, and his sister would
die of a heroin overdose.

DITRANSITIVE VERBS
Oi + Od
Od + Oprep
Oi + Oprep

(i) NP as both Oi and Od

Ditransitive complementation in its basic form involves two object noun phrases:
an indirect object, which is normally animate and positioned first, and a direct
object, which is normally inanimate/concrete:
She gave me her jumper (SVOiOd)
Most ditransitive verbs can also be monotransitive. The direct object can often be
omitted. With a few verbs (ask, pay, teach, tell, show) either object can be omitted:
They paid him the money / They paid / They paid him
Some ditransitive verbs have two passive analogues:
I was given her jumper (more common) (S(Oi)VOd)
Her jumper was given (to) me (romance passive) (S(Od)VOi(me)/ Oprep(to me))

(ii) Od and Oprep

Numerous ditransitive verbs take an Oprep as the second object:
We reminded him of the agreement
They normally have only the first passive:
He was reminded of the agreement
SVOiOd=SVOdOprep
I gave him my book
S V Oi Od
I gave my book to him ( less common) “to” is the prep ruled by the verb
prep
S V Od Oprep
Variants of ditransitive complementation
(i) Oi and that-clause O:
That-clause as Od:
She convinced him (that) she was right
Oi Od
Only the Oi can be passive. With some verbs, Oi cannot be omitted.
(ii) Oprep and that-clause O:
She mentioned (to me) that she was getting married

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 End-weight principle: a ‘heavier’ or more lengthy element of a clause is placed at the end.
It usually occurs with verbs like: say, explain...
(iii) Oi and wh-clause O:
The second object may be a finite wh-clause:
She didn’t tell me whether she had phoned earlier
(iv) Oi and to-infinitive clause O:
Only the Oi can be made S of the corresponding passive construction:
I asked him to lend me some money
(he was asked to lend me some money)
Verbs used in this pattern: advise, ask, beg, command, implore, invite, order,
persuade

“Verb complementation according to Biber”

(see in SGSWE: 3.4 A preview of clause patterns; 5.7 Valency patterns; 5.8 multi-
words verbs)
To complement the classification of “monotransitive” verbs beyond the traditional
semantic (factual, suasive, emotive,…) and structural Quirkian systems which ignore
syntactic phenomena which are not so unusual.
BIBER’S REPERTORY
1-. Verbs used monotransitively which do not enjoy any of the properties mentioned
bellow.
2-. Ergativity: Ergative monotransitive verbs.
3-. Object-deletion: object.deletin monotransitive verbs.
4-. Special intransitive use: Pseude-intransitive verbs.
5-. Reflexitivity: Reflexive monotransitive verbs.
6-. Reciprocity: Reciprocal monotransitive verbs

2-. ERGATIVITY: ergative monotransitive verbs

In most languages the subject of a verb in an active form coincides with the agent or
actor. In the passive, it doesn’t coincide.
ACTIVE I like reading novels
Sagent or actor
PASSIVE The vowels were read by only two students
S patient or affected/effected entity
“The vowels” is the subject in a syntactic point of view, but in a semantic one is a
patient or an affected/effected entity.
Some languages have active verbs which have patient subjects.
ACTIVEThe egg rolled off the counter
Spatient
We need another verb to translate that into Spanish: ‘el huevo se cayó rodando por el
mostrador’
Eskimo and Basque’s monotransitive verbs have their own affixes to indicate that.
According to traditional grammars “rolled” is an intransitive verb. However, Biber
proposes call it: monotransitive with an ergative valour.
“Ergatives” have intransitive counterparts with little or no charge of meaning and
without obligatory adverbials. However, the subjects of the intransitive counterparts no
longer express agents (i.e. animate actors), so the S-V relationship changes considerably.

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 Main “ergatives”: break, change, increase, move, open (they can act as transitive or
ergative monotransitive verbs)

3-. OBJECT-DELETION: object-deleting monotransitive verbs

“object-deleters” have intransitive counterparts with little or no change of meaning,
without obligatory adverbials, and with the same S-V relationship.
He always writes in capital letters.
He always writes, never phones.
All the traditional grammar would say that “write” can be used as transitive or as
intransitive. However, Biber says that it’s a monotransitive verb that allows the deleting
of its OD. He says that can be used as: monotransitive verb and abject-deleting
monotransitive verb.
Main “object-deleters”: drive, drink eat, read

There are also some ADVERBIAL-DELETING copular verbs, but they require a lot of contextual
support: the other patients were also released from Guy’s yesterday afternoon. One remained [in
hospital] for an exploratory operation on a shoulder injury.

4-. SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE USE: pseudo-intransitive verbs

Not unlike “ergatives”, “pseudo-intransitives” have intransitive counterparts with little
or no change of meaning and without obligatory adverbials. However, there is (1) a strong
tendency for the ‘intransitive’ to be followed by adverbials such as easily or well, or to be
preceded by the negator “not”; (2) the subjects of the intransitive counterparts no
longer express agents (i.e. animate actors), so the S-V relationship changes considerably
again.
How does the song read? The song reads as follows:…
I think it will sell well simply.
Main “pseude intransitives”: read, sell

5-. REFLEXITIVITY: reflexive monotransitive verbs

“Reflexives” have intransitive counterparts with a slight difference in the expression
of the reflexive meaning- notions such as care, scrupulosity or deliberation (i.e. unhurned
manner) are absent from the sentence:
Crosby got up, dressed, and went out, and came back again.
I dressed myself with care (it can be said to emphasize, but listening the following example
is more common) Amy washed and went to bed (we can understand she washed herself)
Main “reflexives”: wash, dress

6-. RECIPROCITY: reciprocal monotransitive verb

“Reciprocals” have intransitive counterparts with no change of meaning- only an object
such as “one another” or “each other” may be inserted to emphasise the notion
reciprocity:
Jane kissed her parents goodnight (no reciprocity) vs. The two women kissed (each other)
I met my wife in a concert (there’s not reciprocity) vs. The two men met yesterday
Main “reciprocals”: kiss, meet
Monotransitive KISS Quirk says that “kiss” is montransitive
Maggie leaned forward and kissed her cheek
Georgina took him in her arms and kissed him on the lips

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Susan and Rober kissed each other pasionately Biber consideres this example a
reciprocal monotransitive verb

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