A Level Topic 2 - Mechanics Notes

A Level Topic 2: Mechanics
Summary Notes
Vectors and Scalars........................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Adding and Subtracting Vectors – Making Resultants..................................................................................................... 3
Resolving Vectors at Right Angles........................................................................................................................................... 4
Resolving Vectors at Different Angles.................................................................................................................................... 5
Finding Components of a Vector............................................................................................................................................. 6
Resolving Multiple Vectors......................................................................................................................................................... 8
suvat Equations............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Acceleration, Velocity and Time Equation.......................................................................................................................... 11
Acceleration, Velocity and Displacement Equation......................................................................................................... 12
Displacement, Acceleration and Time Equation............................................................................................................... 12
Displacement in terms of Average velocity Equation..................................................................................................... 12
Top Tips when answering suvat Equations........................................................................................................................ 12
suvat Worked Examples............................................................................................................................................................. 13
Velocity-Time Graphs for Horizontal Motion.................................................................................................................... 16
Velocity-Time Graphs for Vertical Motion.......................................................................................................................... 19
Velocity-Time Graph – Dropping a Ball............................................................................................................................... 19
Velocity-Time Graph – A Bouncing Ball............................................................................................................................... 21
Projectile Motion.......................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Objects Thrown Forward from a Height.............................................................................................................................. 23
Projectile Motion in a Parabolic Path................................................................................................................................... 25
How to Solve Problems involving Parabolic Motion...................................................................................................... 26
Newtons Laws................................................................................................................................................................................ 29
Free Body Diagrams.................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Forces in Translational Equilibrium........................................................................................................................................ 34
Resolving Forces in Equilibrium.............................................................................................................................................. 36
Resolving Forces on an Incline................................................................................................................................................ 39
Friction.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 43
Forces in Lifts................................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Moments......................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
The Principle (Law) of Moments............................................................................................................................................. 56
Newtons Laws and Conservation of Momentum............................................................................................................. 63
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Conservation of Energy, Momentum and Kinetic Energy............................................................................................. 65
Conserving and Measuring Energy....................................................................................................................................... 66
Energy and Efficiency.................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Doing Work and Power.............................................................................................................................................................. 68
Power – The Rate of doing Work........................................................................................................................................... 72
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Vectors and Scalars
Scalar
 Has size (magnitude)
 Examples include – Distance, Speed, Energy, Mass and Volume
Vector
 Has size (magnitude) and direction
 Examples include – Force, Displacement, Acceleration, Velocity and Weight
Remember - a MINUS sign is often used to indicate direction
Drawing Vectors
A vector is represented by drawing an arrow:
 The length of the arrow tells you the magnitude (size) of the vector
 The direction of the arrow shows the direction of the vector
Adding and Subtracting Vectors – Making Resultants

Vectors can be added and subtracted. The overall result is called a Resultant vector
The resultant vector will have a magnitude and direction
Vectors in the Same Plane

If the vectors are in the same or opposite direction then subtract them.
The overall direction will be in the direction of the larger vector
eg
4N 10 N
Resultant 6N
4N
Resultant
16 N
20 N
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Resolving Vectors at Right Angles
If vectors are in different angles then we can resolve them using the tip to tail or parallelogram method:
We have two vectors at right angles to each other:
300 N
400 N
Tip to Tail
We work out the resultant force by resolving the vectors:
1. Move them so “arrow tip to arrow tail” (either way)

2. Make it into a triangle.
3. The joining hypothenuse line is the RESULTANT FORCE
4. Use Pythagoras to solve
5. FR = √ ¿ ¿ Parallelog
6. FR = √ 250000 ram
7. FR = 500 N
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Resolving Vectors at Different Angles
If the vectors are not at right angles then this is a little more challenging. You can still use tip to tail or
parallelogram method to find the direction of the resultant. You will then need to use one of the triangle
laws to sort eg Sine Law or Cosine Law
Later you will see a different methods to calculate this based on components of vectors!
Worked Example
What is the Resultant Force on this object?
We can resolve the forces using tip to tail or parallelogram methods eg

Tip to Tail Parallelogram
\
Once you have made your triangle you can add in the values as side lengths:
4
35o
12
Resultant
force
You can use the Cosine Law to calculate the Resultant force:
a2 = b2 + c2 -2bc CosA
122 = 42 + RF2 - 2 x 4 x RF x Cos35
144 = 16 + RF2 – 6.55 RF
RF2 – 6.55 RF -128 = 0
The positive value from the quadratic = 15.1 N

Resultant force = 15.1 N
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Finding Components of a Vector
This is key to lots of future work on Resolving Forces!!
 Any force can be split up into its horizontal and vertical components!
 The original force becomes the hypothenuse of a force triangle
The values of the components are LESS than the values of the original Force
They ADD UP (via Pythagoras Law) to give the original force
You can find the components using SOHCAHTOA!
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Worked Example
A 200 N pulls a block at an angle of 300.
200 N
30
0
(a). What are the vertical and horizontal components of this force?
(b). Show that these components are equal to the resultant force
Answer
Start by drawing the vectors and components in:
Use tip to tail or parallelogram to make the triangle:
Make the triangle with the force as the hypotenuse and angle added
200
30
Use SOHCATOA to work out the horizontal and vertical
For Horizontal For Vertical

Cos 30 = ADJACENT/HYPOTENUSE Sin 30 = OPPOSITE/HYPOTENUSE
Cos 30 = ADJACENT/200 Sin 30 = OPPOSITE/200
ADJACENT = 200 x Cos 30 OPPOSITE = 200 x Sin 30
Horizontal = 173.2 N Vertical = 100 N
(b). Check if the components equal the resultant force

Resultant = √ 173.22+ 1002
Resultant = √ 29998+10000
Resultant = √ 39998
Resultant = 199.99 = 200 N (due to round up of Cos)
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Resolving Multiple Vectors
What happens if you have 2 or more vectors acting on an object. How can you find the resultant force?
Here is an example of 3 forces on an object. What direction and size is the overall force?
F3= 30 N
F2 = 50 N
30o
45o
30o
F1 = 100 N
How to Solve?
1. Decide which direction is + and – eg Up = + and Left = -
2. Resolve each force into the horizontal and vertical components
3. Add up the horizontal components to find an overall horizontal force
4. Add up the vertical components to find an overall vertical force
5. Use Pythagoras to find the resultant and angle
6. Remember that some forces may point in different directions so will be negative!
Worked Example
Resolving Horizontally
F1 = F1 Cos 30 = 100 x Cos 30 = 86.7 N
F2 = F2 Cos 45 = 50 x Cos 45 = 35.4 N
F3 = F3 Sin30 = 30 x Sin 30 = - 15 N (as pointing in opposite direction)
Total Horizontal Force = 86.7 + 35.4 – 15 = 107.1 N
Resolving Vertically
F1 = F1 Sin 30 = 100 x Sin 30 = -50 N (as pointing downwards)
F2 = F2 Sin 45 = 50 x Sin 45 = 35.4 N
F3 = F3 Cos 30 = 30 x Cos 30 = 30 N
Total Horizontal Force = -50 + 35.4 + 30 = 15.4 N
Overall Resultant Force via Pythagoras Angle of Resultant Force to Horizontal

RF = √ 107.1 + 15.4
2 2
ϴ = Tan-1 15.4/107.1
RF =√ 11470.4+237.2 ϴ = Tan-1 0.14
RF = √ 11707.6 ϴ = 8.2o
RF =108 .2 N
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Distance v Time graphs
Plotting a Distance v time graph can give you a lot of information about the movement of an object
 The total distance someone travelled

 How long it took them
 When they stopped
 How long they stopped for
 What their different speeds were
 What their average speed was
 If their speed was increasing or decreasing
 What their speed was at one point
Example: Walking to the Tennis Courts
At A, moving at average speed

v = s/t, v = 200/40, v = 5 m/s
At B, not moving (distance doesn’t change)

v = s/t, v = (100-100)/(100-40), v = 0 m/s
Stays still for 100-40 = 60 s
At C, moving at average speed

v = s/t, v = (250-200)/(150-100)
v = 50/50 m/s, v = 1 m/s
Speed at A greater than speed at C as

gradient is steeper
Average speed = total distance /time

v = 250/150, v = 1.66 m/s
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What if the Distance v time graph was curved?
A curved line in a distance time graph shows speed that is changing – it could be increasing or
decreasing. This is an acceleration:
To calculate speeds, we do it at instants, called instantaneous speeds

We choose two points on the graph eg A and B.
We find the tangents to the curve:
Speed at A = gradient of tangent line
v = s/t
v = (75-25)/(150-50)
v = 50/100
v = 0.5 m/s
Speed at B = gradient of tangent line

v = s/t
v = (175-100)/(250-200)
v = 75/50
v = 1.25 m/s
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suvat Equations
What is suvat?
Equations we use to work out the motion of an object. The object must travel at a constant acceleration
There are five variables:

s – displacement
u – initial velocity
v – final velocity
a – acceleration
t - time
Each suvat equation used 4 of the variables
Acceleration, Velocity and Time Equation

Acceleration measures how quickly the velocity changes. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
Uniform Acceleration = change in velocity / time taken
The equation is written:
If the acceleration value is + (increasing velocity) we have an acceleration

If the acceleration value is - (decreasing velocity) we have a deceleration
Sometimes you see:
Δv just means change in velocity eg v - u
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Acceleration, Velocity and Displacement Equation
This suvat equation links acceleration to velocity and displacement (distance)
Displacement, Acceleration and Time Equation

This suvat equation links displacement (distance) to initial velocity, time and acceleration
Displacement in terms of Average velocity Equation

This suvat equation links displacement (distance) to initial and final velocity and time
Top Tips when answering suvat Equations

 Acceleration must be constant to use suvat equations
 If something starts from rest then u = 0 ms-1
 Something freefalling has an acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81 ms -2 unless they say so)
 Choose a value for direction (- is usually down!)
 A deceleration is when the velocity decreases. The value is negative
 Gravity always acts down
 In questions about throwing a ball up, gravity will be opposite to the ball direction and negative
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suvat Worked Examples
1. A car accelerates from rest to 20 ms-1 in 4 s. What was its acceleration?
Variable Value suvat equation
s Not known v=u+at
u 0 ms-1 (at rest) u+v
s=¿ xt
v 20 ms-1 2
a Trying to find 1 2
s=ut+ a t
t 4s 2
2 2
v =u +2 as
v = u + at, rearranging
a = (v – u)/t
a = (20 – 0)/4
a = 5 ms-2
2. A bus increases speed from 10 ms-1 to 25 ms-1 in 20 s. How far did it travel in this time?
Variable Value suvat equations
s Trying to find v=u+at
u 10 ms -1
u+v
s=¿ xt
v 25 ms-1 2
a Not known 1 2
s=ut+ a t
t 20s 2
2 2
v =u +2 as
s = ½ (u + v) x t
s = ½ (10 + 25) x t20
s = 0.5 x 35 x 20
s = 350 m
3. A hovering bird drops a stone from a height of 88 m. How long does it to hit the ground?
s 88 m v=u+at
u 0 ms (bird hovering)
-1
u+v
s=¿ xt
v Not known 2
a 9.8 ms-2 (acceleration due to gravity) 1 2
s=ut+ a t
t Trying to find 2
2 2
v =u +2 as
s = ut + ½ at2
88 = 0 + ½ x 9.8 x t2
88 = 4.9t2
t2 = 88/4.9
t2 = 17.96
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t = 4.24 s
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4. A car approaches the motorway. It increases its velocity from 20 ms -1 to 40ms-1 in 200 m. What
was its acceleration?
s 200 m v=u+at
u 20 ms -1
u+v
s=¿ xt
v 40 ms-1 2
a Trying to find out 1 2
s=ut+ a t
t Not known 2
2 2
v =u +2 as
v2 = u2 + 2as, rearrange
2as = v2 – u2
a = (v2 – u2)/2s
a = (402 - 202)/(2 x 200)
a = (1600 – 400)/400
a = 1200/400
a = 3.0 ms-2
5. A boy throws a ball vertically up in the air at 4.9 ms -1.

(a). What height does the ball reach?
s Trying to find (height is vertical distance) v=u+at
u 4.9 ms -1
u+v
s=¿ xt
v 0 ms-1 (must have stopped at the top!) 2
a -9.8 ms-2 (We chose initial velocity to be positive going up! 1 2
s=ut+ a t
t 0 2
2 2
v =u +2 as
v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = 4.92 + (2 x -9.8 x s)
0 = 24.01 -19.6s
19.6s = 24.01
s = 24.01/19.6
s =1.22 m
(b). How long is it before he catches it again?

We can split this up into two separate parts. Time how long it takes to go to the top and then to
the bottom.
s 1.22 m v=u+at
u 4.9 ms -1
u+v
s=¿ xt
v 0 ms-1 (must have stopped at the top!) 2
a -9.8 ms-2 (ball moving up way)
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t Trying to find 1 2
s=ut+ a t
2
2 2
v =u +2 as
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Time to go to top:
v = u + at
t = (v-u)/a
t = (0-4.9)/9.8
t = 2s
Time to go to bottom:
s 1.22 m v=u+at
u 0 ms-1 u+v
s=¿ xt
v We don’t know 2
a 9.8 ms-2 (ball moving in same direction) 1 2
s=ut+ a t
t Trying to find 2
2 2
v =u +2 as
s = ut + ½ at2
1.22 = 0 + ½ x 9.8 x t2
1.22 = 4.9t2
t2 = 1.22/4.9
t2 = 0.25
t = 0.5 s
So total time = 0.5 + 0.5 = 1 s
(c). What is the velocity of the coin when he catches it again

s 1.22 m v=u+at
u 0 ms -1
u+v
s=¿ xt
v Trying to find out 2
a 9.8 ms-2 (ball moving in same direction) 1 2
s=ut+ a t
t 0.5s 2
2 2
v =u +2 as
v = u + at
v = 0 + (9.8 x 0.5)
v = 4.9 m/s
Notice how the final velocity when it reaches the hand is the same as the start fvelocity when it
leaves the hand – PROJECTILE motion!
(d). Assuming the boy does not move his hand, is the time it takes to go up the same as the time it
takes to fall?
YES, we already showed this in part (b)..
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Velocity-Time Graphs for Horizontal Motion
Velocity v time graphs can show you lots of information about an objects journey:
 Any acceleration or deceleration

 Start and final velocity
 When the object is moving or not moving
 Times when the velocity is constant
 Times for different parts of the journey
 Compare different accelerations through gradients of line
 Find total displacement of journey
Worked Example: Bicycle journey to the shops and back home
What is happening in the different parts of the velocity time graph from A to H
AB – Acceleration
BC – Constant velocity
CD – Deceleration
DE – Stopped, not moving
From E, the velocity is negative, this shows a change in direction. The bike is returning home.
EF – Accelerating
FG – Constant velocity
GH – Decelerating
H - Stopped
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Velocity-Time Graph
We can calculate different values of the motion from the graph
At A: Acceleration, increasing change in velocity

At A: Acceleration = change in velocity / time
Acceleration = (200 – 0) / 50
Acceleration = 4 m/s2
At B: Constant Velocity, no acceleration
At B: Acceleration = change in velocity / time
Acceleration = (200 – 200) / 50
Acceleration = 0 m/s2
At C: Deceleration, decreasing change in velocity
At C: Acceleration = change in velocity / time
Acceleration = (0 – 200) / 25
Acceleration = -8 m/s2
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Calculating Distance Travelled in a Velocity-Time Graph
You find the total Displacement (distance) travelled by find the area UNDER the line!
You should separate the graph into 3 sections to make it easier to calculate!
Distance under the graph can be found using s = v x t
Area A = ½ x v x t (area of triangle) Area B = v x t Area C = ½ x v x t

= ½ x 200 x 50 = 200 x (100-50) = ½ x 200 x (125-100)
= 5000 m = 10000 m = 2500 m
Total Distance travelled = A + B + C

= 5000 + 10000 + 2500 = 17500 m
Note: We could use the formula s = ½ (u + v)t to find the displacement for each section!
Non-uniform Acceleration and Distance travelled

You might get a velocity v time graph that does not have uniform acceleration.
How do you find the distance travelled?
 You have an irregular pattern

 Count ‘whole’ squares under the graph
 Estimate the incomplete shapes
 Very unlikely in an exam!
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Velocity-Time Graphs for Vertical Motion
There are two types of vertical motion scenarios:
 Throwing an object up in the air
 Dropping an object on to the floor and it bouncing
Key Points to Remember

 Most examples ignore air resistance
 If no air resistance there is ONLY one force on the object if it is thrown up or down (gravity)
 Acceleration = 9.8 ms-2
 If no air resistance, a = 9.8 ms-2 , ALL THE TIME
 Choose which way you decide to be + and -. Usually the direction of travel is +
 If moving up, gravity slows down the velocity of an object so is NEGATIVE
 If moving down, gravity increases the velocity of object so is POSITIVE
About the Velocity of the Ball

 At some stage the velocity = 0
 Final velocity = 0 when ball is thrown up
 Initial velocity = 0 when ball is dropped
 The ball changes direction at some part of the journey
 The velocity will be positive and negative
Velocity-Time Graph – Dropping a Ball
At A Ball is thrown up from hand. This is the initial velocity

AB Gravity acts on ball. The ball decelerates
At B Ball velocity is 0. The ball has reached maximum height
BC Ball changes direction. Now falling down. Gravity acts with the ball. Ball is accelerating
At C Ball has maximum velocity. Ball lands back in hand
A ball thrown straight up will land with the same velocity as a ball dropped from your hand
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Finding Displacement
 Distance travelled is the area under the graph

 The acceleration is the same for each part of the journey
 The displacement is the same for each part of the journey
 The time is the same for each part of the journey
 The velocity at A and C is the same (but in different direction)
Distance and Displacement Time Graphs
At Point B, the ball reaches it maximum height The path is parabolic – it is called a trajectory
With a distance time graph there is no direction The ball goes vertically up and down again to
land on the same spot
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Velocity-Time Graph – A Bouncing Ball
Down direction chosen as negative
Key Points from Graph

 Acceleration is the same either falling down or bouncing up
 Gradient of line is same
 Velocity is same at start and end of each cycle
 Displacement falling down is same as when bouncing up
 Velocity decreases each cycle as Kinetic Energy is transferred to thermal energy stores
 There is constant exchange of Gravitational Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy
 The maximum height for each bounce is when the velocity v = 0
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Projectile Motion
In our suvat examples we have treated vertical and horizontal motion separately
 The car driving along the road
 The ball being dropped from your hand
In projectile motion, the object moves with both vertical and horizontal elements.
There are two types of projectile motion we examine:
 Objects thrown forward from a height

 Objects launched at an angle on a trajectory
Key Elements
 The vertical velocity component is affected by Force due to gravity so will increase or decrease
 The horizontal velocity component remains constant
 The time of flight is the same for both components
 All objects fall at the same rate

 If there are no external forces eg air resistance then gravity is the only force that acts on an object
 An object thrown up in the air and an object dropped straight down will land with the same
velocity
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Objects Thrown Forward from a Height
 Air resistance can be ignored

 The ball is kicked off with a horizontal velocity
 There is no initial vertical velocity
 Gravity acts on it and it is pulled into a downward curve
 The acceleration is constant (uniform)
 We can use suvat
You can be asked the following:
 How long does the object take to fall – this is called the time of flight?
 How far does the object travel – this is the horizontal distance which is called the range?
 What was the final vertical velocity of the object before hitting the ground?
 What was the overall velocity and angle that the object hit the ground with?
What is the Time to Fall – the Time of Flight?

To find this, we look at the vertical component of velocity
 The ball accelerates due to gravity
 The initial velocity is 0
 We know the displacement (height)
 We can use a suvat equation to find time
1 2
s y =u y t + at
2
78.4 = 0 x t + 0.5 x 9.8 x t2
78.4 = 4.9t2 NOTE: Notice the use of y to
2
t = 78.4/4.9 indicate vertical direction!
t2 = 78.4/4.9
t2 = 16
t = 4s
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How far does it Travel Horizontally – the Range?
To find this, we look at the horizontal component of velocity
 There are no forces acting on the ball horizontally
 The horizontal speed is constant
d
 We can use v x = where d is the horizontal distance and t is the time of flight
t
 We can rearrange this to find the distance
 We know the time from the previous part
d
vx=
t
d=v x x t
d = 8.2 x 4
d = 32.8 m
What was the final vertical velocity of the object before hitting the ground?
 We can either suvat equation to calculate the final vertical velocity
 We know the time of flight, the displacement, the acceleration and the height of the object
 Either: v = u + at
 Or v2 = u2 + 2as
Lets use both and check if we are correct:

v = u + at v2 = u2 + 2as
v = 0 + 9.8 x 4 v2 = 02 + 2 x 9.8 x 78.4
v = 39.2 ms-1 v2 = 1536.64
v = 39.2 ms-1
What was the overall velocity and angle that the object hit the ground with?
To do this, we use Pythagoras
 We have the horizontal and vertical velocities
 We can make up the triangle to find the resultant velocity
 We can find the angle it hit the ground using SOHCAHTOA:
Horizontal
Angle of Resultant Force to Vertical
VR = √ 8.22 +39.22 velocity = 8.2
ϴ = Tan-1 8.4/39.2
VR = √ 67.24+1536.64
ϴ = Tan-1 0.214
VR = √ 1603.88 Vertical velocity
Resultant velocity = 39.2 ms-1 ϴ = 12.1o
VR = 40 ms-1
= 40 ms-1 Angle is 78.9o to horizontal
ϴ
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Projectile Motion in a Parabolic Path
In this time of motion, the object follows a parabolic path called a trajectory:
 Air resistance can be ignored

 The object is launched at a certain angle – usually to the horizontal
 The object has velocity which can be broken into horizontal and vertical components
 Gravity acts on the object at all times
 The acceleration is constant (uniform)
 We need to choose a + and – direction. Usually + is upwards
 We can use suvat
You can be asked the following:
 What are the initial horizontal and vertical components of velocity?

 How long does the object take to land – this is called the time of flight?
 What was the maximum vertical height the object reached?
 How long did it take to reach its maximum height?
 How far does the object travel – this is the horizontal distance which is called the range?
 What was the final vertical velocity of the object before hitting the ground?
 What was the overall velocity and angle that the object hit the ground with?
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How to Solve Problems involving Parabolic Motion
 Find the horizontal and vertical components of velocity
 Treat the motion in each direction separately
 Use suvat equations for each – just like before
Worked Example
A person is launched from a cannot at 20ms -1 at an angle of 30o
Assuming air resistance in negligible, find the following:
(a). Find the initial horizontal and vertical components of velocity

(b). How long does the object take to land – this is called the time of flight?
(b). What was the maximum vertical height the object reached?
(c). How long did it take to reach its maximum height?
(d). How far does the object travel – this is the horizontal distance which is called the range?
(e). What was the final vertical velocity of the object before hitting the ground?
(f). What was the overall velocity and angle that the object hit the ground with?
The Initial Horizontal and Vertical Components of Velocity

The velocity is a vector and can be broken into its horizontal and vertical components:
20 ms-1 We have a right angled triangle:
30o Opposite =
Vertical velocity
Adjacent =
Horizontal
For Horizontal Velocity For Vertical Velocity

Cos 30 = ADJACENT/HYPOTENUSE Sin 30 = OPPOSITE/HYPOTENUSE
Cos 30 = ADJACENT/20 Sin 30 = OPPOSITE/20
ADJACENT = 20 x Cos 30 OPPOSITE = 20 x Sin 30
-1
Horizontal Velocity = 17.3 ms Vertical Velocity = 10 ms-1
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How long does the object take to land – this is called the time of flight?
 Gravity acts down – we have decided up is + so gravity = -9.8 ms -2
 The initial vertical velocity we calculated from before
 The overall displacement = 0
1 2
s y =u y t + at
2
0 = 10 x t - 0.5 x 9.8 x t2 NOTE: Notice the use of y to
0 = 10t – 4.9t2 indicate vertical direction!
4.9t2 -10t = 0
t2 – 2.04t = 0
t (t – 2.04) = 0
t = 0 or t = 2.04 s
t = 2.04 s
What was the maximum vertical height the object reached?

 The final velocity = 0 as it reaches the top of the curve
 We can use a suvat equation to find height
vy2 = uy2 + 2asy

0 = 100 – 2 x 9.8 x s
0 = 100 – 19.6s
19.6s = 100
s = 5.1 m
How long did it take to reach its maximum height?

 The final velocity = 0 as it reaches the top of the curve
vy = uy + at
0 = 10 – 9.8 x t
t = 10/9.8 CHECK – Is 1.02 s half of the overall flight? – YES!
t= 1.02 s
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How far does the object travel horizontally – the Range

To find this, we look at the horizontal component of velocity
 There are no forces acting on the ball horizontally
 The horizontal velocity is a component of the initial velocity
d
 We can use v x = where d is the horizontal distance and t is the time of flight
t
 We can rearrange this to find the distance
 We know the time from the previous part
d
vx=
t
d=v x x t
d = 17.3 x 2.04
d = 35.3 m
What was the final vertical velocity of the object before hitting the ground?
 We can use a suvat equation:
vy = uy + at
vy = 10 – 9.8 x 2.04 CHECK – The value is negative which means it is falling down –
vy = 10 – 19.99 it agrees with our decision to make – as the downward direction
vy = -9.99 ms-1
What was the overall velocity and angle that the object hit the ground with?
To do this, we use Pythagoras
 We have the horizontal and vertical velocities
 We can make up the triangle to find the resultant velocity
 We can find the angle it hit the ground using SOHCAHTOA:
Horizontal
Angle of Resultant Force to Vertical
VR = √ 17.32 +9.92 velocity =
ϴ = Tan-1 17.3/9.9
VR = √ 299.29+98.01 Vertical velocity
ϴ = Tan-11.75
VR = √ 397.3 Resultant velocity
= 9.9 ms-1
ϴ ϴ = 60.2o
VR = 19.93 ms-1 = 19.93 ms-1
Angle is 29.8o to horizontal
32 | P a g e
Newtons Laws
Newton’s 1st Law
An object that is not moving continues to remain at stationary and an object that is moving will continue
to move at a constant velocity unless acted on by an external force
Importantly, NO force is needed to keep an object in motion
Inertia
Inertia is the reluctance of an object to stop moving or starting moving…
 Not all objects have the same amount of Inertia..
 The more mass an object has, the greater its inertia
Example of Inertia
 A broken down car is very difficult to get moving by pushing it. It has a lot of inertia. Once it is
moving, you require very little force if any to keep it moving. You need a lot of force to stop the
car when it is moving
 Seat belts are used to slow down the speed of a driver if a car stops suddenly. The driver has
inertia and will continue to move at the same speed otherwise
 People standing on a bus will move backwards when the bus starts. The people have inertia and
are reluctant to change their position. Their legs are in contact with the floor which moves but
their bodies are not
 When you stir a cup of tea or coffee, the liquid continues to move around after you have taken
the spoon away. The liquid want to continue moving
 Long jumpers start running first before jumping. The inertia they have when running allows them
to jump great distances
Newton’s 2nd Law

If an unbalanced force does act on an object then its velocity will change. Newton’s Second Law of
Motion states that the rate of change of linear momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
external force applied on the body. This change takes place always in the direction of the force applied.
We will see this explained in the topic on momentum.
From Newtons 2nd Law we get an equation to explain how a force could cause a change in an objects
velocity
Force = mass x acceleration
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Worked Example of Newtons 2nd Law and suvat
A car with a mass of 1500 kg accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 28 ms -1. It takes a time of 11 s
to do this.
Calculate the average force that acts on the car to produce this acceleration to 2 sig fig
Answer
v−u
Calculate acceleration first using suvat: a=
t
28−0
a=
11
a = 2.55 ms-2
Use F = ma to calculate the average force

F = 1500 x 2.55
F = 3800 N
Worked Example of Newtons 2nd Law and suvat

An aircraft of mass 3.3 x 105 kg takes off from rest in a distance of 1.7 km. The maximum thrust of the
engines is 830 kN. Calculate the take-off speed to 3 sig fig?
Answer
Calculate acceleration first using F = ma:
F
a=
m
830 x 1000
a=
3.3 x 100000
a = 2.52 ms-2
Use suvat equat to calculate take off speed v 2 = u2 + 2as

v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 = 02 + 2 x 2.52 x 1.7 x 1000
v2 = 8568
v = 92.6 ms-1
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Newton’s 3rd Law
Newtons 3rd Law was interested in the interaction of objects in a collision
If object A exerts a force on object B then object B exerts an equal and opposite force on object A
Every action has an equal and opposite reaction
Examples of Newton’s 3rd Law

For a skateboard:
 You apply a force to the skateboard which pushes the skateboard back
 The skateboard applies an equal and opposite force to push you forward
Force Pairs
Action and Reaction are often thought as “Force Pairs”
To be a Force Pair:
 Be the same type of force eg 2 contact forces or 2 non-contact forces
 The forces must be acting on different objects
The Normal or Reaction Force

The Force exerted on an object resting on a surface is called Normal or Reaction force
It is equal and opposite size to an object’s weight
The apple exerts a Force W on the table, due to its weight

The table exerts a reaction force R on the apple
Are R and W force pairs? NO
The forces are acting on different objects 
The forces are not the same type 
The force due to gravity (weight) is a non-contact force
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Examples of Force Pairs
Earth and Moon
 The Earth exerts a pull on the moon because of its gravity

 The moon exerts an equal and opposite force on Earth
 The Earth is much bigger so pull only effects tides!
Rockets
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Free Body Diagrams
A free body diagram is a simple way of showing the forces and acceleration on an object
 The diagram is for one body only
 Force vectors are represented by arrows
 Only forces acting on the body are considered
 The body is represented by a simple shape eg circle or rectangle
 Forces have labels
 Include acceleration (represented as a separate double arrow)
Example 1 – A ball resting on the ground
Example 2 – A decoration hanging from the ceiling
Example 3 – A lift accelerating with a person inside it
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Forces in Translational Equilibrium
Translational means in a line – we simply mean objects moving vertically or horizontally
If an object is in equilibrium, it is at rest or moving at constant velocity (Newtons 1 st Law)
Two Forces acting on an Object

If there are two forces on the object then
 The forces must be equal in size and opposite in direction
 Resultant force = 0
Examples – In Equilibrium or Not?
YES - In equilibrium
 Forces are equal and opposite
 Resultant Force = 0
NO – Not in equilibrium
 Forces may be equal but not opposite
 Resultant Force ≠ 0
 Using tip to tail vector adding
Resultant
Force
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Three Forces acting on an Object
 If the object is in equilibrium…
 The vectors will make a triangle of forces
 If the forces all follow each other
 The forces will cancel out
Example
If we resolves this using tip to tail of vectors we get a triangle with the force all following each other:
39 | P a g e
Resolving Forces in Equilibrium
A popular question is where you are asked to find the values of forces for an object in equilibrium.
To do this you need to remember two things:
 A Force can be resolved into its horizontal or vertical component
 SOHCATOA!
Worked Example 1
By resolving T1 and T2 horizontally and vertically show
T1Cosϴ1 = T2 Cosϴ2
T1Sinϴ1 + T2 Sinϴ2 = mg
Answer
Any vector can be split up into its components:
For T1
We have a green arrow vertical part
We have a blue arrow horizontal part
For T2
We have a green arrow vertical part
We have a blue arrow horizontal part
Start by Finding the Horizontal Component of T 1 and T2

For T1
We have a right angled triangle
T1 = hypotenuse, ϴ1 = angle, Blue arrow = adjacent
Use SOHCAHTOA
ADJ Blue Arro w
Cos ϴ1 = Cos ϴ1 =
HYP T1
Blue Arrow = T1 Cos ϴ1
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For T2
T2 = hypotenuse, ϴ2 = angle, Blue arrow = adjacent
Use SOHCAHTOA
ADJ Blue Arro w
Cos ϴ2 = Cos ϴ2 =
HYP T2
Blue Arrow = T2 Cos ϴ2
Balancing the Forces Horizontally
The situation is in equilibrium

This means there is no overall force
ΣF = 0
T2 Cos ϴ2 - T1 Cos ϴ1 = 0
T2 Cos ϴ2 = T1 Cos ϴ1
Vertical Component of T1 and T2

For T1 We have a right angled triangle
T1 = hypotenuse, ϴ1 = angle (by Z angles), Green arrow = opposite
Use SOHCAHTOA
OPP Green Arrow
Sin ϴ1 = Sin ϴ1 =
HYP T1
Green Arrow = T1 Sin ϴ1
For T2
T2 = hypotenuse, ϴ2 = angle (by Z angles), Green arrow = opposite
Use SOHCAHTOA
OPP Green Arrow
Sin ϴ2 = Sin ϴ2 =
HYP T2
Green Arrow = T2 Sin ϴ2
Balancing the Forces Vertically
The situation is in equilibrium

This means there is no overall force
ΣF = 0
(T1 Sin ϴ1 + T2 Sin ϴ2) – mg = 0
T1 Sin ϴ1 + T2 Sin ϴ2 = mg
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Worked Example 2
Two strings at an angle hold up a mass. The three forces are in equilibrium.
The tension in each string is the same.
T T
ϴ ϴ
What is the value of the tension in the string?
Answer
We need to resolve the Tension vertically to balance the force W.
The vertical component of one Tension is found from the triangle:
Adjacent
Cos ϴ =
Vertical Hypotenuse
component
T Vertical component
ϴ
Cos ϴ =
T
Vertical component = T Cos ϴ
There are two tensions so the total tension = T Cos ϴ + T Cos ϴ = 2T Cos ϴ
 The forces are in equilibrium

 This means there is no overall force
 ΣF = 0
2T Cos ϴ – mg = 0
2T Cos ϴ =mg
mg
T=
cos ϴ
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Resolving Forces on an Incline
A very popular question is when you have an object placed on an incline or slope and you are asked to
find the forces on it.
The diagram below shows a block on a smooth incline. There is no friction.
The block is sliding down the incline. There are only two forces on the block: Weight and Normal force
 There must be an unbalanced force doing this

 This force will cause an acceleration
 Newton said that ΣF = ma
 What are the forces involved in making it accelerate?
 What Force is helping it move down the slope?
 It is the weight W, but not all of it – just part of it
 What component of Weight is going down the slope?
Any force can be split up into its horizontal and vertical components:
 We can do this for the W force

 The W force is always the hypotenuse of a triangle
 The other two components become the opposite and
adjacent sides
 The BLUE component is the force going down the slope
 The GREEN component is equal and opposite to the
Reaction or Normal force!
 That makes the calculations very much easier!
Looking Down the Slope

We’ve made a right angled triangle
 W = hypotenuse
 Blue arrow = opposite side
 ϴ = adjacent angle
 Use SOHCAHTOA
OPP
 Sin ϴ =
HYP
Blue Arro w
 Sin ϴ =
mg
 Blue Arrow = mg Sin ϴ
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Resolving Forces down the Incline
 Going down the slope

 ΣF = ma
 There is no friction
 mg Sin ϴ = ma
The force down the slope = mg Sin ϴ
The acceleration down the slope = g Sin ϴ
Looking at the Normal/Reaction Force
 There is a Normal force FN

 It is caused by the incline pushing on the block
 What force is responsible for the Normal force?
 The only one can be W
 It is not all of W but a part of W
• Lets resolve W
Finding the value of FN

 The value of the green arrow is equal and opposite to F N
 We’ve made a right angled triangle
W = hypotenuse
Green arrow = adjacent side
ϴ = adjacent angle
 Use SOHCAHTOA
ADJ
 Cos ϴ =
HYP
Green Arro w
 Cos ϴ =
mg
 Green Arrow = mg Cos ϴ
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Resolving Forces at Right Angles to the Incline
 ΣF = ma
 FN – mg Cos ϴ = ma
 There is no acceleration so a = 0
 FN = mg Cos ϴ
The value of the Normal = mgCos ϴ
Resolving Forces down an Incline and FRICTION

Friction is a force that goes against the direction an object moves. If the incline is not smooth then there
will be a friction force.
 Friction is a force
 It acts against the movement of an object
 If the object is moving down the incline
 Friction acts up the incline
 Friction is FF
We now have 2 forces in opposite directions
ΣF = ma
mg Sin ϴ - FF = ma
The acceleration down the slope is less than before
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Worked Example
An 2 kg object is accelerating down a rough incline at 2 ms -2.
(a). Draw a free body diagram to show the forces on the block
(b). What is the value of the forces acting down the incline
(c). What is the value of the Frictional force?
Answer
(a). If there is a force acting up the incline then there must be friction (Clue = “rough”)
The block is accelerating down the incline so the Force down incline must be greater than Friction
The force causing the block to accelerate must be the weight
(b). We need to find the component of W acting down the incline. W split into its components is:
The value of the blue arrow is the component we need to find
Using SOHCAHTOA
Opp
Sin ϴ =
Hyp
Blue Arrow
Sin ϴ =
W
Blue Arrow = W Sin ϴ
Force down incline = mg Sin ϴ
Force = 2 x 9.8 x Sin 30
Force = 9.8 N
(c). Using Newtons 2nd Law

ΣF = ma
mg Sin ϴ - FF = ma
9.8 - FF = 2 x 2
FF = 9.8 – 4
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FF = 5.8 N
Friction
In previous years, you should have learned that:
 Friction is a contact Force

 Friction opposes motion
 Friction slows things down
 Friction occurs between two surfaces sliding across each other
 The amount of friction depends on the nature of the surfaces
 Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy
 Friction is independent of surface area
When an object is moving horizontally then the Frictional Force F f acts directly opposite the motion
Friction on Objects NOT Horizontal

A ladder is leaning against a wall like the picture (1) below.
(1)
(2)
Without friction, the force of gravity is inclined to make the ladder slip to the right (2)
47 | P a g e
Friction will act to the LEFT at the bottom of the ladder (opposing movement)
Friction will act UPWARDS at the top of the ladder (opposing movement)
The WEIGHT of the ladder is at the midpoint and acts vertically down
Ff
If the wall is
smooth
Ff
Friction on Objects at Angles

A travel case is being dragged along a floor. What are the components of Force acing on the ground?
Direction of movement
The weight of the suitcase acts STRAIGHT DOWN. So W is a Force

If the floor was smooth then the bottom of the suitcase would slip and slide to the LEFT
This means that the friction force is actually acting to the RIGHT.
W
Ff
There are two forces, acting like this:

Ff
W
48 | P a g e
Forces on Pulleys
Pulleys are quite a popular exam question eg
In questions on pulleys in 2. Mechanics, the pulley will be a massless and frictionless. This means that
they will not have any impact on the tension or acceleration of the system.
 This is a Frictionless pulley

 Its mass can be ignored
 There are two Tension forces either side of the pulley
 We can call them T1 and T2
 The Tension acts towards the pulley
 This tension on both sides is the same, even if the masses are not
 It accelerates in direction of heavier mass (although don’t worry here)
 Each mass feels an equal but opposite acceleration.
How to calculate the Acceleration and Tension on a Pulley

The first stage is to treat each one separately and draw a free body diagram:
 Use Newtons 2nd Law to resolve the forces

 Remember that the overall force is in the
same direction as the acceleration
 m1g must be the bigger force
ΣF = ma
m1g – T1 = m1a
49 | P a g e
And for the second pulley:
 Use Newtons 2nd Law to resolve the forces

 Remember that the overall force is in the same
direction as the acceleration
 T2 must be the bigger force
ΣF = ma
T2 – m2g = m2a
We now have two expressions:

m1g – T1 = m1a
T2 – m2g = m2a
Remember that T1 = T2
m1g – T = m1a
T – m2g = m2a
These are simultaneous equations so:

m1g – T = m1a ------(1)
T – m 2g = m 2a ------(2)
Simultaneous equations – add (1) + (2)
m 1g – m 2g = m 1a + m 2a
Bring out common multiples
g (m1 – m2) = a(m1 + m2)
Swap around
a(m1 + m2) = g(m1 – m2)
Divide by (m1 + m2)
(m1−m2 )
a=g
(m1 +m2)
Once you have found a, you can put the value back into either equation:
m1g – T1 = m1a
T2 – m2g = m2a
This will give you the answer for T (you can check the answer using the other equation!)
50 | P a g e
Worked Example
What is the acceleration and Tension in this friction free pulley system?
Resolving Forces for T1 Resolving Forces for T2

m 1g – T 1 = m 1a T2 – m2g = m2a
8g – T1 = 8a T2 – 4g = 4a
We now have two simultaneous expressions

8g – T1 = 8a
T2 – 4g = 4a
T 1 = T2
8g – T = 8a
T – 4g = 4a
Add both together
8g – 4g = 12a
4g = 12a
a = g/3
a = 9.8/3
a = 3.267 ms-2
Substitute for a in one equation

T2 – 4g = 4a
T2 = 4a + 4g
T2 = (4 x 9.8) + (4 x 3.267)
T2 = 52.26 N
Check with other equation

8g – T1 = 8a
T1 = 8g – 8a
T1 = (8 x 9.8) - (8 x 3.267)
T1 = 52.26 N
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Other Pulley and Tension Systems
A 20 kg box rests on a friction free surface. A string is attached from it over a pully to
5 kg mass hanging vertically.
(a). Show that the acceleration of the system is 1.96 ms -2

(b). Show that the tension in the string is 36 N
(a). Although this looks different, you can use the exact same ideas that you did for Q1 and 2 and
treat the pulley as two separate parts:
Use ΣF = ma for the 20 kg mass
Use ΣF = ma for the 5 kg mass
For the 20kg mass we have this free body diagram:
20 kg Tension, T1
a
So ΣF = m1a
T1 = 20 x a
For the 5kg mass we have this free body diagram:

Tension, T2
5 kg
a
W = m 2g
So ΣF = m2a
W – T 2 = m 2a
5g – T2 = 5a
52 | P a g e
We now have two simultaneous equations and we also know that T 1 = T2
T1 = 20 x a T = 20a ----------- (1)
5g – T2 = 5a 5g – T = 5a ------- (2)
Add (1) + (2)

5g – 20a = 5a
5g = 25a
a = 0.2g
a = 1.96 ms-2
(b). Once we know a, we can substitute this back into either equation eg
T = 20a
T = 20 x 1.96
T = 39.2 N
Checking with the other equation,

5g – T = 5a
T = 5g – 5a
T = 5 (g - a)
T = 5 x (9.8 – 1.96)
T = 5 x 7.84
T = 39.2 N
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Worked Example 2
Two blocks of mass 1.0 kg and 3.0 kg are connected by a string which has a tension of 2.0 N:
A force F acts in the direction shown to the right. Assuming friction is negligible, what is the value of F?
Answer
The blocks are joined together by the string. This means their acceleration is the same.
Treat each block as a separate free body diagram and resolve
For 1kg
T = 2N
So ΣF = ma
T = ma
2 = 1a
a = 2 ms-2
For 3 kg
T = 2N F=?
So ΣF = ma
F - T = ma
F–2=3x2
F=6+2
F=8N
Check by treating both masses as one system and finding the overall acceleration
m = 1 + 3 = 4 kg
F=8N
a = F/N
a = 8/4
a = 2 ms-2 which agrees with the acceleration we calculated before.
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Forces in Lifts
Forces in Lifts remain a popular question either measuring the weight of someone on a set of bathroom
scales or the value on a spring balance attached to the ceiling!
When you stand on a set of bathroom scales or read a value from a spring balance, what force is being
measured that gives you the reading?
The actual force is the REACTION or NORMAL force – in other words the one towards you. It is the force
of the scales pushing back at you.
Both the spring balance and the scales are designed to read force. If they are attached to something that
is accelerating or decelerating then they will read differently!
A lift can move up and down. It can accelerate up and accelerate down. What happens to your weight?
We can express what is going on with a general formula:
If we take UP as +, by Newton’s 2nd Law

ΣF = FN – W
ΣF = FN – mg
Now ΣF = ma, so
ma = FN - mg
FN = ma + mg
FN = m(a + g)
So in a lift, the Normal force (what you see on the scale) = m(a + g)
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A Lift at Rest
If the lift is not moving then there is no acceleration so a = 0
Using our equation from before

FN = m(a + g)
FN = m(0 + g)
FN = mg
The reading on the scale is equal to your weight
A Lift moving at Constant Velocity either Up or Down

If the lift is moving at a constant velocity there is no acceleration so a = 0

FN = m(a + g)
FN = m(0 + g)
FN = mg
The reading on the scale is equal to your weight
A Lift moving with an Upwards Acceleration

If the lift is moving upwards with an acceleration then the acceleration is a = + a

FN = m(a + g)
FN = m(a + g)
FN = m(a +g)
FN = ma + mg
The reading on the scale is greater than your weight by ma
If you watch a video of a rocket launch you can see the g force in the faces of the astronauts as they are
being pushed down into their seats. The greater the acceleration the greater the force
56 | P a g e
A Lift moving Down with an Downwards Acceleration
If the lift is moving downwards with an acceleration then the acceleration is a = - a

FN = m(a + g)
FN = m(-a + g)
FN = -ma +mg
FN = mg - ma
The reading on the scale is smaller than your weight by ma
The faster you accelerate downwards, the lighter you feel, you begin to lose contact with the floor
You can use the formula FN = m(a + g) for any situation and find the correct answer.
Just remember the direction you have chosen as + is UP
Worked Example
A 50 kg person stand in a lift. What is their weight when the lift is:
(a). Moving at a constant speed of 5 ms-1
(b). Accelerating upwards at 2 ms-2
(c). Accelerating downwards at 1.5 ms-2
(d). Decelerating downwards at 1 ms-2
From before, we know that the Reaction or Normal force in a lift is F N = m(a + g) where + is upwards
(a). The acceleration is 0 as the lift is going at a constant velocity
FN = m(a + g)
FN = 50(0 + 9.8)
FN = 50 x 9.8
FN = 490 N
(b). The acceleration is +2 ms-2

FN = m(a + g)
FN = 50(2 + 9.8)
FN = (50 x 2) + (50 x 9.8)
FN = 590 N
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(c). The acceleration is -1.5 ms-2
FN = m(a + g)
FN = 50(-1.5 + 9.8)
FN = (50 x -1.5) + (50 x 9.8)
FN = -75 + 490
FN = 415 N
(d). The acceleration is +1 ms-2 - It is a deceleration so in opposite direction = UP so +

FN = m(a + g)
FN = 50(1 + 9.8)
FN = (50 x 1) + (50 x 9.8)
FN = 50 + 490
FN = 540 N
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Moments
What is a Moment?
 A moment is the turning effect of a force
 The turning effect is clockwise or anti-clockwise (counter clockwise)
 Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from pivot to the line of force
 M=Fxr
Example of Moments
The following objects all produce turning effects:
 Seesaw
 Scissors
 Oars in a boat
 Tweezers
 Door
 Can opener
 Stapler
Moments, Forces and Equilibrium

 If an object is in rotational equilibrium then it is balanced
 If an object is in translational equilibrium then it is not moving in any direction
 The sum of moment about a point (or pivot) is 0

 The resultant force on an object is 0
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The Principle (Law) of Moments
If an object is in rotational equilibrium, the sum of moments about a point = 0
 sum of the clockwise moments = sum of the anticlockwise moments
 ΣManticlockwise = ΣMclockwise
 F1 x d1 = F 2 x d2
In the diagram below, two objects are placed either side of a pivot. Each produces a turning effect but in
opposite directions.
They are in rotational equilibrium if:
 F1 x d1 = F 2 x d2
FR
What about the Pivot?

The pivot has a Reaction force which is pushing up on the beam. This could cause a turning effect.
Because the pivot is at the centre of gravity then the Moment of the pivot = 0
Translational Equilibrium
If the object is in translational equilibrium then ΣF = 0
The reaction force pushing up from the pivot, F R = the sum of forces F1 and F2
Compound Moments
If there is more than one moment either side of the pivot then this is called a compound moment. The
Principle of Moments is still the same:

 (F1 x d1) + (F2 x d2) + (F3 x d3) = (F4 x d4)
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Effect of the Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity is a point from where all the weight forces act.
We can say it is the same as the centre of mass
If the pivot is NOT on the centre of gravity, then the weight of the object causes a moment and a turning
effect!
In the picture below the pivot is to the left of the centre of gravity of the beam.
The weight of the beam is at the centre of gravity - W CG.
It acts as a moment and will cause a clockwise turning effect:
The Principle of Moments is still the same but we need to include the centre of gravity:

 W1 x d1 = (WCG x dCG) + (W2 x d2)
Finding the Centre of Gravity

 For any shape..*
 Hang a plumb-line from any point on the shape
 Draw a dotted line where the string lies
 Repeat for a different point
 Draw a dotted line where the string lies
 Repeat for two more points
 Where the string intersects is the centre of gravity
 For symmetric shapes, it is where the lines of symmetry cross
Centre of Gravity of Irregular Objects

Irregular objects don’t have their mass evenly distributed. Some examples include a Bunsen burner or a
clamp stand or a vacuum cleaner. You will always find their centre of gravity close to where emost of the
mass is concentrated eg
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Centre of gravity
Centre of gravity
Tricky Moments Questions

Q1. Figure 1 shows a bicycle brake lever that has been pulled with a 50 N force to apply the brake.
(a). Draw two arrows on Figure 1 to show the directions of the tension in the brake cable and the
force applied by the cyclist on the brake lever.
(b). Calculate the moment of the force applied by the cyclist about the pivot.
(c). Calculate the tension in the brake cable. Assume the weight of the lever is negligible.
Answers
(a). The direction of the tension is the direction of the pull on the brake cable. The force applied by
the cyclist on the brake lever is at right angles to the brake lever.
(b). The Moment M = F x d

M = 50 x 0.11 (converting to metres)
M = 5.5 Nm
(c). We have two forces either side of a pivot.

The tension in the brake cable causes a anticlockwise moment and the brake lever a clockwise
moment:
Pivot
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MC = MB
Fxd = Fxd
T x 0.025 = 5.5 (from part b)
T = 5.5/0.025
T = 220 N
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Q2. A 2 kg block is placed 20 cm from the left of a 1 m table. The table weighs 20 N. It is supported at
both ends.
What is the value of forces F1 and F2? (Take g as 10 N/kg)
2 kg 0.5 m
0.5 m
0.2 m
20 N
F1 F2
In this question we have a table which has two pivots at either end. There are two forces (the
Reaction forces pushing up)
The weight of the table will also act as a moment as the centre of gravity is not on the pivots.
The easiest way to do questions with 2 pivots is to use the Principle of Moments at both ends
For the Left Hand End

ΣMclockwise = ΣManticlockwise
(F1 x d1) + (WB x dB) + (WCG x d2) = F2 x d2
(F1 x 0) + (20 x 0.2) + (20 x 0.5) = F2 x 1
4 + 10 = F2
F2 = 14 N
For the Right Hand End

ΣMclockwise = ΣManticlockwise
(F1 x d1) = (F2 x d2) + (WB x dB) + (WCG x d2)
(F1 x 1) = (F2 x 0) + (20 x 0.8) + (20 x 0.5)
F1 = 16 + 10
F1 = 26 N
There is a different way to find F1. Because the table is in translational equilibrium then ΣF=0
This means the upward forces = downwards forces eg
Downwards Forces = 20 + 20 = 40 N
Upwards Forces = 14 + F1
F1 = 40 – 14
F1 = 26 N
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Q3. Figure 1 shows a simple toy mobile. This is a suspended ornament that rotates and swings in a
slight breeze. A star, moon and planet toy are suspended by cotton suspensions from the ceiling.
The weights of the objects are such that they are in equilibrium, with the weight of the planet as 1.35 N.
The weights of the horizontal bars are negligible.
(a). Calculate the weight of the star.
Answer
To do this type of question you need to remember two important things about a system in equilibrium:
 The sum of moment about a point (or pivot) is 0
 The resultant force on an object is 0
Start by working out what is the weight of the Moon.

The sum of moments about the pivot = 0
Moon x 0.045 = Planet x 0.170
Moon x 0.045 = 1.35 x 0.170
Moon = 5.74 N
The resultant force on the lower mobile is 0 as it is not moving.

This means that the downward forces due ot the Moon and Planet balance the tension in the string
5.74 + 1.35 = T
T = 7.09 N
Knowing the tension in the string we know the weight on the RHS of the top mobile.
The sum of moments about the pivot = 0
Star x 0.18 = 7.09 x 0.06
Star = 2.36 N
The weight of the star is 2.36 N
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Momentum
What is Momentum?
 Momentum is ‘mass in motion’
 It links two factors – mass and velocity
 Mass is a scalar
 Velocity is a vector – it has direction indicated by +/-
Calculating Linear Momentum

You can calculate the Momentum of an object using the formula
Linear Momentum = mass x velocity
mass – kg
velocity – ms-1
momentum – kg ms-1
Any object not moving as momentum = 0
Momentum and Collisions

Most momentum questions concern two objects that collide or are thrown apart (explosion)
Both objects might be moving or one might be stationary
Objects might be moving in different directions (so velocities will be + and -)
Conservation of Linear Momentum

When two object collide or explode
• Their total momentum remains constant
• Total momentum before collision/explosion = Total momentum after collision/explosion
• This is called Conservation of Momentum
It is ALWAYS true in a closed system with no external forces
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Newtons 2nd Law and Momentum
 The formula for Newtons 2nd Law is F = ma
 This tells us how much an object will accelerate for a given resultant force
v-u
 However, we also know (from suvat) that a =
t
v-u
 Substituting, F = m x
t
mv -mu
 Multiplying out, F =
t
 mv – mu is the change of momentum
 Anything ÷ t is called a rate
 Newtons 2nd Law now says, that for an object
 The rate of change of linear momentum is directly proportional to the force you apply
mv -mu
 F=
t
Newtons 3rd Law and Momentum

 Every action has an equal and opposite reaction
 For a skateboard:
 You apply a force to the skateboard which pushes the skateboard back
 The skateboard applies an equal and opposite force to push you forward
If object A exerts a force on object B then object B exerts an equal & opposite force on object A
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Newtons Laws and Conservation of Momentum
The red ball and blue ball have velocities u1 and u2 and mass m1 and m2
They travel in the same direction but at different velocities
At one stage, they collide:
During the collision, they exert a force on each other
By Newtons 3rd Law, this force must be equal and opposite

 The red ball exerts a force F2 on the blue ball
 The blue ball exerts an equal but opposite force on the red ball F1
 The force of the red ball will cause the blue ball to change velocity – it will speed up
 The force of the blue ball will cause the red ball to change velocity – it will slow down
By Newtons 2nd Law, the force will be equal to the rate of change of momentum
 So for F1, F1 = (m1v1 – m1u1)/t
 So for F2, F2 = (m2v2 – m2u2)/t
According to Newtons 3rd law, F1 and F2 are equal and opposite

 So F1 = -F2
 (m1v1 – m1u1)/t = - (m2v2 – m2u2)/t
 Divide both sides by t
 (m1v1 – m1u1) = - (m2v2 – m2u2)
 Rearrange to bring the u on one side and v on the other,
 m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2
The total momentum after the collision = the total momentum before!
Momentum is conserved!
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Momentum Questions
Q1. A lorry weighing 10,000 kg is travelling at 10 ms -1. It collides with a car weighing 2,000 kg
travelling in the opposite direction and they both come to a halt. How fast was the car travelling?
A1. The first thing is to choose which direction is + and - I chose to the right as +
You MUST set out your answer showing ALL your working and the conservation of momentum eg
Momentum before Collision = Momentum after Collision
pL + pC = pL + pC
(mLvL) + (mCvC) = (mLvL) + (mCvC)
(10,000 x 10) + (2000 x v) = 0 (as both have stopped, v=0)
100,000 + 2,000v = 0
2,000v = -100,000
v = -50 ms-1 , so the car was travelling 50 ms-1 in the opposite direction
Q2. A bullet fired from a gun leaves with a velocity of 150 ms -1. The bullet weighs 0.1 kg. The gun
recoils with a speed of 0.5 ms-1. How heavy was the gun?
A2. The first thing is to choose which direction is + and - I chose to the right as +
Momentum before Collision = Momentum after Collision
pG + pB = pG + pB
(mGvG) + (mBvB) = (mGvG) + (mBvB)
(mG x 0) + (0.1 x 0) = (mG x -0.5) + (0.1 x 150)
0 = -0.5mG + 15
0.5mG = 15
Mass of the gun = 30 kg
Q3. A particle P of mass 0.3 kg is moving with speed u ms -1 in a straight line on a smooth horizontal
table. The particle P collides with a particle Q of mass 0.6 kg, which is at rest on the table.
Immediately after the collision, P has a speed of 2 ms -1 and Q has a speed of 5 ms-1. The direction
of P is reversed by the collision.
Find the magnitude and direction for u and show all your working.
A3. I chose the right as +
By conservation of momentum pbefore = pafter
pP + pQ = pP + pQ
(mv)P + (mv)Q = (mv)P + (mv)Q
(0.3 x u) + (0.6 x 0) = (0.3 x -2) + (0.6 x 5)
0.3u + 0 = -0.6 +3
0.3u = 2.4
-1
u = 8 ms moving to the right
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Conservation of Energy, Momentum and Kinetic Energy
Conservation of Energy
 Energy is ALWAYS conserved in a collision
 The energy stores before and after may not be the same type
 After the collision, some energy may be in a useful Kinetic Energy store
 Some energy maybe dissipated/wasted in Thermal Energy or Internal stores
Conservation of Linear Momentum

 Provided we have a closed system and no external forces acting…
 Momentum is ALWAYS conserved in a collision
 Momentum before the collision equals the momentum after
Conservation of Kinetic Energy

 Kinetic Energy is ONLY conserved if the collision is ELASTIC
 If the collision is INELASTIC the kinetic energy after the collision is less than before
 A perfect inelastic collision is when both objects are not moving after collision
 Kinetic energy is dissipated/wasted into thermal energy stores (through friction)
 A special type of inelastic collision is called a PLASTIC collision
 Here the two objects join up after the collision
 Kinetic energy is calculated using speed (a scalar)
Summary
In a closed system with no external force:
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Conserving and Measuring Energy
Conservation of Energy
 Energy is most often measured in Joules eg kJ or MJ
 At an atomic level, we measure energy in electron volts eV
 Energy CANNOT be made, lost or destroyed
 Energy is ALWAYS conserved
 What we end up with may not always be in the most useful form
 Some energy is wasted or dissipated
 It usually ends up in thermal/internal energy stores
 Spread out into the surroundings
Kinetic Energy Store

 When an object moves it has energy in its KINETIC ENERGY store
 Energy is transferred to the object when it accelerates
 It is removed from the object when it slows down
 Kinetic Energy is measured with the formula:
Gravitational Potential Energy Store

 When you lift a ball up you do work against the force of gravity
 Energy is transferred into its GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY store
 The higher the object is lifted, the more energy is transferred
 Gravitational Potential Energy changes are measured with the formula
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Energy Transfers between Kinetic and Gravitational Potential Energy
As an object falls from a height there is ab exchange between GPE and KE
If we ignore air resistance and friction then
Gravitational Potential Energy Store  Kinetic Energy Store
If the transfer is 100% efficient then

• mgh = ½ mv2 m cancel
2
• gh = ½ v x both sides by 2
2
• 2gh = v Rearrange and square root
• v = √ 2gh
The rate at which an object falls is independent of its mass. All objects fall at the same rate.
Energy and Efficiency

An efficient energy transfer is where most of the input energy is transferred to useful energy stores.
Efficient devices transfer most of the energy to useful energy stores.
If less energy is wasted, we say the transfer is more efficient.
Efficiency can be measured using a formula…
 Efficiency has NO UNITS

 It is usually measured as a fraction or a percentage (x100)
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Doing Work and Power
Doing Work
 We do work by applying a force to an object to make it move
 This force transfers Energy from one store to another
 The direction the object moves is in the same direction of the force
 The work involve a change in location
 The force we apply over the distance EQUALS the increase in the new energy store
- 200 J of work is done to lift a box, the gravitational potential energy of the box increases by 200 J
- 3000 J of work is done to accelerate a car, the kinetic energy of the car increases by 3000 J
- 10 J of work is done to compress a spring, the spring stores 10 J of elastic potential energy
Measuring Work
Work = force x distance moved in the direction of the force
The force may not be in the direction the object moves, you need to resolve the force so it matches!
eg for a windsurfer
Resolving the force in the direction the windsurfer is going = F Cosϴ

Work done = F Cosϴ x s
Doing Work against Friction

We have to do work to overcome friction too:
 A box is moving at a constant speed on a horizontal surface
 It must overcome friction to make it move
The horizontal component of force = F Cosϴ

If the object moves at constant speed then FF =F Cosϴ
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Doing Work against Friction – On an Incline
 A penguin is on a slide. It has weight, W
 There is friction which acts against the penguin
moving, FF
 The force going down the slide is a component
of the penguin’s weight
 Ws= W Cos ϴ = mg Cos ϴ
 The penguin slides down at a constant speed
 Friction Force = Weight down slide
 F= mg Cos ϴ
 Work done = Fs = mg Cosϴ s
Doing Work against Gravity

I do work against gravity lifting a ball of mass m to a certain height h
 I use a Force F acting through a displacement s
 Work done = gain in Potential energy
 Fxs=mxgxh
 s and h are the same, so they cancel
 F = mg
 The force I apply is equal to the weight of the ball
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Worked Examples
A car weighing 1000 kg is travelling at 20 m/s. It comes to the lights and brakes. A force of 5000 N is
applied to stop the car.
(a). What is the change in energy store?

Kinetic energy  Thermal energy (of brakes)
(b). How much work is done to transfer the energy

Work done = change in kinetic energy
Work done = ½mv2 - ½mv2
Work done = ½ x 1000 x 20 x 20 - 0
Work done = 200 000 J or 200 kJ
(c). How far did the car travel?

Work done = Force x distance
200,000 = 5,000 x distance
200,000
distance = = 40 m
5,000
(d). How far did the car travel?

F = ma, a = F/m, a = -5000/1000 = -5ms-2
v2 = u2 + 2as, u = 20ms-1, v=0 ms-1, a = -5 ms-2
s = u2/2a
s = 400/(2 x 5)
s = 40 m
(e). Why can we normally NOT use suvat in these questions?

The force is not uniform, it may change so the acceleration is not constant
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Doing Work Graphically
How would we show work being done graphically?
 If force varies with distance we can plot them together
 The AREA under the graph would show work being done
A child pushes a toy car across the floor. What work did they do?
Work done = Area under the graph

Work done = ½ x (5 x 1.5)
Work done = 3.75 J
If the force is not constant then you need to count up the area of individual squares in the graph.
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Power – The Rate of doing Work
Power measures the rate that an object transfers energy
Power measures the rate that an object does work
Power depends on the time it takes to transfer the energy
The quicker it can transfer energy, the more powerful it is!
Power Formulas
Power can be calculated using all of these different formulas:
Power Questions
Q1. A weightlifter lifts a mass of 100 kg a height of 1.5 m in 0.5s. Show that the power developed by
the weightlifter is 2.94 kW. (Take g as 9.8 N/kg)
A1. Potential Energy transferred = EPE = mgh

EPE = mgh
EPE = 100 x 1.5 x 9.8
EPE = 1470 J
Power = Energy transferred ÷ time taken
P = 1470 ÷ 0.5 s
P = 2940 W or 2.94 kW
Q2. A 40 kg girl walks up a flight of stairs in 5s. The height of the stairs is 2m. Show the power
generated to climb the stairs is 156.8 W? (Take g as 9.8 N/kg)
A2. Potential Energy transferred = EPE = mgh

EPE = mgh
EPE = 40 x 2 x 9.8 Note: The height is ALWAYS the
EPE = 784 J vertical height!
Power = Energy transferred ÷ time taken
P = 784 ÷ 5 s
P = 156.8 W
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Linking Power to Velocity
We can do this ONLY when an energy transfer involves a gain in kinetic energy – NOT gravitational
potential energy:
 Power = Rate of Energy transferred
 Work is done to gain kinetic energy
Work done
 Power =
time taken
Force x displacement
 Power =
time taken
 Power = Force x velocity
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A Level Topic 2 - Mechanics Notes

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A Level Topic 2 - Mechanics Notes

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A Level Topic 2: Mechanics

Adding and Subtracting Vectors – Making Resultants

Vectors in the Same Plane

We work out the resultant force by resolving the vectors:

1. Move them so “arrow tip to arrow tail” (either way)

We can resolve the forces using tip to tail or parallelogram methods eg

The positive value from the quadratic = 15.1 N

Use tip to tail or parallelogram to make the triangle:

Use SOHCATOA to work out the horizontal and vertical

For Horizontal For Vertical

(b). Check if the components equal the resultant force

Overall Resultant Force via Pythagoras Angle of Resultant Force to Horizontal

 The total distance someone travelled

Example: Walking to the Tennis Courts

At A, moving at average speed

At B, not moving (distance doesn’t change)

At C, moving at average speed

Speed at A greater than speed at C as

Average speed = total distance /time

To calculate speeds, we do it at instants, called instantaneous speeds

Speed at B = gradient of tangent line

There are five variables:

Each suvat equation used 4 of the variables

Acceleration, Velocity and Time Equation

The equation is written:

If the acceleration value is + (increasing velocity) we have an acceleration

Sometimes you see:

Δv just means change in velocity eg v - u

Displacement, Acceleration and Time Equation

Displacement in terms of Average velocity Equation

Top Tips when answering suvat Equations

5. A boy throws a ball vertically up in the air at 4.9 ms -1.

(b). How long is it before he catches it again?

So total time = 0.5 + 0.5 = 1 s

(c). What is the velocity of the coin when he catches it again

 Any acceleration or deceleration

Worked Example: Bicycle journey to the shops and back home

At A: Acceleration, increasing change in velocity

Distance under the graph can be found using s = v x t

Area A = ½ x v x t (area of triangle) Area B = v x t Area C = ½ x v x t

Total Distance travelled = A + B + C

Non-uniform Acceleration and Distance travelled

 You have an irregular pattern

Key Points to Remember

About the Velocity of the Ball

Velocity-Time Graph – Dropping a Ball

At A Ball is thrown up from hand. This is the initial velocity

 Distance travelled is the area under the graph

Distance and Displacement Time Graphs

Down direction chosen as negative

Key Points from Graph

There are two types of projectile motion we examine:

 Objects thrown forward from a height

 All objects fall at the same rate

 Air resistance can be ignored

You can be asked the following:

What is the Time to Fall – the Time of Flight?

Lets use both and check if we are correct:

 Air resistance can be ignored

You can be asked the following:

 What are the initial horizontal and vertical components of velocity?

Assuming air resistance in negligible, find the following:

(a). Find the initial horizontal and vertical components of velocity