Point of View
Air Entrainment
and Delaminations
How air entrainment contributes to distress of
concrete slabs subjected to a hard-trowel finish
BY DAVID R. LANKARD
R ecently, the construction industry has given
considerable attention to distress of concrete slab
surfaces—namely, blistering and delamination. Both of
these phenomena involve the separation of a thin layer of
concrete from the slab surface. The separation plane is
most often parallel to, and 3 to 10 mm (0.1 to 0.4 in.)
below, the slab surface, although the plane may be as
much as 30 mm (1.2 in.) below.
In the analyses of slab delaminations to date, most
view air entrainment as one of many variables that can
affect the entrapment of bleed water. If the entrapment
of bleed water is the principal source of delaminations
in hard-trowel-finished concrete slabs, however, it is
reasonable to expect that distress would occur with equal
frequency in nonair-entrained and air-entrained slabs.
In fact, it can be claimed that there should be more
cases of delaminations that occur in nonair-entrained
concrete slabs because this type of concrete is used
more often in interior slab construction. As experience
has shown, the opposite is true—that a greater percentage
of air-entrained concrete slabs delaminate.
This point of view article is presented for reader interest by the
editors. However, the opinions expressed are not necessarily those
of the American Concrete Institute. Reader comment is invited.
Based on my experience, as well as that of other
petrographers,1 I suggest that most slab delaminations
involve air-entrained concrete. The apparent influence
of air entrainment on delaminations in hard-trowel-
finished concrete slabs is the motivating issue for the
present article. Observations made during petrographic
examinations of air-entrained concrete support a
hypothesis that the physical forces caused by troweling
can be responsible for creating delaminations. The forces
arise from the trowel acting on a material (concrete) of
variable, and decreasing, (with depth in the slab) stiffness.
In this scenario, the effect of entrained air voids on the
stiffness gradient through the slab thickness helps
to explain the role of air entrainment in delaminations. In
cases of delaminations in hard-trowel-finished, air-
entrained concrete slabs, bleed water entrapment is
frequently not involved. These issues are explored in
the remainder of this article, using examples of nonair-
entrained and air-entrained concrete slabs that have
exhibited blistering and delamination distress.
PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATIONS
The opinions expressed here represent interpretations
of observations made during petrographic examinations
of 30 cases of blistering and delamination in hard-
trowel-finished slabs; most of which used air-entrained
Concrete international / NOVEMBER 2004 21
 CRUSTING, BLISTERING,
AND DELAMINATION
Current knowledge and understanding of
crusting, blistering, and delamination can be
summarized as follows:1-13
1. Crusting and blistering are not nearly as common
as delamination.
2. No distinction is usually made regarding the
frequency of occurrence of crusting and
blistering as influenced by the presence or absence
of air entrainment.
3. Delamination problems most commonly occur with
interior floor slabs, but also occur in parking
structure deck slabs and other types of slabs when
a hard trowel finish has been used.
4. A prevailing opinion is that conditions for
delaminations to form are created when the slab
surface is sealed by the initiation of the trowel
finishing operation prior to the cessation of
bleeding. This leads to the entrapment of bleed
water, creating a plane of weakness along which a
separation subsequently occurs.
5. It is thought that delaminations are most likely to
form from bleed water entrapment when the top of
the slab hardens or stiffens faster than the
underlying concrete—a condition referred to as
“top-down stiffening.”13
6. Premature finishing is frequently cited as a cause of
bleed water entrapment. It is also acknowledged
that, what otherwise might simply be blamed on
premature finishing, often involves contributions
from other design, construction, environmental, and
material variables that influence top-down stiffening
in a slab. This influence is exerted through the
effect that these variables have on the rate of
setting or stiffening of the concrete at different
concrete. Concrete samples provided for examination
are cores and sawed pieces taken from the slabs.
Samples were taken from areas of the slabs where
spalling of the delaminated concrete had occurred,
as well as areas where the slab-wearing surface was
still intact.
The guidelines of ASTM C 85614 were followed in
sample preparation and examination. Examples discussed
here represent observations made using reflected light
microscopy examinations on saw-cut/lapped surfaces,
delamination surfaces, and intentionally created fracture
surfaces. Lapped examination surfaces are sections taken
perpendicular to the plane of the slab surface. In some
cases, an epoxy layer was placed on the wearing
surface of the sample prior to preparing the sample for
22 NOVEMBER 2004 / Concrete international
elevations in the slab, and on the bleeding rate
and bleeding capacity of the concrete. These
variables include:5,9,10,13
■ Ambient conditions (wind speed, temperature,
relative humidity);
■ Radiant heat from sunlight;
■ Cold sub-base;
■ Moisture loss or retention by the sub-base;
■ Slab thickness;
■ Types of finishing tools;
■ Concrete water content;
■ Concrete air entrainment;
■ Cement content of the concrete; and
■ The use of supplementary cementing materials.
7. Despite the fact that the majority of interior floor
slabs are constructed with nonair-entrained
concrete, delamination problems are most common in
air-entrained concrete slabs.3,4 Evidence supporting
a major involvement of entrained air in the problem
is compelling enough that several consensus
documents published by ACI warn of the increased
risk of delaminations when air entrainment is used
for hard-trowel-finished slabs.6,7
8. Although it is recognized that air entrainment can
reduce the bleeding rate in concrete, and thus affect
bleed water entrapment, the disproportionate
influence of air entrainment on the delamination
problem has not been clearly elucidated.
9. Either through omission, or by inference in the
literature, lightweight aggregate concretes are
considered to be less vulnerable than normalweight
concretes to the delamination problem. This issue
needs to be re-examined as field experience has
demonstrated that air entrainment also increases
the risk of delaminations in lightweight-aggregate
concretes that are hard-trowel finished.
microscopic examination. This procedure is used to
ensure preservation of the features of the as-received
samples during the various sample preparation
procedures. The air content of many of the concretes
was measured using the ASTM C 457 procedure (Modified
Point Count Method).15
The water-cementitious material ratios (w/cm) of the
concretes were estimated based on observations of color,
texture, hardness, appearance of fracture surfaces,
porosity, and relative abundance of unhydrated cement
grains of the cement paste phase. Because there is no
standard procedure for this subjective estimate, an
assessment of concrete-to-concrete variability in w/cm is
difficult. Many of the features and characteristics of the
cement paste used to estimate the w/cm are influenced
by variables such as curing procedure, the duration of
the curing period, and cement hydration rate. More
confidence can be placed in estimates of variability in
w/cm for a given concrete sample.
In the projects reviewed for the present study, the
w/cm ranged from 0.35 to 0.55, with most in the range
of 0.40 to 0.50. The total air content for the air-
entrained concretes ranged from 3.8 to 9.4%, with
most between 4.5 and 7.5%. The total cementitious
content of the concretes ranged from 500 to 700 lb/yd3
(300 to 415 kg/m3). About half of the concretes contained
fly ash.
In all of the photographs and photomicrographs
shown in this article, the wearing surface is toward
the top of the page. These examples provide a clear
picture of the effect of the hard-troweling operation
on the microstructure of the concretes; particularly
in the concrete in the top 1 in. (25 mm) thickness of
the slab.
BLISTERING
When a hard-trowel finish is applied to any concrete
slab, a thin layer of the wearing surface is compacted and
densified. Energy going into the slab surface in the form
of frictional heat and pressure significantly reduces the
local w/cm and virtually eliminates any entrapped or
entrained air present prior to troweling.
This compacted, densified surface layer (DSL) is
easily identified in section views by its darker color,
which is due to its lower w/cm relative to the underlying
concrete. An example is Fig. 1, which shows a blister
separation in a nonair-entrained concrete slab (2.6% air).
Here the DSL is 2 mm (0.1 in.) thick with a w/cm estimated
at less than 0.30. The DSL is principally a mortar that,
due to its low w/cm, has a lower permeability than the
underlying, as-placed concrete (APC), which has a w/cm
of 0.48. In Fig. 1, the DSL was formed prior to the
cessation of bleeding and the slab surface blistered
during troweling. The blistered separation (about 0.6 mm
[0.02 in.] thick) is located at the boundary between
the DSL and the APC. Separation resulted from the
subsidence of the concrete immediately under the DSL
as bleeding was interrupted. At this site, the bleed
water that originally filled the separation cavity was
reabsorbed by the underlying concrete without
significantly affecting its w/cm. There is a very thin
layer of laitance on the top surface of the APC following
blistering, but the separation itself had already taken
place, and no further mixing of the bleed water with the
concrete occurred.
When crusting or blistering occurs in nonair-entrained
and air-entrained concrete slabs, the plane of separation
typically is located at the boundary between the DSL
and the underlying APC. If sealing of a slab surface prior
Epoxy
DSL
S
APC
1 mm
Fig. 1: Section view (10x) perpendicular to the plane of the
wearing surface in a nonair-entrained concrete slab that
blistered during troweling. The densified surface layer (DSL) is
2 mm (0.1 in.) thick. The blister separation (s) is 0.6 mm (0.02 in.)
thick. Concrete underlying the blister separation has
microstructural features of the bulk, as-placed concrete (APC)
to the initiation or cessation of bleeding was the only
way delaminations formed, it is expected that the
delamination plane would always be located at, or very
near, this boundary. In the cases involving air-entrained
concrete slabs examined here, the delamination typically
does not occur at this boundary. In these slabs, the
delamination plane is often well below the DSL in
concretes that have the same w/cm, but a lower air
content and different microstructural features relative to
the APC. I offer an explanation of this phenomenon by
examining the effect that air entrainment has on the
mechanical response of the concrete to troweling near
the slab surface.
HARD-TROWELING
AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE
When concrete is air entrained, there are further
consequences of hard troweling beyond the creation of a
DSL. The “top-down” stiffening phenomenon, also
referred to as differential stiffening,12,13 appears to be
involved. For purposes of illustration, it is convenient
to envision the DSL as a thin, hard, stiff steel plate
overlying a more-plastic, less-stiff concrete, which is in
the process of hardening. As troweling proceeds, the
concrete under the plate is compressed and physically
distorted by the lateral shear forces acting on the plate
by the trowel. The greater the difference in stiffness
between the plate and the underlying concrete, the
greater the probability of movement and disruption in
the underlying concrete that is directly in contact with
the plate. The entrained air voids (in this scenario)
cause a significant reduction in the stiffness and yield
stress of the cementitious phase of the concrete
compared to the same concrete without air entrainment.
Concrete international / NOVEMBER 2004 23
TABLE 1:
CHARACTERIZATION OF DISTINCTIVE CONCRETE LAYERS CREATED WHEN AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE RECEIVES A HARD-TROWEL FINISH
Layer Abbreviation used
identification Characteristics relative to the as-placed concrete for the layer
■ Forms the immediate wearing-surface layer;
■ Significantly higher cement paste content;
■ Virtual absence of entrapped and entrained air voids;
Densified
■ Significantly lower w/cm; DSL
surface layer
■ The typical thickness of this layer is 1 to 4 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in.), but can be
as thick as 8 mm (0.3 in.); and
■ Overlies the DT.
■ Comparable cement paste content;
■ Significantly reduced entrained-air-void content;
■ Similar w/cm;
■ Contains distinctive microstructural features including irregularly shaped
Distorted layer voids, tears within the cementitious phase, and cement paste-aggregate DT
bond disruptions;
■ The typical thickness of this layer is 1 to 10 mm (0.1 to 0.4 in.), but it can
be as thick as 22 mm (1 in.); and
■ Overlies the APC.
■ The term used to identify the concrete at and near the slab-wearing
surface that is compressed, manipulated, and distorted by the action of
Trowel-affected the trowel, representing the combined thickness of the DSL and the
TAZ
zone DT; and
■ The typical thickness is 2 to 14 mm (0.1 to 0.5 in.), but can be as thick as
30 mm (1.2 in.).
■ Has the cement paste content of the APC;
■ Has the total air-void content of the APC;
As-placed ■ Has the air-void size distribution of the APC;
APC
concrete ■ Air-void shape is spherical;
■ Has the w/cm of the APC; and
■ Forms the remaining thickness of the concrete slab under the TAZ.

This is the same effect that entrained air has on

Fig. 2: Schematic diagram showing the different layers formed
in and near the wearing surface of an air-entrained concrete
slab that has received a hard-trowel finish. A characterization
of the features and microstructure of these layers is given in
Table 1
increasing the slump in concrete. During troweling,
the concrete layer immediately under the plate is
subject to greater movement and manipulation of the
air-entrained paste.
As troweling proceeds, the “distorted” concrete
immediately under the plate experiences a reduction in
entrained air content, but no reduction in w/cm relative
to the APC. The presence of hard, stiff aggregate
particles in the initially air-entrained paste creates
more opportunities for physical disruptions to occur
within the cementitious phase and at cement paste-
aggregate boundaries.
In concretes examined from service, a number of
microstructural features are preserved in the near-
surface hardened concrete that attest to the distortion
and manipulation effects of troweling described
previously. In addition to actual delaminations, these

24 NOVEMBER 2004 / Concrete international

features include: 1) relatively large, irregularly (3a)
shaped voids within the cementitious phase of the DSL
concrete; 2) short, discontinuous separations or tears
within the cementitious phase; 3) a partial disruption
of the bond between aggregate particles and the
DT
adjacent cementitious phase; and 4) voids adjacent to
aggregate particles.
The distinctive layers resulting from a hard-trowel APC
finish of an air-entrained concrete slab are illustrated
schematically in Fig. 2. They include: 1) the DSL, which in
the cases considered here, ranges from as thin as 1 mm
(0.04 in.) to as thick as 8 mm (0.3 in.) overlying; 2) the
“distorted” layer (DT) which ranges from 1 to 22 mm
(0.04 to 1 in.) thick and overlies; 3) concrete that retains
the same w/cm and air content of the APC.
Taken together, the combined thickness of the DSL
and the DT will be referred to as the trowel-affected
zone (TAZ), which can range in thickness from 2 to 30 mm
(0.1 to 1 in.).
Relative to the APC, the DSL shows: 1) a significantly
lower w/cm; 2) a significantly higher cement paste (3b)
content; and 3) virtually no entrapped or entrained
air voids.
Relative to the APC, the DT shows: 1) a similar w/cm; DT
2) a reduced entrained air void content; 3) a different
air-void size distribution; and 4) the presence of one or
more of the microstructural features described previously,
which are attributed to the manipulation of this layer
prior to its hardening.
As implied, the APC contains the w/cm, the entrained-
air-void content, and the air-void size distribution of the APC
concrete as placed.
Table 1 summarizes all of the features described here
and illustrated in Fig. 2. Figure 3 through 8 show examples
of the microstructural features present in the TAZ of Fig. 3: Delamination in an air-entrained, lightweight aggregate
trowel-finished, air-entrained concrete slabs. These concrete slab; (a) The densified surface layer (DSL) is 4 to 6 mm
(0.2 to 0.3 in.) thick in this core sample; (b) A delamination is
features can be present in slabs that show few or no present 13 to 19 mm (0.5 to 0.8 in.) below the wearing surface at
delaminations. When delaminations do occur, the the boundary between the distorted layer (DT) and the as-placed
delamination plane is typically at or near the boundary concrete (APC)
between the DT and the underlying APC. This boundary
represents an abrupt transition between concrete The DSL, which is 4 to 6 mm (0.2 to 0.3 in.) thick in this
having a low to very low entrained air void content, and case, can be seen in Fig. 3(a) as the dark wearing surface
concrete that has the elevated entrained air void layer. If this DSL had been formed prior to cessation of
content of the APC. By virtue of this difference in air bleeding, trapping the bleed water, it is expected that the
entrainment, this boundary also defines the separation delamination would occur 4 to 6 mm (0.2 to 0.3 in.) below
between cementitious phases that differ significantly in the wearing surface. In fact, the delamination is 13 to
yield stress. 19 mm (0.5 to 0.8 in.) below the wearing surface, at the
boundary between the DT, which is 8 to 14 mm (0.3 to 0.5 in.)
DELAMINATIONS thick, and the APC.
Figure 3(a) and 3(b) show two views of delamination When troweling began, the entrained air content was
in a lightweight aggregate concrete slab in which probably uniform throughout the slab. After troweling, as
delaminations were detected after the slab had been in indicated by the petrographic examination, the air
service for 20 months. The estimated w/cm of the content in the DSL is virtually zero, and the air content
concrete is 0.40 and the measured air content is 9.8%. in the DT is significantly reduced relative to the APC.

Concrete international / NOVEMBER 2004 25

 DSL
LENTICULAR VOIDS
DT
APC
1 mm
Fig. 4: Section view (10x) perpendicular to the plane of the
wearing surface in an air-entrained (6.0%), normalweight
concrete slab in which delaminations were detected 9 months
after the slab was placed in service. The densified surface layer
is 2 mm (0.1 in.) thick, the distorted layer (DT) is 5 mm (0.2 in.)
thick, and the thickness of the TAZ is 7 mm (0.3 in.). The
delamination plane (marked with arrows) is at the boundary
between the DT and the as-placed concrete. A lenticular void is
present in the cementitious phase 4.5 mm (0.2 in.) below the
wearing surface
As shown in Fig. 3(b), the delamination occurs at the
boundary between the DT and the APC. The delamination
passes around fine and coarse aggregate particles. The
w/cm is the same on both sides of the delamination.
Figure 4 shows an example of an incipient delamination
in an air-entrained, normalweight concrete. The w/cm
of the APC is estimated at 0.40, and the air content is
6.0%. The concrete sample examined here is a 4-in.-
diameter (100 mm) core. Delamination distress was first
observed in this slab 9 months after the concrete was
placed. In the core shown in Fig. 4, the DSL is 2 mm
(0.1 in.) thick, the DT is 5 mm (0.2 in.) thick, and the
TAZ is 7 mm (0.3 in.) thick. The delamination plane
occurs at the boundary between the DT and the
underlying APC. The w/cm is the same on both sides of
the delamination.
In both the normalweight- and lightweight-aggregate
concretes that show delamination distress, the delamination
plane typically is right at or very near the boundary
between the DT and the APC. This boundary represents
an abrupt transition in entrained-air-void content.
26 NOVEMBER 2004 / Concrete international
LENTICULAR VOIDS
DT
APC
1 mm
Fig. 5: Section view (10x) perpendicular to the plane of the
wearing surface in an air-entrained (6.5%), lightweight aggregate
concrete slab showing an incipient delamination (arrows) 14 mm
(0.5 in.) below the wearing surface. An irregularly shaped void
having a sinusoidal upper surface forms part of the delamination,
which is at the boundary between the distorted layer and the
as-placed concrete
IRREGULARLY SHAPED VOIDS
At the initiation of slab troweling, the entrained air
content is probably more or less uniform throughout
the slab. Troweling virtually eliminates the entrained
air voids in the DSL and significantly reduces the
entrained-air-void content in the DT. It is reasonable
to conclude that some of the entrained air voids in the
DT are joined or coalesced during the physical
manipulation of the concrete to form the irregularly
shaped voids observed here. When viewed in two
dimensions on a lapped section, these voids typically
exceed 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) in size. Many of these voids
are elongated or lenticular in shape with the long axis
typically, but not always, oriented parallel to the
plane of the slab surface. Frequently they show a
sinusoidal upper surface suggesting that they represent
two or more air voids joined together. Figure 4 and 5
show examples of this lenticular void type. In the
normalweight concrete shown in Fig. 4, the void is a
little over 1 mm long and is contained within the
cementitious phase about 2 mm (0.1 in.) above the
delamination plane.
Figure 5 is a section view of a 2-3/4-in.-diameter (70 mm)
core of lightweight aggregate concrete with a w/cm
estimated at 0.45 and an air content of 6.5%. This slab
was in service for 3 months before delaminations were
detected. In the example shown in Fig. 5, a lenticular void
forms part of an incipient delamination at the boundary
between the DT and the APC.
Another type of irregularly shaped void that is
commonly seen in the DT is a single void that, when
viewed in two dimensions on a lapped surface, shows
an irregular shape rather than the circular cross section
 (6a)
(6b) DSL
DT
DT 1 mm
Fig. 6: Four-inch diameter core (6(a)) taken from an air-entrained
(6.4%), normalweight concrete slab that showed delaminations
after 9 months in service. The densified surface layer is 2 mm
(0.1 in.) thick, and the DT is 18 mm (0.7 in.) thick. The maximum
thickness of the TAZ is 25 mm (1 in.). Thin tears in the
cementitious phase that pass around cement paste/aggregate
boundaries in the DT are shown in the enlarged section view
(6(b)). The tears are parallel to the plane of the wearing surface
at five different levels
normally seen with entrained air voids. These voids,
which range from less than 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) to well
over 1 mm (0.04 in.), are judged to represent entrained
or entrapped air voids that have been compressed and
distorted by troweling. Numerous examples of these
voids can be seen in Fig. 3 to 5.
The question arises as to whether some or all of these
voids are water voids. A number of factors that suggest
that they are not water voids include:
■ By definition, water voids form on the underside of
aggregate particles or reinforcement during bleeding.
The voids considered here are present within the
cementitious phase and are not in contact with
aggregate particles. The w/cm is similar in the
cementitious phase surrounding these voids;
■ The shape of these voids, which are present typically
in the DT, strongly suggests that they were originally
A
B
DSL
DT C
1 mm
Fig. 7: Section view (10x) perpendicular to the plane of the
wearing surface in a core taken from an air-entrained (6.2%),
lightweight-aggregate concrete slab showing cement paste/
aggregate bond disruptions in coarse aggregate particles in the
densified surface layer (A, B), and in the DT (C)
entrapped or entrained air voids. In the case of one
type of lenticular void, the final shape can be explained
as the result of the action of the trowel breaching the
web of cement paste between adjacent air voids.
In other cases, the irregular shape of single voids can
be explained as a compression and distortion of
entrapped or entrained air voids captured by the
action of the trowel within relatively stiff, but still
plastic, cement paste; and
■ When premature sealing of a slab is involved, water
voids can and do form directly under the DSL. In air-
entrained concrete slabs that have delaminated, the
irregularly shaped voids are present at various levels
in the DT, often well below the DSL.
TEARS
A commonly observed microstructural feature in
the DT is short (typically less than 25 mm [1 in.] when
measured in two dimensions on a lapped surface)
tears within the cementitious phase. For the formation
of one type of lenticular void (Fig. 4 and 5) in the DT, it
was suggested that the cement paste lying between
adjacent air voids had been literally pulled apart by
the troweling forces, creating a tear that united the
air voids.
Figure 6(a) and (b) show a second type of tear in a
normalweight concrete slab that had a w/cm of 0.50
and an air content of 6.4%. Delaminations in this slab
were detected within 9 months of placement as small
wearing-surface spalls and as shallow spalling along
joints. Thin tears in the cementitious phase in the DT
pass around cement paste-aggregate boundaries and
also pass through distorted air voids. The maximum
depth of the TAZ in cores examined from this slab is
Concrete international / NOVEMBER 2004 27
25 mm (1 in.). In the example shown in Fig. 6(b), there are
tears parallel to the plane of the wearing surface at five
different levels in the DT. These tears are located in the
same vertical plane in the slab. Considering that bleeding
is actually a solid particle sedimentation phenomenon, it
does not seem likely that these tears could be attributed
to bleed water entrapment. In addition, the tears are
below the bottom of the DSL, and the w/cm is the same
on both sides of the tears.
The tears described here are similar to features
observed in precast concrete elements when forms are
removed at an early age while the concrete is still in a
plastic state. In these instances, the tears have been
referred to as “plastic microfractures.”
Thin, short tears such as the ones described in this
article are common features seen in the DT of hard-trowel
finished, air-entrained concrete slabs. As these tears
increase in size regarding the amount of area that they
cover, they become incipient delaminations.
CEMENT PASTE-AGGREGATE
BOND DISRUPTIONS
Another common microstructural feature observed
in the DT, and occasionally in the DSL, is a separation
REDUCING DELAMINATIONS IN
AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETES
Two situations must be considered here. One deals
with those instances where air-entrained concrete is
inadvertently delivered to a job site. The other is when
air entrainment has been specified, and a hard-trowel
finish is still desired. In both cases, greater effort must
be made to educate owners, concrete specifiers,
concrete suppliers, and concrete contractors of the
risk of delaminations when any air-entrained concrete
(normalweight or lightweight) is hard-trowel finished.
It is surprising how many are still unaware of the
problem. In practice, two steps can be taken to avoid
or minimize the risk.
With regard to inadvertent air on the job, the
obvious answer is to measure air content on all
concrete delivered for interior floor slab construction.
This measurement is easily made using relatively
inexpensive equipment, following well-defined
test procedures.16 Because fresh concrete unit
weight varies with air content, this property, too, can
be used in a quick and inexpensive test to flag
potential problems.
And what of those situations in which a hard-
trowel finish has been specified for air-entrained
concrete? There are at least three situations where
this can occur. An interior floor slab may be placed
28 NOVEMBER 2004 / Concrete international
along the boundary between the cementitious phase
and an aggregate particle. An example is shown in
Fig. 7, which is a section view (10x) of a 2-3/4-in.-
diameter (70 mm) core taken from a lightweight
aggregate, air-entrained (7.2%) concrete slab that
delaminated 3 months after being placed into service.
Here, there is a separation along the top surface of a
coarse-aggregate particle (C) that is partly embedded
in the DSL and partly in the DT. Clearly, this is not a
water void as the “material” under the void is not
cement paste. There is also a slight bond disruption in
the two smaller coarse-aggregate particles overlying the
larger one (A, B)—both of which are completely
embedded in the DSL. In one of these particles (A), the
separation is along the top surface; on the other (B), the
bottom surface.
In other cases examined here, cement paste-
aggregate bond disruptions form with about equal
frequency along the top, bottom, and sides of
aggregate particles.
Figure 8 is a section view (10x) of a 3-3/4-in.-
diameter (95 mm) core taken from a normalweight,
air-entrained (3.8%) concrete slab that blistered during
troweling. The maximum depth of the TAZ in the slab
before the building is under roof at a time when
freezing events are likely. Air entrainment may be
specified in this case to guard against freezing-and-
thawing damage. A second situation is the use of air
entrainment to improve the workability and finishing
characteristics of lightweight-aggregate concrete, or
to reduce its density. A third situation is the use of a
trowel finish on concrete that will definitely be
exposed to freezing events, and where a subsequent
surface treatment requires a smoother finish than can
otherwise be obtained.
If it is proposed to use air entrainment on a slab
that will receive a hard-trowel finish, all of the
principals involved in the project should be made
aware of the possible consequences of this action,
with consideration given to a protocol for a resolution
of problems if they do arise.
The following steps are recommended to reduce the
risk of delamination when a hard-trowel finish on an
air-entrained concrete is desired:
■ Minimize the amount of air entrainment;
■ Place the concrete at as low a slump as possible;
■ Delay the trowel finishing operation as long as
possible;
■ Consider actions that can be taken to minimize the
magnitude of the stiffness differential in the slab; and
■ Minimize the intensity and duration of troweling.
at this coring site is 30 mm (1.2 in.). The view shown
in Figure 8 represents a depth of 8 to 18 mm (0.3 to
0.7 in.) below the plane of the wearing surface, well
within the DT.
Two gravel coarse aggregate particles separated by
a 3-mm-thick (0.1 in.) cementitious phase are shown.
One aggregate particle shows a bond disruption along
its top surface (A), while the overlying aggregate particle
(B) shows a bond disruption along its bottom surface.
If bleeding had caused this latter separation, it is
expected that there would be no separation along the
top surface of the underlying aggregate particle (A).
Also arguing against the involvement of bleeding is the
presence of fine aggregate particles, not cement paste,
under the elongated voids in contact with aggregate
particle B.
In other instances of paste-aggregate bond disruptions,
the separation surfaces are rough and jagged,
suggesting that the boundary was literally torn apart.
In yet others, a common geometry of the separation
surface and the aggregate particle surface leave little
doubt that the aggregate particle was once in contact
with this paste.
The features described previously attest to a physical
movement of stiff aggregate particles within a plastic
cementitious phase that has a lowered yield stress due
to the presence of entrained air voids at the start of
troweling. The troweling manipulation results in a
disruption of the cement paste-aggregate bond that
occurs with about equal frequency along the top,
bottom, or sides of the aggregate particle.
AIR INFLUENCES DELAMINATIONS
Microstructural and other features of hard-trowel
finished concrete slabs that have delaminated, or show
incipient delaminations, support the conclusion that
physical forces from the hard-troweling operation are
frequently involved in the creation of delaminations.
This interpretation appears to explain the disproportionate
influence of air entrainment in slabs that delaminate.
Other significant observations and conclusions
derived from this study include:
1. Most of the concrete slabs that exhibit delamination
distress (as opposed to crusting and blistering) were
air-entrained.
2. The disproportionate influence of air entrainment on
slabs that delaminate is attributed to a lowering of the
yield stress of the cementitious phase of the concrete,
creating a greater ease of distortion and manipulation
of the concrete during trowling.
3. Microstructural features that are present near the
surface of hard-trowel-finished, air-entrained
concretes that support this distortion and manipulation
hypothesis include:
Fig. 8: Section view (10x) perpendicular to the plane of the
wearing surface in a core taken from an air-entrained (3.8%),
normalweight concrete slab showing cement paste/
aggregate bond disruptions on the top (A) and bottom (B)
surfaces of coarse aggregate particles. The densified surface
layer is 3 mm (0.1 in.) thick, and the DT has a maximum
thickness of 27 mm (1 in.). These bond disruptions occur in the
DT at a depth of 8 to 18 mm (0.3 to 0.7 in.) below the plane of the
wearing surface
■ Irregularly shaped voids within the cementitious
phase, which often are lenticular or elongated
in shape;
■ Thin, short tears within the cementitious
phase; and
■ Cement paste-aggregate bond disruptions that
occur with about equal frequency along the top,
bottom, and sides of aggregate particles.
Evidence is presented to support the conclusion
that these microstructural features are not water
voids, and are not caused by interrupting the
bleeding process.
4. The extent of damage that occurs in hard-trowel-
finished, air-entrained concrete slabs depends, in
addition to the contribution of the entrained air
voids, on a number of other design, construction,
environmental, and material variables that have been
identified in previous studies. Because of the many
variables involved, delamination is seen as a
complex phenomenon; not one that is easily
anticipated or controlled.
5. In worst-case situations, tears in the cementitious
phase can cover areas of 1 ft 2 (90,000 mm 2) or
more, creating an opportunity for full delamination
and subsequent spalling of the wearing surface.
Full delamination is most likely to occur when
project conditions result in a very abrupt change
in stiffness in the concrete that is affected by the
Concrete international / NOVEMBER 2004 29
 trowel-generated forces. Often, delamination
planes are located at or near the boundary
representing an abrupt transition from a region of
very low air entrainment to one of a higher level of
air entrainment.
6. It has been observed that not all air-entrained concrete
slabs that receive a hard-trowel finish experience
delaminations. The results of the present study
suggest that in these slabs, the microstructural
features in the concrete resulting from the trowel-
generated forces have not advanced to the point of
connectedness that large enough areas are affected to
create a delamination problem.
If the interpretation proposed here is valid, it is
judged likely that all air-entrained concrete slabs that
receive a hard-trowel finish will show some of these
microstructural features.
7. In two of the projects reviewed in the present study,
the petrographic examination was initially prompted
by a concern other than delamination. The initial
petrographic examination in one of these cases
provided evidence of all of the microstructural
features discussed here, short of full delamination.
A chain drag survey was recommended, which
subsequently revealed a number of delaminated
areas, although most were under 1 ft 2 (90,000 mm 2)
in extent. The circumstances of this particular
example provide clues as to what can be done to
reduce the risk of delaminations in air-entrained
concrete slabs that must be given a hard-trowel finish.
In this case, the slab was slated to receive a membrane,
and the project documents called for a reduced
intensity and duration of troweling. In examining a
number of cores from this project, it was observed
that the thinner the TAZ, the fewer the occurrences
of the microstructural features associated with the
delamination distress.
8. The projects reviewed here confirm an increased risk
of delaminations when air entrainment is used in either
normalweight or lightweight aggregate concretes that
receive a hard-trowel finish.
Acknowledgments
Thanks are given to Nick J. Scaglione of Concrete Research &
Testing, Columbus, OH, for helpful discussions and for permission
to use several of the photomicrographs that appear here.
References
1. Moulzolf, G. M., “Reader Response: Delamination Causes,”
Concrete Construction, Jan. 2003, p. 14.
2. Anon., “Hard-Trowel Finish on Air-Entrained Concrete,”
American Society of Concrete Contractors, Position Statement No. 1,
Concrete Construction, Mar. 2003, p. 66.
3. Suprenant, B. A., and Malisch, W. R., “Beware of Troweling
30 NOVEMBER 2004 / Concrete international
Air-Entrained Concrete Floors,” Concrete Construction, Feb. 1999,
pp. 35-37.
4. Bimel, C., “Is Delamination Really a Mystery?” Concrete
International, V. 20, No. 1, Jan. 1998, pp. 20-34.
5. Suprenant, B. A., and Malisch, W. R., “Diagnosing Slab
Delaminations,” Concrete Construction, Jan. 1998, pp. 29-34.
6. “Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction (ACI 302.1R-96),”
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 67 pp.
7. “Specifications for Structural Concrete (ACI 301-99),”
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 49 pp.
8. “Problem: Finishing Too Early,” Concrete Construction,
Sept. 2001, p. 66.
9. Suprenant, B. A., and Malisch, W. R., “Diagnosing Slab
Delaminations,” Concrete Construction, Feb. 1998, pp. 169-175.
10. Suprenant, B. A., and Malisch, W. R., “Sealing Effects of
Finishing Tools,” Concrete Construction, Sept. 1999, pp. 38-43.
11. “What, Why, and How?: Delamination of Troweled Concrete
Surfaces,” National Ready Mixed Concrete Association Document
CIP 20, 1992, pp. 1-2.
12. Suprenant, B. A., and Malisch, W. R., “Troubleshooting
Crusted Concrete,” Concrete Construction, Apr. 1997, pp. 375-378.
13. Suprenant, B. A., and Malisch, W. R., “Diagnosing Slab
Delaminations,” Concrete Construction, Mar. 1998, pp. 277-283.
14. ASTM C 856-03, “The Standard Practice for Petrographic
Examination of Hardened Concrete,” Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Section Four, “Construction,” V. 04.02, Concrete
and Aggregates, 2003, 16 pp.
15. ASTM C 457-03, “The Standard Test Method for Microscopical
Determination of Parameters of the Air-Void System in Hardened
Concrete,” Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Section Four,
“Construction,” V. 04.02, Concrete and Aggregates, 2003, 14 pp.
16. ASTM C 231-03, “The Standard Test Method for Air Content of
Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method,” Annual Book of
ASTM Standards, Section Four, “Construction,” V. 04.02, Concrete
and Aggregates, 2003, 8 pp.
Received and reviewed under Institute publication policies.
David R. Lankard, FACI, has operated
Lankard Materials Laboratory, Inc.,
Columbus, OH, since 1978, which
provides petrographic, research, and
development services to producers and
users of portland cement concrete and
refractory concrete. He has served on a
number of ACI committees and is past
Chair of ACI Committee 547, Refractory
Concrete. Lankard received the 1973 ACI Wason Medal for Most
Meritorious Paper and he is also a Fellow of the American
Ceramic Society.