Construction and Building Materials 30 (2012) 10–15

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Construction and Building Materials

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Permeability loss in porous asphalt due to binder creep

Meor Othman Hamzah a,⇑, Mohd Rosli Mohd Hasan a, Martin van de Ven b
a
School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Department Design and Construction, Section of Road and Railway Engineering, Delft University of Technology,
2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: After several years in service, porous asphalt looses permeability primarily due to clogging. This paper
Received 10 November 2010 presents a phenomenon, postulated as binder creep, as another source of permeability loss in porous
Received in revised form 24 October 2011 asphalt. To ascertain the binder creep phenomenon, samples were separately conditioned at 15 °C,
Accepted 26 November 2011
20 °C, 30 °C and 35 °C. Permeability measurements were carried out at regular intervals up to 60 days
Available online 29 December 2011
using a falling head water permeameter. Permeability reduction was quantified in terms of increased
time of flow and reduced coefficient of permeability over time. The results showed that, permeability loss
Keywords:
was more significant on samples conditioned at high temperatures. Statistical analyses showed that tem-
Porous asphalt
Binder creep
perature and time have significant effect on permeability reduction of the porous mixes tested. Over an
Conditioning temperature extended period of time and due to gravitational forces, it was postulated that binder creep in the mix
Time of flow had taken place which steadily disrupted air voids continuity and subsequently caused the mix perme-
Permeability ability to reduce. Permeability reduction took place more rapidly during the first week but later tend to
asymptote. This finding implies the need to specify a time frame within which porous asphalt permeabil-
ity measurements must be made. A recommended practice would be to conduct the permeability test not
exceeding 1 day after the porous asphalt samples were compacted to eliminate inaccuracies in perme-
ability measurements due to interference by binder creep.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction scopic photography looks like cement. Another type of clogging

Porous asphalt pavements offer quiet, safe and comfortable
driving conditions mainly for the high speed roads. The high inter-
connected air voids in this mix confers its vast benefits compared
to the traditional dense mix, which include prevention of hydro-
planing; reduction of noise and splash and spray, reduction in risk
of wet skidding, and enhancement in the visibility of pavement
markings especially during night and wet weather conditions [1].
However, short effective service life limits the application of por-
ous asphalt in many countries. Reduction in the effective air voids
occurs mainly due to the clogging of voids and densification under
heavy traffic [2]. According to Nielsen et al. [3], in Japan the
clogging of porous pavement in urban roads generally occur after
3–4 years of construction. Permeability loss is imminent when
air voids becomes clogged. Typical clogging agents include fine
particles such as dust, tyre rubber and local residual soils deposited
from dirty wheels and heavy vehicles carrying earth dirt [4]. In the
United States of America, significant loss in permeability of porous
pavement was experienced after 2–3 years due to clogging of voids
by deicing materials or debris [5]. Lane [6] ascribed clogging
materials as a result of the build-up of detritus which from stereo-
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 4 5996210; fax: +60 4 5941009.
E-mail addresses: cemeor@yahoo.com, cemeor@eng.usm.my (M.O. Hamzah).
agent includes oily materials that accumulated in the voids and
emerged on the road surface during rain. Nielsen [7] studied the
microstructure of thin sections taken from cores of aged pave-
ments. It was suggested that clogging of air voids occurs due to loss
of adhesion between sand and bitumen or micro-ravelling. The
bituminous mastic deteriorates in pavements with poor adhesion
and leaves clogging in the voids.
Downward migration of asphalt binder in porous mix is known
as binder drainage or binder runoff or binder drain-down.
Generally, binder drainage takes place during mix production, stor-
age and transport, and this is more obvious if the binder content
and mix temperature is excessively high. Binder drainage is not
desirable from the economic standpoint while the excess binder
could lead to problems of transporting the mix from the mixing
plant to the site. In a field study conducted by Huber [8], binder
drainage resulted in uneven distribution of asphalt mix with some
parts of the pavement ended up being impervious with too much
binder, while ravelling took place in areas that were deficient in
binder.
The main objective of this paper is to investigate another source
of permeability loss in porous asphalt samples prepared in the lab-
oratory, postulated due to binder creep. To ascertain this phenom-
enon, permeability measurements were carried out at regular
intervals up to 60 days on samples conditioned at high and low

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.11.038
 M.O. Hamzah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 30 (2012) 10–15 11

temperatures to respectively accelerate and mitigate binder creep. 100

Any occurrence of binder creep, especially at high temperatures,
will be manifested in terms of permeability loss. 80

% Passing
60
2. Materials and methods
40
2.1. Materials and mix design
20
The aggregate material used was granite, obtained from a local asphalt mixing
plant. A conventional bitumen 60/70 penetration grade supplied by Shell Ltd. was 0
used to prepare the porous asphalt specimen. The basic properties of the 60/70 bitu- 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
men used are summarised in Table 1. The Malaysian porous asphalt gradation [9] was Sieve Size (mm)
used in specimen preparation as shown in Fig. 1. The cylindrical specimens, prepared
at 4.7% binder contents, were compacted via impact mode at 50 blows per face. All Fig. 1. Aggregate grading used in this study [9].
compacted specimens were of similar heights. The samples were then left to cool at
ambient temperature for 4 h before immediately tested for permeability. After the
initial permeability was measured, the specimens were conditioned at the designated
conditioning temperature.

2.2. Ascertaining binder creep phenomenon

To ascertain permeability loss due to binder creep, mix permeability on unex-

truded samples was extensively measured throughout this study. This is because
any occurrence of binder creep taking place in mixes will be reflected in permeabil-
ity loss. Permeability measurements were made on these unextruded samples to
take advantage of the strong bond between the sample and the walls of the mould.
This was essential to guarantee accurate determination of time taken for a specified
volume of water to permeate through the specimens. A specially designed water
permeameter (Fig. 2), based on the falling head principle, was used for this purpose.
The permeability was measured in units of seconds (time of flow) for a fixed volume
of water to pass through it. The possible presence of pollutants in the water that
served as the permeant was evaluated to ensure that the permeability loss incurred
in this investigation was solely due to binder creep and not clogging by the pollu-
tants in the water permeating through the sample. This was evaluated by permit-
ting water to continuously permeate three different samples for 2 h. However,
the time of flow for each sample was recorded at every 30 min intervals. The results
shown in Table 2 indicate that the time of flow is almost constant for each specimen
and thus confirmed the absence of pollutants in the water used in permeability
measurements. The permeability test in this phase of the study was not prolonged
beyond 2 h for fear of binder stripping by the dynamic action of flowing water.
To ascertain binder creep, four temperatures were selected, namely 15 °C, 20 °C,
30 °C and 35 °C. High and low temperatures were chosen to respectively accelerate
and prevent binder creep. Incidentally, 30 °C represents the typical ambient tem-
perature in the Malaysian laboratory where the investigation was carried out as ex-
plained in Section 2.3. An incubator and a draft oven were respectively used to
condition the specimens at low and high temperatures. As a precaution step to
maintain the tight bonding between walls of specimen and mould, the highest con-
ditioning temperature was limited to 35 °C. Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of falling head permeameter used in this study.
The permeability of each mix was recorded at selected time intervals for up to
60 days. Initial readings, especially during the first 10 days, were taken more fre-
quently since permeability drop appeared to be more rapid during the early days. Table 2
However, readings were taken more infrequently beyond 20 days. Each permeabil- Water permeant cleanliness evaluation results.
ity reading was taken as quickly as possible to avoid changes in specimen temper-
ature. The permeant temperature was also noted. After the time of flow was taken, No. of test Time interval (min)
the sample was returned immediately either into the incubator or the oven. The 0 30 60 90 120
coefficient of permeability of each compacted specimen is calculated from: Time of flow (s)
 
aL h1 1 31.34 31.32 31.33 31.30 31.31
k ¼ 2:3 log10 ð1Þ
At h2 2 29.47 29.46 29.48 29.48 29.47
3 38.05 38.03 38.06 38.04 38.03
where k is the coefficient of permeability (cm/s), A is cross section area of specimen
(cm2), a is cross section area of standpipe (cm2), L is height of specimen (cm), t is
time taken for water in the standpipe to fall from h1 to h2(s), h1 is head at the begin-
ning of time measurement (cm), h2 is the head at the end of time measurement (cm). permeability in the context of porous asphalt. Darcy’s law remains valid as long
Eq. (1) was developed based on Darcy’s law based on the assumptions that the as the Reynolds Number lies within the range of 1–10 [10]. According to Tan
sample was saturated, homogenous while flow was laminar. There have been some et al. [11] and Fwa et al. [12], flow in porous asphalt is not laminar and a special
arguments about the applicability of Darcy’s law for calculating the coefficient of permeameter has been developed by the National University of Singapore to take
into account turbulent flow in porous asphalt. Menard and Crovetti [13] also
acknowledged that the application of Darcy’s law to determine the permeability
Table 1 of porous media is considered to be inappropriate due to the presence of turbulent
Basic properties of conventional bitumen 60/70. flow. However, this equation was used nonetheless to make comparison of hydrau-
lic conductivity between the mixes and different permeameters used in the re-
Properties Result search conducted. Suresha et al. [14] mentioned that a falling head permeameter
Specific gravity (g/cm3) 1.030 based on Darcy’s law was used to determine the coefficient of permeability due
Penetration at 25 °C (dmm) 63 to its simplicity and economic reasons. Therefore in this study, due to the lack of
Softening point (°C) 49 equipment that takes into account the turbulent flow in the specimens, the falling
Ductility at 25 °C (cm) >100 head permeameter and Darcy’s law were used to estimate the coefficient of perme-
ability of the mixtures. The coefficient of permeability obtained was used to com-
pare the permeability of the mixes tested in relative terms.
12 M.O. Hamzah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 30 (2012) 10–15

2.3. Daytime laboratory temperature fluctuation

Fluctuations in daytime laboratory temperature were observed between the

months of June to September 2009. This was necessary to establish the daytime lab-
oratory ambient temperature. Temperature changes were recorded from 0800 h to
1800 h over a 3 month period. Fig. 3 shows the temperature variations recorded,
varying between 26 and 34 °C, while the average ambient temperature is 30.2 °C.
The lowest temperatures registered were on the 7th and 25th of August 2009 coin-
ciding with rainy days, where the temperatures vary between 26 °C and 30.5 °C.

3. Result and discussion

3.1. Permeability reduction over time

Fig. 4. Relationship between time of flow and time at different conditioning
Permeability loss is quantified in terms of increased time of temperatures.
flow (F) and reduced coefficient of permeability (k). Fig. 4 presents
the average values of F from the permeability test. Generally, the F Table 3
Coefficients of the linear relationship between time of
value increases over time for all mixes. Specimens conditioned at
flow and time.
15 °C only experienced sequential increase in F during the first
10 days, beyond which the curve tends to level off. The values of Conditioned Slope Intercept R2
temperature (°C)
F for specimens cured at 20 °C appear to stabilise beyond 40 days.
However, those conditioned at 30 °C and 35 °C continually exhibit 15 0.0695 39.32 0.77
20 0.2278 39.57 0.97
increase in F throughout the study. The percentage change in F
30 0.5938 44.12 0.96
shown in Table 3 clearly suggests the significant effect of condi- 35 0.7033 41.41 0.97
tioning temperature on increase in F. Specimens tested at 15 °C
register a 12.3% increase in F at day 60 (F60) while those at 35 °C
are subjected to more than 112% increase in F compared to the ini-
tial time of flow (F0).
Table 3 presents the regression parameters of the linear rela-
tionship between F and time for mixes tested at the designated
temperatures. Except for specimens tested at the lowest tempera-
ture, the mathematical models provide a good representation of
the data with coefficients of determination, R2 exceeding 95%. For
a given test temperature, the slope of the line represents the sus-
ceptibility of the mix to change in F hence the susceptibility of
the mix to binder creep. A steeper slope indicates a higher rate of
binder creep. Clearly, the sample conditioned at 35 °C exhibits
the highest slope, and is about ten times more susceptible com-
pared to samples conditioned at 15 °C. Fig. 5. Relationship between coefficient of permeability and time at different
Fig. 5 shows the relationship between k versus time of the por- conditioning temperatures.
ous mixes tested. Generally, k decreases throughout the investiga-
tion period while the rate of decrease depends on temperature. For
specimens tested at 15 °C, reduction in k is observed only up to day The specimen initial coefficient of permeability (k0), coefficient
10 beyond which k remained unchanged. The k versus time curve of permeability at day 60 (k60) and percentage reduction in k are
can be sectioned into three fairly distinct stages as indicated in summarize in Table 4. The results for tests at 30 °C and 35 °C indi-
Fig. 5. Stage 1 (day 0–10) presents a rapid decrease of k and this cate that their k values at the end of the study (k60) can be equiv-
takes place in the first week, while Stage 2 (day 20–40) and Stage alent to about half of their corresponding initial k (k0) values. The
3 (day 40–60) respectively represent the steady state flow and near percentage reduction in k at this elevated temperature is about five
constant phases of the curves. In Stage 1, k for all mixes reduces times higher compared to those tested at 15 °C.
drastically and this is more marked for samples cured at 30 °C
and 35 °C. Beyond day 10, the rate of k reduction is slow but 3.2. Permeability loss due to binder creep
appears to asymptote during Stage 3 for all samples except those
conditioned at 15 °C. Field observations reported that porous asphalts exhibit perme-
45
ability loss over time. According to various literatures, two causes
MEAN of permeability reduction are voids continuity disruption due to
11-Aug

28-Aug
12-Jun

40
17-Jul

clogging and voids closure due to traffic over compaction [2,15].

6-Aug
Temperature ( o C)

3-Jun

4-Sep

35 From studies on aged pavement at the Danish Road Institute [7],

clogging of air voids can take place due to micro-ravelling. Accord-
30
ing to Alvarez et al. [1] based upon work in Spain, open graded fric-
15-Jul

18-Aug
2-Jun

3-Jul
10-Jun

24-Jul

25-Aug

25 tion course (OGFC) layers with air void contents approaching 20%
7-Aug

20 retained their permeability for 9 years when subjected to medium

traffic, whereas, clogging was reported after 2 years in mixes sub-
15
jected to heavy traffic.
17-May

1-Jun

16-Jun

1-Jul

16-Jul

31-Jul

15-Aug

30-Aug

14-Sep

In this investigation, the specimens were subjected to neither

clogging nor traffic loading nor long term ageing. Yet, permeability
Date
loss was registered experimentally. The result in Fig. 5 shows that
Fig. 3. Fluctuation of daytime laboratory ambient temperature. permeability loss is still expected beyond day 60. A possible
 M.O. Hamzah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 30 (2012) 10–15 13

Table 4
Percentage changes in F and k.

Conditioned F0 (s) F60 (s) Percentage k0 (s) k60 (s) Percentage

temperature (°C) increase in F (%) reduction in k (%)
15 38.05 42.72 12.27 0.128 0.114 10.94
20 37.72 52.06 38.01 0.131 0.095 27.48
30 38.91 76.33 96.17 0.128 0.065 49.33
35 37.63 80.03 112.68 0.134 0.063 52.99

explanation for the permeability loss is binder creep. Creep is a Fig. 6 presents the individual plot of the relationship between k
time-dependent phenomenon. In this regards, creep can also take and time on all specimens tested. A statistical analysis is made on
place in an asphalt binder. The temperature which hastens creep the k values and the result is shown in Table 6. Temperature, time
to occur differs according to binder grades. Binders can also creep and interaction between them have a significant effect on the
or flow when acted upon by long loading time, which in this case is change in k of the mixes tested. In addition, the model fixed the
the force of gravity (self-weight of the binder). According to Evans data very well with a high coefficient of determination (R2),
and Wilshire [16], any material will creep upon approaching its 94.45%. Over time and at elevated temperatures, k decreases due
melting point. to the disruption in air voids continuity.
The term permeability generally refers to the ease in which a
permeant, water in this case; can permeate through a porous med- 3.4. Flow time ratio
ia. In porous asphalt, permeability depends on the amount of inter-
connected voids through which water can flow. The time of flow time ratio (f) is another parameter that can be
Bitumen is a visco-elastic material and exhibits viscous behav- used to evaluate the extent of voids continuity disruption due to
iour (hence flow) at elevated temperatures and long time of loading. binder creep. The ratio is expressed by:
In this investigation, some specimens were subjected to elevated
temperatures causing the bitumen to become less viscous and flow. f ¼ F n =F 0 ð2Þ
Additionally, the permeability was monitored over an extended
time up to 60 days. Being a rheological material, gravitational forces where f is the time of flow ratio, Fn is time of flow at day n(s), F0 is
act on the binder coating the aggregate causing it to flow or creep the initial time of flow just after compaction (s).
over such long time of loading. Though in reality, it was the asphalt The time of flow ratio result is plotted in Fig. 7. An ideal mix
mastic as a whole that has creep, the terminology binder creep is would have a time of flow ratio equal to 1.0 and this implicates
used throughout this paper. When binder creep takes place, it occu- that the air voids remain continuous without any interference.
pies the air voids within the porous mixes and subsequently disrupts All mixes, except those conditioned at 15 °C, exhibit a time of flow
voids continuity, thus causing the permeability to gradually reduce. ratio significantly greater than 1.0. The higher flow time ratio of
Ferguson [17] pointed out at a phenomenon similar to binder creep specimens tested at an elevated temperature can be related to
that took place after the porous asphalt was laid down. Accordingly, the extent of binder creep.
the asphalt binder migrated downward through the pores under the
influence of heat and gravity. During the hot summer days; the sur- 3.5. Laboratory versus field permeability
face of an asphalt pavement is notably hot, causing the heat-soften
binder to flow down from the surface until it meets the cooler level A schematic diagram of the laboratory experimental setup and
where it ceased to flow and stop filling up the pores. The laboratory direction of flow in this study is shown in Fig. 8. In the laboratory,
investigation results reported in this paper confirms the field obser- the specimen was confined inside the cylindrical mould while
vation made by Ferguson [17]. Binder creep has the potential to dis- direction of flow through the specimen is unidirectional (vertical).
rupt the hydraulic conductivity of the porous mix. In the field, the porous asphalt layer overlies an impervious base.
In this investigation, the force of gravity (time of loading) is con- As schematically shown in Fig. 9, initially flow takes place verti-
stant on all specimens. Only the conditioning temperatures differ. cally and then laterally through the porous asphalt wearing course
The higher permeability loss registered by specimens subjected to into side drainage system. It is highly likely that the vertical and
higher conditioning temperature is consistent with the fundamen- horizontal coefficient of permeabilities for the same mix will be
tal principle that the bitumen becomes less viscous at elevated different. During specimen compaction in the laboratory and con-
temperature, causing higher flow, more air voids continuity dis- struction in the field, the binder migrates to the lower layers
ruption, hence more permeability loss. At low temperature, the resulting in a bottom layer richer in binder compared to the leaner
bitumen is stiffer, binder creep is literally prevented and the mix upper layer. The binder film coating the aggregate at the upper
permeability largely remains. layer will be deficient in binder, hence thinner bitumen film coat-
ing and this layer will be more prone to ageing. This layer will be
3.3. Statistical analysis most susceptible to ravelling. However, the bottom layer which
is richer in binder will be more susceptible to binder creep and this
The effects of time and conditioned temperature on binder
creep of porous asphalt are further analysed using statistical anal-
ysis. The Two-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used with a Table 5
Two-way ANOVA on time of flow.
confidence interval of 95% (a = 0.05) on the samples evaluated
within 60 days at the four test temperatures. The result of Two- Source DF SS MS F p-Value
Way ANOVA is tabulated in Table 5, which indicates that time Conditioned temperature 3 4310.4 1436.81 209.81 <0.01
and temperatures have a significant effect on the binder creep Time 12 6408.1 534.01 77.98 <0.01
properties of porous asphalt when the p-value is less than 0.01. Interaction 36 2715.6 75.43 11.02 <0.01
Error 52 356.1 6.85
The interaction effect between conditioned temperature and time
Total 103 6.85
factors also has a significant effect on the increment of time of
flow. R2 = 97.42%, R2(adj) = 94.89%.
14 M.O. Hamzah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 30 (2012) 10–15

0.15

0.14

Coefficient of Permeability (cm/s)

0.13

0.12

0.11

0.10

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.06

Day 0 3 10 30 60 0 3 10 30 60 0 3 10 30 60 0 3 10 30 60
Temperature 15 20 30 35

Fig. 6. Individual plot of coefficient of permeability at different conditioning temperatures over the test duration.

Table 6
Two-way ANOVA on coefficient of permeability.

Source DF SS MS F p-Value
Conditioned temperature 3 0.0122 0.00405 90.83 <0.01
Time 12 0.0216 0.00180 40.28 <0.01
Interaction 36 0.0058 0.00016 3.60 <0.01
Error 52 0.0023 0.00004
Impervious Layer
Total 103 0.0418

R2 = 94.45%, R2(adj) = 89.01%. Fig. 9. Actual flow in field porous asphalt pavement.

bottom layer is expected to have more influence on mix permeabil-

ity reduction.
Nevertheless, the findings from this preliminary study indicate
that binder creep is most prevalent during the first few days after
compaction has ceased. This implies the necessity to specify a time
frame or ‘window’ during which porous asphalt permeability must
be measured. A recommended practice would be to take perme-
ability measurements not exceeding 1 day after specimens are
compacted. This will eliminate inaccuracies in permeability mea-
surements due to interference by binder creep.

3.6. Advanced studies

Fig. 7. Flow time ratio at specified time.

From the results shown in Figs. 4 and 5, permeability loss attrib-

uted to binder creep over the 60 days test duration is evident, par-
Marshall Mould ticularly on specimens conditioned at elevated temperatures. More
studies are currently being carried out to further ascertain the phe-
nomenon of binder creep, and this includes the followings:

(i) The results shown in Fig. 5 shows that for specimens condi-
tioned at 30 °C and 35 °C, permeability loss is expected to
take place beyond 60 days. To ascertain this, permeability
loss on samples is monitored up to 120 days.
(ii) Binders become stiffer due to ageing. Modified binders are
also known to be stiffer and aged lesser compared to con-
ventional binders. Therefore, similar studies are being car-
ried out but on specimens that have been subjected to
short term ageing and specimens incorporating PG76 modi-
fied binders. The extent of permeability loss should be lesser
Fig. 8. Vertical flow in laboratory porous asphalt sample. in those aged and modified mixes.
 M.O. Hamzah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 30 (2012) 10–15
(iii) The binder creep phenomenon needs to be ascertained on a
microscopic level using high end equipments that can detect
changes in voids discontinuity over time. A viable method
would be through the use of the medical Computer Tomogra-
phy (CT) scanner. This scanner has been used for quantitative
analysis on the profiles of air voids, mortar and aggregate in
asphalt mixes [18,19]. The CT-scanner creates a series of thin
image slices taken in a cross section which is subsequently
assembled to create a three-dimensional picture enabling
the mix to be studied from all angles. Binder creep phenom-
ena will be reflected in terms of changes in the air voids pro-
file of the mix scanned at different times of the year.
4. Conclusions
In this study, the binder in porous asphalt samples were sub-
jected to long loading time causing them to flow or creep. Binder
creep is aggravated when samples are conditioned at elevated tem-
peratures such as at 30 °C and 35 °C. When the asphalt binder creep,
it flow and filled up the empty spaces in the mix air voids, disrupting
voids continuity and this translates into the observed reduction in
coefficient of permeability or increased in time of flow. Simple linear
regression equations were developed to determine the susceptibil-
ity of porous asphalt mix to the binder creep phenomenon. Mix con-
ditioned at higher temperature exhibits steeper slope making it
more susceptible to binder creep and hence permeability loss. For
instance, specimens conditioned at 35 °C lost more than 50% of its
initial permeability at day 60. Since permeability of porous asphalt
is time dependent, the time in which permeability measurement is
made after compaction, must be specified to eliminate the influence
of binder creep that causes permeability reduction. Nevertheless,
binder creep as another source of permeability loss needs to be
ascertained by extending the duration of the study and carrying
out a microscopic study of the material.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the Malaysian Ministry
of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) that has funded
this Research Grant through the eScience Fund program that
enables this paper to be written.
15
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