Aircraft Electrical and Electronic Principles

Collegiate Airways Apprenticeship Training

Student: Murray Shaw

Submitted to:
Word Count: Ross Cairns
Plagiarism (%):
Contents
Project Introduction................................................................................................................. 2
Primary Electrical Sources........................................................................................................2
AC generator theory.............................................................................................................2
Airbus A380.......................................................................................................................... 3
................................................................................................................................................. 4
Power Factor Correction.......................................................................................................... 4
Theory.................................................................................................................................. 4
Benefits................................................................................................................................ 4
Worked example.................................................................................................................. 5
Auxiliary Power Sources...........................................................................................................6
Batteries............................................................................................................................... 6
Lead-acid.............................................................................................................................. 6
Ni-cad................................................................................................................................... 6
Li-lion.................................................................................................................................... 7
............................................................................................................................................. 7
APU.......................................................................................................................................7
............................................................................................................................................. 8
RAT....................................................................................................................................... 8
Ground Power...................................................................................................................... 8
Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 9
References................................................................................................................................9
Project Introduction
In this project I will help the readers who are Collegiate Airways apprentices try to
understand the fundamentals of how AC generation is created on an aircraft, how Airbus
generates electricity on an Airbus A380, helping understand what power factor is and how
to correctly work out a power factor question, discussing what batteries like lead-acid, nickel
cadmium and lithium ion are all composed of and how they work, and finally discussing
aircraft components like a ram air turbine, auxiliary power unit and a ground power unit. All
of which should help give the apprentices the basic knowledge they need for electrical
components.

Primary Electrical Sources

AC generator theory
Single-Phase electricity on aircraft can be generated by using a single-phase generator. The
electricity can be generated by a loop of rotating wire placed inside a magnetic field. The
stator of the single-phase generator is made up from five coils of insulated wire. This is
located in between the slots of the core in the generator. The coils are connected in series
to allow the stator to wind which will generate an output voltage. The north and south pole
rotor (a rotor is typically made of a rotating loop inside of a magnetic field) makes a field
that is connected to a DC supply by using sliprings and brushes. By adding more poles to the
generator, we can produce more cycles of output voltage for one revolution of the rotor,
which will therefore increase the amount of voltage produced by the single-phase
electricity. (Tooley, n.d.)

A three-phase generator has three different stator windings connecting to the north and
south pole rotor. The output voltages that are produced by a three-phase generator are
made up by three of the same windings these windings are spaced out by 120 degrees. The
electro motive force supplied by the generator is made when the windings are kept still, and
the magnetic field is rotated. Both single-phase and three-phase generators rely on the
generation of the rotating magnetic field produced by the stators and the poles. The
rotating fields caused by this is what allows the generators motor to turn which therefore
allows both the generators to generate power. An advantage of having a three-phase
system on an aircraft is that it uses less wire compared to a single-phase system, so it isn’t
heavy which is extremely important on an aircraft. (Tooley, n.d.)

The main difference between single phase and three phase generation is that three phase
generates more electricity than what single phase can handle, for example a high demand
motor on an aircraft may have three different windings to allow it to take advantage of all
three phases coming from the generator, which is something that would be impossible for
single phase to handle.

Airbus A380
In an Airbus A380 a variable frequency generator is used, this allows additional power to run
reliably at a lower cost for maintenance, it is also much lighter compared to current
methods used in aviation today. The airbus A380 has four different variable-frequency
generators which supply 150kva per generator, this power generation technology allows the
A380 to be four times reliable compared to fixed-frequency generators, these generators
allow for the supply of electricity on board the aircraft such as avionic systems and supplying
electricity to generators. The Variable frequency generators operate by always using direct
current and then generating alternating current dependent on which frequency is needed
for the operation. This allows us to change the motors to any speed and precision to
degrees, as well as providing the electronics with the right voltage, without any losses in
volts. The reason for the rationale of the frequency-wild system is used to supply enough
power at the right frequency on an aircraft, is because the generators on board an aircraft
speed up and slow down which results in the frequency of the a/c changing. A transomed
allows to either increase or decrease the AC voltage dependent on the required value for
usage. This works by transferring electrical energy from a circuit to another type of circuit
using inductively linked conductors. They are coils that are wrapped around a ferromagnetic
core inside the transformer. The AC in the primary winding makes a varying magnetic flux in
the core of the transformer which would then create a magnetic flux in the secondary
winding. The varying magnetic field created makes an EMF/voltage in the second winding.
An inverter on an aircraft is an electrical device that can change DC to AC. The AC that is
converted cam be used at any voltage and frequency with the proper use of control circuits,
switching and transformers. Inverters used on aircrafts to supply AC power that has come
from things like batteries which use DC power. A TRU also known as a Transformer Rectifier
Unit is a device that combines the uses of a transformer and rectifier into one device. The
TRU can convert 120v supplied by the APU, GPU or engine to 28v pf DC power for use of
multiple electrical on the aircraft. (Adams, n.d.) (Aviation, n.d.) (Secunde, n.d.) (Sforza, 2014)
(Skybrary, n.d.) (Skybrary, n.d.) (Thales, n.d.)

Power Factor Correction

Theory
Power factor is the theory of the ratio between true power measured in KW to the measure
of apparent power measured in kVA that has been absorbed by A.C equipment or electrical
installation. The power factor measures how efficiently and effectively electrical power in a
circuit is converted to the true workout output. The ideal power factor for all circuits is 1
anything that is less than a power factor of 1 means that extra power is required to achieve
the task required.
Benefits
There are many benefits to improving the power factor the main one being the
environmental benefit, if we improve the power factor there will a reduction in power
consumption because of the improved energy efficiency. One benefit of this would be less
greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuels created by power stations due to less power
consumption. Improving the power factor could also help in a reduction of I 2R for help
compensate for losses in items such as transformers and distribution equipment. Another
big benefit that would help the whole of the country is that it would impact the electricity
bills by reducing them.
Worked example.
The power factor can be calculated by using PF= (True power)/ (Apparent Power)
Or PF= (Watts)/ (Supplied Power)
Question: Calculate the power factor when you have a true power of 60 a reactive power of
60 and a generator supplying 120v with a resistance of 60.
The first step to calculate power factor is to calculate the impedance by using Pythagoras so
we would get Z = √ (60² + 60²) which gives us 84.85Ω.

84.85
60

60

The Second step is to find the phase angle using the tan law, which is opposite or adjacent,
so you get tan inverse of 60/60 which gives you 45 degrees this allowed us to get the phase
angle.
The third step is to calculate the current using the formula, current= voltage/impedance the
voltage we get from the question is 120v and we have already calculated the impedance
which is 84.85 Ω so 120/84.85 = 1.414A
The fourth step is to calculate the apparent power which is voltage2/Total impedance we
already know both values so we can put them into the equation 120 2/84.85= 169.71VA
The fifth step is to calculate power using power= current2x resistance, we have calculated
the current which is 1.414 and we have been given the resistance which is 60 so we get
1.4142x60=199.96w
We know have everything that is required to work out the power factor which is watts/volt-
amps so we get 119.9/169.71 which gives us 0.71pf, we can then multiply this by 100 to give
us it as a percentage which works out to be 71% (iet, n.d.) (WikiHow, n.d.) (Tooley, n.d.)
Auxiliary Power Sources
Batteries

Lead-acid
Lead acid batteries are one of the most common batteries on an aircraft, as they have a long lifetime
and low costs compared to other batteries in the industry. A major advantage is that they are total
rechargeable. A lead acid battery is made up of a negative charged electrode made of a soft and
spongy lead. The positive electrode is made up of lead oxide. Both electrodes in the battery are both
submerged in an electrolytic solution consistent of sulfuric acid and water. A chemically permeable
membrane separates the two electrolytes inside of the battery, the membrane also prevents
electrical shorting by using the electrolyte. Lead acid batteries can store the reversible chemical
reaction. The overall chemical reaction is shown by using PbO2+Pb=2H2SO4 2PbSO4+2H2O for
a lead acid battery. This equation shows that discharging a battery makes the layout of lead sulfate
crystals at both the negative and positive terminals which also releases electrons because of valence
in the charge lead. The formation in the lead sulfate starts using sulfate from the acid of the
electrolyte surrounding the battery. which has an impact on the electrolyte as it becomes less
concentrated. Full discharge makes both electrodes in the battery covered by lead sulfate and water
rather than sulfuric acid. When full discharge happens there is no voltage between the electrolytes.
(Bowden, n.d.) (Reference, n.d.)

Ni-cad
Ni-cad batteries also known as Nickel cadmium, the cells of this battery have an anode made up from
materials like cadmium hydroxide and a cathode of nickel hydroxide that has been submerged in an
electrolyte which consists of potassium, sodium and lithium hydroxides. Ni-cad batteries are typically
low maintenance and can be operated at many different temperatures. One disadvantage towards
Ni-cad batteries is that they are extremely heavy due to the materials used in them. Ni-cad batteries
can be used on multiple different aero planes that include main aircraft batteries. Ni-cad batteries
are classed as secondary batteries as the reactions caused can be reversed. The overall reaction for
a nickel cadmium battery can be expressed as Cd+NiO2+2H2O→Cd (OH)2+Ni (OH)2. In a nickel
cadmium battery, the electrolyte concentration doesn’t change weather it is discharging or charging
also the discharge doesn’t need to have a supply of ions from the electrolyte to make sure that full
capacity of the battery is reached, this is what makes them different to a lead-acid battery. (MDPI,
n.d.)
Li-lion
Lithium-ion batteries can also be classified as secondary batteries like lead-acid and Ni-cad
as they are rechargeable. Their cells have an anode made up from graphite and a cathode
made up from lithium manganese oxide so that lithium ions can be repeatably released for
charging and so that they can also be realised quickly for high current. A non-aqueous
electrolyte is used it has a mix of different organic carbonates. To charge or discharge a Li-
lion battery an exchange of lithium ions and electrodes happen. The cell output of this
battery tends to run from 3-4.2 volts depending on the materials used in the process of
making the cathode. As the battery id discharging in a lithium-ion battery, it provides an
electric current, the anode of the battery releases lithium ions towards the cathode which
results in generating flow of electrons from one side to another to another. When charging
the lithium-ion battery the opposite of discharging happens and the lithium ions are
released by the cathode and received by the anode. (Skybrary, n.d.)

APU
An APU (Auxiliary Power Unit) is a little gas turbine engine located at the back end of an
aircraft, it provides electrical and mechanical power to start up the power for the main
engines, it also supplies pneumatic power for air conditioning systems inside in the cabin.
Along with shaft power to supply other hydraulic and pneumatic systems located in the
aircraft. In the case of an emergency the APU also supplies backup electrical and pneumatic
power for in flight systems. The APU also provides power for when the engines are shut
down for ground operations. (Skybrary, n.d.)
RAT
An RAT (Ram air turbine) is a little turbine located under the fuselage or wing, it is used as a
power source to provide hydraulic or electrical power in an emergency. It provides power to
a hydraulic pump or electrical generator by using the speed of the aircraft to generate
power. RAT are usually only used when the aircraft has a loss in primary electrical
generation or hydraulic systems, the RAT will power systems such as navigation,
Communication and flight controls in the case of an emergency. (Skybrary, n.d.)

Ground Power
An GPU (Ground Power Unit) is an electrical device that allows an aircraft to be powered
whilst on the ground, it can be either a mobile or fixed electrical unit. It will provide 120v AC
or 28V DC power when on the ground to the aircraft. GPUs are usually consisted of a diesel-
powered generator but there are many different types. (Skybrary, n.d.)

Conclusion
In conclusion, I think I have provided enough information to give the apprentices a basic
learning of the topics discussed in this project. We understood how single phase and three
phase electricity is conducted and the differences between the two. For the Airbus A380 we
discovered how electricity is produced by using four variable frequency generators,
transformer theory and how TRU’s and inverters are used. I have also showed what power
factor is, the benefits of it and a worked example to help understand how it works and why
we use it. I have also shown good information on how different batteries are made up by
different components, and what equations are used with them. I have also helped the
reader understand different aircraft components such as an APU, RAT and a GPU by showing
them what they do and how they work along with pictures to give a better understanding of
the component.

References

Adams, C., n.d. A380: More electric aircraft. [Online]

Available at: https://www.aviationtoday.com/2001/10/01/a380-more-electric-aircraft/
#:~:text=Airbus%20has%20baselined%20EHA%20flight,weight%2C%20compared%20to
%20current%20systems
Aviation, n.d. How does the A350/380 operate on Variable Frequency AC generators?.
[Online]
Available at: https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/36981/how-does-the-a350-380-
operate-on-variable-frequency-ac-generators#:~:text=It%20basically%20uses%20always
%20DC,is%20optimal%20for%20the%20application
Bowden, C. H. a. S., n.d. Lead acid batteries. [Online]
Available at: https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/batteries/lead-acid-batteries
iet, E. t., n.d. Power Factir correction. [Online]
Available at: https://electrical.theiet.org/media/1687/power-factor-correction-pfc.pdf
MDPI, n.d. Cadmium Recovery from Spent Ni-Cd Batteries: A Brief Review. [Online]
Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4701/11/11/1714
Reference, O., n.d. lead-acid accumulator. [Online]
Available at:
https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100055776#:~:te
xt=The%20equation%20for%20the%20overall,80–120%20kJ%20per%20kilogram
Secunde, R. R., n.d. Integrated engine-generator concept for aircraft electric secondary
power. [Online]
Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/80646645.pdf
Sforza, P., 2014. Commercial Airplane Design Principle. [Online]
Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/auxiliary-power-
unit#:~:text=The%20auxiliary%20power%20unit%20(APU,mechanical%20power%20for
%20the%20following%3A&text=Starting%20power%20for%20the%20main
%20engines.&text=Pneumatic%20power%20for%20cabin%20ai
Skybrary, n.d. Aircraft batteries. [Online]
Available at: https://skybrary.aero/articles/aircraft-batteries#:~:text=Lead%20acid
%20batteries%20are%20often,potassium%2C%20sodium%20and%20lithium%20hydroxides
Skybrary, n.d. Ground Power Unit. [Online]
Available at: https://skybrary.aero/articles/ground-power-unit-gpu
Skybrary, n.d. Inverter. [Online]
Available at: https://skybrary.aero/articles/inverter
Skybrary, n.d. Inverter. [Online]
Available at: https://skybrary.aero/articles/inverter
Skybrary, n.d. Ram Air Turbine. [Online]
Available at: https://skybrary.aero/articles/ram-air-turbine-rat
Skybrary, n.d. Transformer. [Online]
Available at: https://skybrary.aero/articles/transformer
Skybrary, n.d. Transformer Rectifier Unit. [Online]
Available at: https://skybrary.aero/articles/transformer-rectifier-unit-tru
Thales, n.d. The dream of all-electric aircraft is getting closer. [Online]
Available at: https://onboard.thalesgroup.com/dream-electric-aircraft-getting-closer/
Tooley, D. W. a. M., n.d. Aircraft Electrical and Electronic Systems. s.l.:s.n.
WikiHow, n.d. How ro calculate power factor correction. [Online]
Available at: https://www.wikihow.com/Calculate-Power-Factor-Correction#qa_headline
Zainul Abdin, K. R. K., 2019. Polygeneration with Polystorage for Chemical and Energy Hubs,.
s.l.:s.n.