MME 345, Lecture 38

Ferrous Foundry Practices

2. Metallurgy of grey irons
Ref: Heine, Loper and Rosenthal. Principles of Metal Casting, Tata McGraw-Hill, 19670

Topics to discuss today …

1. Graphite morphology
2. Metastable nature of iron – iron carbide system
3. Solidification of Fe-C-Si alloy
4. Chemical composition effects
5. Properties of grey iron
6. Heat treatment of grey iron
 Graphite Morphology
classification of graphite flake size and shape

❑ The properties of grey iron castings are influenced by the shape and
distribution of the graphite flakes.

❑ The standard method of defining graphite forms is based on the

system proposed by the American Society for the Testing of Metals,
ASTM Specification A247, which classifies the form, distribution and
size of the graphite.

Shape
Size ASTM A247,
Distribution ISO R-945

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Summary and description of graphite forms / shapes

as per ASTM and equivalent ISO classification

ASTM Equivalent
Type(a) ISO Form(b) Description

I VI Nodular (spheroidal) graphite

II V Nodular (spheroidal) graphite, imperfectly formed
III IV Aggregate, or temper carbon
IV III Quasi-flake graphite
V II Crab-form graphite
VI(c) I Flake graphite

(a) As defined in ASTM A 247;

(b) As defined in ISO/R 945-1969 (E);
(c) Divided into five sub-types base on graphite distribution; uniform flakes; rosette grouping;
superimposed flake size; interdendritic, random orientation; and interdendritic, preferred orientation.

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 Six forms:
I flake graphite
II crab-form graphite
III quasi-flake graphite
IV aggregate or tempered carbon
V nodular graphite, imperfectly formed
VI nodular graphite

reference diagrams for different graphite form / shape as specified in ISO/R 945

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longest flakes 4 in. longest flakes 1 to 2 in. longest flakes 1/4 to 1/2 in. longest flakes 1/16 to 1/8 in.
or more in length in length in length in length

longest flakes 2 to 4 in. longest flakes 1/2 to 1 in. longest flakes 1/8 to 1/4 in. longest flakes 1/16 in.
in length in length in length or less in length

graphite flake sizes as specified in ASTM A247

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 Type A: Random orientation, uniform distribution
The preferred type for engineering applications. This type of
graphite structure forms when a high degree of nucleation
exists in the liquid iron, promoting solidification close to the
equilibrium graphite eutectic.

Type B: Rosette grouping

The eutectic cell size is large because of the low degree of
nucleation. Fine flakes form at the centre of the rosette
because of undercooling, these coarsen as the structure
grows.

Type C: Superimposed flake sizes, random orientation

Structures occur in hypereutectic irons, where the first
graphite to form is primary kish graphite. It may reduce tensile
properties and cause pitting on machined surfaces.

Type D: Interdendritic segregation, random orientation

Type E: Interdendritic segregation, preferred orientation
Both are fine, undercooled graphites which form in rapidly
cooled irons having insufficient graphite nuclei. Although the
fine flakes increase the strength of the eutectic, this
morphology is undesirable because it prevents the formation
of a fully pearlitic matrix. Occurs in hypoeutectic alloys.

reference diagrams for the distribution of graphite (Form 1) as specified in ASTM A247
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Type B: Rosette grouping Type D: Interdendritic segregation,

random orientation

Type A: Random orientation,

uniform distribution

Type C: Superimposed flake sizes, Type E: Interdendritic segregation,

random orientation preferred orientation

typical structures for the distribution of graphite (Form 1) as specified in ASTM A247
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 The Metastable Nature of Fe-Fe3C System
❑ chemical composition, structure and properties of grey iron vary over broad limits
❑ range of alloy composition and properties produced are better understood by
considering grey iron metallurgy, particularly the metastable nature of iron carbide

❑ under normal conditions,

• a hypoeutectic Fe-C alloy (>4.3%C) freezes with austenite dendrite and ladeburite (austenite-carbide
eutectic), which under eutectoid temperature transform into pearlite dendrite and transformed
ladebutite (pearlite-carbide mixture)
• a eutectic Fe-C alloy consists only the transformed eutectic

❑ iron carbide becomes unstable

1. in contact with graphite at elevated temperature
2. at prolonged exposure to high temperature
3. in presence of certain elements in the alloy (particularly Si)

❑ conversely, nucleation of graphite is prevented and metastable carbide persisted if

1. the cooling is rapid
2. the alloy contains certain elements
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Solidification of Fe-C-Si Alloy

• Presence of Si is the single most important composition
factor that promote graphitisation in grey cast iron.
Equilibrium freezing of Fe – 3.5 C – 2.0 Si alloy

1. Primary austenite (A) dendrites forms (from liquidus to

beginning of eutectic temperature, ~2150-2060 F).
2. Remaining liquid transforms to A-G eutectic at the eutectic
zone, 2060 – 2010 F, and completes solidification process.
Structure contains about 10% A and 90% A-G eutectic.
3. Precipitation of carbon as G from primary A on eutectic
graphite from eutectic temperature to the beginning of
eutectoid, ~1475 F. (Solid-state transformation).
4. Austenite changes to ferrite and graphite (at the
eutectoid zone, 1475-1440 F). (Eutectoid transformation).
5. The final structure contains: isolated areas of ferrite
(originating in primary A), areas of mixed ferrite and flake
graphite (originated at A-G eutectic)

• Three important stages of graphitisation:

1. During solidification
2. By carbon precipitation from austenite (solid state)
3. During eutectoid transformation (solid state)

• The amount of Si present in the alloy control the whole

transformation process.
 Graphitisation During Solidification
• Size, shape and distribution of graphite flakes developed during solidification.
• Segregation, undercooling and rapid cooling promotes type D/E-type graphites.
• Suppression of eutectic freezing (by chilling for example) forms white iron.
• Factors to consider: Section size, Superheat, Inoculation.

Section Size
• Low nucleation rate, slow cooling rate, rapid graphitization ➔ large, randomly nucleated flakes (type A/B)
• Moderate undercooling, moderate nucleation with still time for diffusion and graphitization ➔ small flakes
• Severe undercooling ➔ prevents graphitization, no flakes (chilled / white iron)

Superheating (heating liquid above 1510 C)

• Undercooling would most likely to occur
• Produce type D/E flakes
• Chill / mottled iron would also occur if not inoculate properly.

Inoculation (additions to molten iron)

• Produce marked change in graphite type by preventing undercooling
• The effect is the most pronounced when added to superheated liquid
• Only 0.05 – 0.25% FeSi or other graphitizing agent addition produces type A graphite
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(b) 1/2 in, x100 (c) 1.2 in, x100 (d) 2 in, x100 (e) 6 in, x100

(f) 12/ in, x1000 (g) 1.2 in, x1000 (h) 2 in, x1000 (i) 4 in, x1000
Graphitisation in the Solid State

• On slow cooling, graphite precipitates on previously existing flakes.

• On very slow cooling, austenite completely transforms into ferrite and graphite.
• Fine graphite flakes (formed during freezing), regardless of type, promote solid-state
graphitisation.
• The flakes serve as the precipitation centre for carbon

• The commercial practice is to retain 100% or some portion of pearlite

• Proper balance between Mn and S assists to obtain pearlitic structure even when
cooled in sand moulds
• Rapid solid-state cooling and presence of carbide-forming elements increase
retention of combined carbon

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Chemical Composition Effects

cast iron compositions
Grade (BS 1452: 1990) 150 200 250 300 350
Total carbon, % 3.1 – 3.4 3.2 – 3.4 3.0 – 3.2 2.9 – 3.1 3.1 max.
Silicon, % 2.5 – 2.8 2.0 – 2.5 1.6 – 1.9 1.8 – 2.0 1.4 – 1.6
Manganese, % 0.5 – 0.7 0.6 – 0.8 0.5 – 0.7 0.5 – 0.7 0.6 – 0.75
Sulphur, % 0.15 0.15 0.15 max. 0.12 max. 0.12 max.
Phosphorous, % 0.9 – 1.2 0.1 – 0.5 0.3 max. 0.01 max. 0.10 max.
Molybdenum, % – – – 0.4 – 0.6 0.3 – 0.5
Copper or Nickel, % – – – – 1.0 – 1.5

• Mechanical-property specifications are usually considered far more important

than chemical specifications
• So, composition and foundry practice must be adjusted to obtained the desired
strength class of grey iron

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 Element Effect
Carbon • Reported as total carbon: % TC = % Graphitic C + % Combined C
• For graphitisation, TC must have a minimum value (2.2% , value depends on Si content)

Silicon • Shifts eutectic and eutectoid points to the left.

Eutectic %C = 4.3 - %Si / 3
CE = %C + %Si / 3
• Promote graphitisation after carbon; a certain minimum level of Si is necessary to cause
sufficient graphitisation during solidification and develop a satisfactory grey iron
• Low Si is not sufficient to causes graphitisation during solidification, but promote nucleation
and graphitisation at high temperature in the solid state (malleableisation treatment)

Sulphur and • Both act as carbide stabiliser; presence in low level will cause complete graphitisation
Manganese • S alone form FeS and segregates along grain boundary, but with Mn, form MnS and
precipitated throughout the matrix; the effect as carbide stabiliser is lost
• Relationship between S and Mn:
%Mn = 1.7 %S → form MnS
%Mn = 1.7 %S + 0.15; Highest limit of Mn to promote ferrite & graphite
%Mn = 3.0 %S + 0.35; Lowest limit of Mn to develop 100% pearlite

Phosphorous • Forms steadite and segregated along grain boundary

• Forms iron – iron phosphide eutectic, thereby promoting eutectic formation
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Properties of Grey Irons

foundry properties

❑ for several reasons, grey irons are among the most easily cast of all alloys

1. Pouring Temperature
• wide working temperature (1200 – 1700 °C)
• permits easy manipulation, re-ladling, adequate time for pouring
• typical pouring temperature: 1250 – 1550 °C

2. Shrinkage and Feeding

• favourable freezing mechanism and low shrinkage characteristics
• higher yield (60 – 70% or even higher)
• feeding is not always easy; some casting designs are easily cast
with commercially acceptable soundness with low CE value
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3. Fluidity
• most fluid of ferrous alloys;
intricate and thin sections can
be produced
• the eutectic composition has
the most fluidity
• the hypereutectic composition
suffers extreme loss of fluidity
due to graphite precipitation

Composition Factor (CF)

= %C + %Si / 4 + %P / 2
(for highest fluidity, CF = 4.55)

Fluidity (inch)
= 14.9 x CF + 0.05 T - 155 Fluidity related to pouring temperature and composition
of grey and malleable cast iron
(T = pouring temperature in °F)

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engineering properties
Specification of grey irons

Desig- Minimum Tensile Strength (MPa)

Country Specification
nation 100 150 180 200 220 250 260 300 350 400
France NFA 32-101-1987 FGL 150 200 250 300 350 400
Germany DIN 1691 -1985 GC 10 15 20 25 30 35
India IS 210 -1978 FG 150 200 250 300 350 400
Italy UNI 5007 -1969 G 10 15 20 25 30 35
FC 100 150 200 250 300 350
Japan JIS G5501-1989
Class 1 2 3 4 5 6
Netherlands GOST 1412 -1979 Sch 10 15 18 20 25 30 35 40
UK BS 1452 1990 Grade 100 150 180 200 220 250 300 350
USA ANS/ASTM A48-83 Grade 20A 25A 30A 35A 40A 45A 50A 60A
International ISO 185 -1988 Grade 100 150 200 250 300 350
Equivalent Tonf/in2 6.5 9.7 12.9 16.2 19.4 22.7

Hardness ranges for grades of grey iron

Grade 150 200 250 300 350 400
BHN (10/3000) 136 – 167 159 – 194 180 – 222 202 – 247 227 – 278 251 – 307

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 ❑ from metallurgical standpoint, grey irons are viewed as
microstructurally-sensitive alloys

❑ microstructure, chemical composition and mechanical properties

are intimately related

❑ the processing parameters that influence structure, chemical

composition variations and cooling rate also influence properties

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composition and structure effect

• C and Si are the most important composition factors
affecting mechanical properties
• maximum strength obtained with a pearlitic matrix
• maximum limit of strength by decreasing CE value is about
45000 psi; higher strength requires special alloy additions
• type A graphite produces maximum strength

relationship between tensile strength and tensile strength of 1.20-in.-diameter gray-iron

carbon equivalent value for various bar diameters bars as affected by carbon equivalent.
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• Addition of alloying elements has two effects:
1. effect on microstructure, metal matrix, and graphitisation process
2. effect on properties (increased strength, resistances to wear, corrosion, oxidation/scaling and abrasion)

cooling rate (section size)

• effect of cooling rate on

properties is profound because
of its influence on microstructure

• rapid cooling ➔ increased

hardness and tensile strength
(as long as no white or chilled
iron or D-type graphite is
produced)

• slow cooling ➔ coarsening of

graphite flakes and lamellar
pearlite and appearance of ferrite,
causing softening and weakening
of grey iron with reduced wear
resistance
relationship between section size, CE value and structure

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 • thin section casting has the possibility of
misruns and chilled iron surface or hard spot
• so, certain minimum section thicknesses are
desirable in grey iron castings

ASTM Suggested Wall Thickness,

Class Iron min. (inch)
20 1/8
25 1/4
30 3/8
35 3/8
40 5/8
50 1/2
60 3/4

dependence of grey iron properties on section thickness

summary of relationships of CE, section size and properties of unalloyed grey iron
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 Heat Treatment of Grey Irons

❑ Since grey irons may be heated to austenite zone, heat treatments

similar to steels can be applied

❑ Principal purposes to heat treat grey irons:

1. improve machinability – sub-critical annealing to 650-675°C for 2-4 hrs, followed by
slow cooling; spherodisation of pearlite with some graphitisation
2. improve wear resistance – hardening at 900-925°C, followed by oil or water
quenching and then tempering to suit the need
3. improve strength – rarely used; hardening followed by tempering at 425-535°C
produces optimum tensile strength; may cause warpage or cracking
4. dimensional stability and stress relief – often desirable; annealing or normalising
can be used; a specific stress-relief anneal consists in heating to 480-595°C for 1 hr or
more, followed by slow cooling

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Next Class
MME 345, Lecture 39

Ferrous Foundry Practices

3. Melting of cast irons in cupola