Point particle

A point particle, ideal particle[1] or point-like particle (often spelled pointlike particle) is an
idealization of particles heavily used in physics. Its defining feature is that it lacks spatial
extension; being dimensionless, it does not take up space.[2] A point particle is an appropriate
representation of any object whenever its size, shape, and structure are irrelevant in a given
context. For example, from far enough away, any finite-size object will look and behave as a
point-like object. Point masses and point charges, discussed below, are two common cases.
When a point particle has an additive property, such as mass or charge, it is often represented
mathematically by a Dirac delta function.

Examples of point particles: Point mass for

Newton's law of universal gravitation; Point particles
to measure distance between two charged
particles; Ideal gas particles do not interact (no
collisions, no gravity force between them, no
Coulomb's force); Simple pendulum (point mass
attached to the end of the string with no mass).

In quantum mechanics, the concept of a point particle is complicated by the Heisenberg

uncertainty principle, because even an elementary particle, with no internal structure, occupies a
nonzero volume. For example, the atomic orbit of an electron in the hydrogen atom occupies a
volume of ~10−30 m3. There is nevertheless a distinction between elementary particles such as
electrons or quarks, which have no known internal structure, versus composite particles such as
protons, which do have internal structure: A proton is made of three quarks. Elementary particles
are sometimes called "point particles" in reference to their lack of internal structure, but this is in
a different sense than discussed above.
Point mass

Point mass (pointlike mass) is the concept, for example in classical physics, of a physical object
(typically matter) that has nonzero mass, and yet explicitly and specifically is (or is being thought
of or modeled as) infinitesimal (infinitely small) in its volume or linear dimensions. In the theory
of gravity, extended objects can behave as point-like even in their immediate vicinity. For
example, spherical objects interacting in 3-dimensional space whose interactions are described
by the Newtonian gravitation behave in such a way as if all their matter were concentrated in
their centers of mass.[3] In fact, this is true for all fields described by an inverse square law.[4][5]

Point charge

Scalar potential of a point charge

shortly after exiting a dipole magnet,
moving left to right.

Similar to point masses, in electromagnetism physicists discuss a point charge, a point particle
with a nonzero electric charge.[6] The fundamental equation of electrostatics is Coulomb's law,
which describes the electric force between two point charges. Another result, Earnshaw's
theorem, states that a collection of point charges cannot be maintained in a static equilibrium
configuration solely by the electrostatic interaction of the charges. The electric field associated
with a classical point charge increases to infinity as the distance from the point charge
decreases towards zero, which suggests that the model is no longer accurate in this limit.
In quantum mechanics

A proton is a combination of two

up quarks and one down quark,
held together by gluons.

In quantum mechanics, there is a distinction between an elementary particle (also called "point
particle") and a composite particle. An elementary particle, such as an electron, quark, or photon,
is a particle with no known internal structure. Whereas a composite particle, such as a proton or
neutron, has an internal structure (see figure). However, neither elementary nor composite
particles are spatially localized, because of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. The particle
wavepacket always occupies a nonzero volume. For example, see atomic orbital: The electron is
an elementary particle, but its quantum states form three-dimensional patterns.

Nevertheless, there is good reason that an elementary particle is often called a point particle.
Even if an elementary particle has a delocalized wavepacket, the wavepacket can be represented
as a quantum superposition of quantum states wherein the particle is exactly localized.
Moreover, the interactions of the particle can be represented as a superposition of interactions of
individual states which are localized. This is not true for a composite particle, which can never be
represented as a superposition of exactly-localized quantum states. It is in this sense that
physicists can discuss the intrinsic "size" of a particle: The size of its internal structure, not the
size of its wavepacket. The "size" of an elementary particle, in this sense, is exactly zero.

For example, for the electron, experimental evidence shows that the size of an electron is less
than 10−18 m.[7] This is consistent with the expected value of exactly zero. (This should not be
confused with the classical electron radius, which, despite the name, is unrelated to the actual
size of an electron.)

See also

Test particle
 Brane

Charge (physics) (general concept, not limited to electric charge)

Standard Model of particle physics

Wave–particle duality

Notes and references

Notes
1. Ohanian, H. C.; Markert, J. T. (2007). Physics for Engineers and Scientists. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). Norton. p. 3.
ISBN 978-0-393-93003-0.

2. Udwadia, F. E.; Kalaba, R. E. (2007). Analytical Dynamics: A New Approach. Cambridge University Press.
p. 1. ISBN 978-0-521-04833-0.

3. Fowles, Grant R; Cassiday, George L. Analytical Mechanics. §6.2 Gravitational Force between a Uniform
Sphere and a Particle.

4. Newton, I. (1999). The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Translated by Cohen, I.
B.; Whitman, A. University of California Press. p. 956 (Proposition 75, Theorem 35). ISBN 0-520-08817-
4.

5. I. Newton, A. Motte, J. Machin (1729), p. 270–271.Newton, I. (1729). The Mathematical Principles of

Natural Philosophy (https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Tm0FAAAAQAAJ) . Translated by Motte, A.;
Machin, J. Benjamin Motte. pp. 270 (https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Tm0FAAAAQAAJ/page/n35
4) –271.

6. Snieder, R. (2001). A Guided Tour of Mathematical Methods for the Physical Sciences. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 196–198. ISBN 0-521-78751-3.

7. "Precision pins down the electron's magnetism" (http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/29724) . 4

October 2006.

Bibliography
C. Quigg (2009). "Particle, Elementary" (https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130401135900/http://auth.gr
olier.com/login/go_login.html?bffs=N) . Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online. Archived from the
original (http://ea.grolier.com/article?id=0303750-00) on 2013-04-01. Retrieved 2009-07-04.

S. L. Glashow (2009). "Quark" (https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130401135900/http://auth.grolier.co

m/login/go_login.html?bffs=N) . Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online. Archived from the original (htt
p://ea.grolier.com/article?id=0325780-00) on 2013-04-01. Retrieved 2009-07-04.

M. Alonso; E. J. Finn (1968). Fundamental University Physics Volume III: Quantum and Statistical Physics.
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-00262-0.
Further reading

Cornish, F. H. J. (1965). "Classical radiation theory and point charges". Proceedings of the
Physical Society. 86 (3): 427–442. Bibcode:1965PPS....86..427C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/1965PPS....86..427C) . doi:10.1088/0370-1328/86/3/301 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F
0370-1328%2F86%2F3%2F301) .

Jefimenko, Oleg D. (1994). "Direct calculation of the electric and magnetic fields of an electric
point charge moving with constant velocity". American Journal of Physics. 62 (1): 79–85.
Bibcode:1994AmJPh..62...79J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994AmJPh..62...79J) .
doi:10.1119/1.17716 (https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.17716) .

External links

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