MANAGEMENT CYCLE

The management cycle is the process by which the leaders of an organization help workers
throughout the organization ensure that it achieves its objectives. When management effectively
uses the management cycle, the organization’s workers become enabled. They take a more
proactive role in solving the organization’s challenges by identifying problems, making
suggestions, giving input, discussing and implementing solutions.

1. INITIATING

The Project Initiation Phase is the 1st phase in the Project Management Life Cycle, as it involves
starting up a new project. It is at this point where the opportunity or reason for the project is
identified and a project is developed to take advantage of that opportunity.

It is during this phase of the project that a team is assembled, and a business case is created to
define the project in detail.

Feasibility study: research the reason for your project and determine if it will succeed.

Team: find the people with the right skills and experience to execute the project

Review: review the initiation phase and keep reviewing the progress throughout the project

Business Case: Explain why the project is necessary and how it will succeed

Project Charter: How will the project be structured and executed?

Project Office: where the project manager and support stuff are located to assist with the project

2. PLANNING

After the project has been defined and the project team has been appointed, you are ready to
enter the second phase in the project management life cycle: the detailed project planning phase.
 Project planning is at the heart of the project life cycle, and tells everyone involved where you’re
going and how you’re going to get there. The planning phase is when the project plans are
documented, the project deliverables and requirements are defined, and the project schedule is
created. It involves creating a set of plans to help guide your team through the implementation
and closure phases of the project. The plans created during this phase will help you manage time,
cost, quality, changes, risk, and related issues. They will also help you control staff and external
suppliers to ensure that you deliver the project on time, within budget, and within schedule.

The basic processes of project planning are:

 Scope planning – specifying the in-scope requirements for the project to facilitate creating the
work breakdown structure
 Preparation of the work breakdown structure – spelling out the breakdown of the project into
tasks and sub-tasks

 Project schedule development – listing the entire schedule of the activities and detailing their
sequence of implementation

 Resource planning – indicating who will do what work, at which time, and if any special skills
are needed to accomplish the project tasks

 Budget planning – specifying the budgeted cost to be incurred at the completion of the project

 Procurement planning – focusing on vendors outside your company and subcontracting

 Risk management – planning for possible risks and considering optional contingency plans and
mitigation strategies

 Quality planning – assessing quality criteria to be used for the project

 Communication planning – designing the communication strategy with all project stakeholders

The planning phase refines the project’s objectives, which were gathered during the initiation
phase. It includes planning the steps necessary to meet those objectives by further identifying the
specific activities and resources required to complete the project. Now that these objectives have
been recognized, they must be clearly articulated, detailing an in-depth scrutiny of each
recognized objective. With such scrutiny, our understanding of the objective may change. Often
the very act of trying to describe something precisely gives us a better understanding of what we
are looking at. This articulation serves as the basis for the development of requirements. What
this means is that after an objective has been clearly articulated, we can describe it in concrete
(measurable) terms and identify what we have to do to achieve it. Obviously, if we do a poor job
of articulating the objective, our requirements will be misdirected and the resulting project will
not represent the true need.
3. EXECUTING/ IMPLEMENTATION

Executing processes help to deliver the actual work, outputs, and deliverables of a project.
Because, project execution phase is where most of the project activities are completed, project
deliverables are produced and delivered to the customer.

This often feels like the meat of the project since a lot is happening during this time, like status
reports and meetings, development updates, and performance reports. A “kick-off” meeting
usually marks the start of the Project Execution phase where the teams involved are informed of
their responsibilities.

Tasks completed during the Execution Phase include:

 Develop team
 Assign resources
 Execute project management plans
 Procurement management if needed
 PM directs and manages project execution
 Set up tracking systems
 Task assignments are executed
 Status meetings
 Update project schedule
 Modify project plans as needed

While the project monitoring phase has a different set of requirements, these two phases often
occur simultaneously
4. CONTROLLING/ MONITORING AND EVALUATION PHASE
Control is a continuous process. It is an integral part of management. It is concerned with
monitoring and evaluating performance so as to obtain the best results from managerial efforts. It
ensures work accomplishment according to plans. It is also the process of guiding and
supervising the events in the organization. The process of control consists of the following
elements:

1. Setting performance standards: Managers must translate plans into performance

standards. These performance standards can be in the form of goals, such as revenue from
sales over a period of time. The standards should be attainable, measurable, and clear.
2. Measuring actual performance: If performance is not measured, it cannot be ascertained
whether standards have been met.
3. Comparing actual performance with standards or goals: Accept or reject the product
or outcome.
4. Analyzing deviations: Managers must determine why standards were not met. This step
also involves determining whether more control is necessary or if the standard should be
changed.
5. Taking corrective action: After the reasons for deviations have been determined,
managers can then develop solutions for issues with meeting the standards and make
changes to processes or behaviors.
5. CLOSURE

During the final closure, or completion phase, the emphasis is on releasing the final deliverables
to the customer, handing over project documentation to the business, terminating supplier
contracts, releasing project resources, and communicating the closure of the project to all
stakeholders. The last remaining step is to conduct lessons-learned studies to examine what went
well and what didn’t. Through this type of analysis, the wisdom of experience is transferred back
to the project organization, which will help future project teams.
 WORK STUDY

14.2.08T WORK STUDY

Work Study, developed in American industry in the 1920s, has been defined in British
Standard 3138 as follows:

‘A generic term for those techniques, particularly method study and work
measurement which are used in the examination of human work in all its
contexts, and which lead systematically to the investigation of all the factors
which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being reviewed, in
order to effect improvement’.

Planning cannot be done unless one knows how long it will take to do a particular job. Time is
very important to the manufacturer who must keep his promise, to estimate quantities, and to other
industrial and business arrangements. The need for this managerial tool arose in the middle of 19 th
century, when the greater use of machinery and increasing size of manufacturing units necessitated
a more efficient means of controlling production schedules.

Objectives of Work Study

The reasons why Work Study techniques are utilized in production include the following:
1. To reduce wasteful work, as there will be less fatigue and delays will be cut out.
2. To improve working conditions, methods and layout.
3. To increase production as a result of better use of resources
4. To achieve production cost savings and increase profit margins. This ensures security for
workers as the company will be more successful.
5. To improve productivity of workers and machines thus producing a more efficient organisation
6. To ensure a steady flow of materials and an equal reward for the same skill and effort. There
will be a happier atmosphere and site relationship with foremen.
7. To establish a standard rate or time for a job by providing information and revealing
inefficiency.
8. Laying down objective training.

Beneficial Results of Work Study

If put to proper use, work study mainly benefits three parties as seen below:
(1) To the firm or organisation – It helps in:
a reduction of cost for higher profits
b more competitive tendering
c better control of management
d proper use of resources
e giving better services to the clients

(2) To the supervisor – Helps him to:

a plan efficiently
b have better control of the operatives
c have easy supervision of work
d do a more rewarding job
e have no disagreements on bonus

(3) To the operatives – Helps them to have:

a better working conditions
b steady income – bonus targets
c less fatigue at work
d good site relationship with foremen
e good security as the firm will be successful
History of Work Study
Work Study has a long and respectable history stretching back to the 18 th century. Its
development has been constant process over the centuries, with man endeavouring to find and
improve ways of doing his daily work. Many of these improvements did not cause great benefit on
their own but have, over time, been collected and used by men with wide vision to produce results
and labour conditions of a very high order.

Certain periods in time have also been responsible for creating, through the imagination of men,
many advancements, e.g. the Industrial Revolution, when technical progress developed at unheard
of speed. Wars have also created situations which have produced ideas at a far quicker rate than
would have been expected normally.

Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915): To achieve greater efficiency, the solutions he

came up with were based directly on his own experience at work, initially as a lathe operator and
gang boss at the Midvale Steel Company in Philadelphia, where, in 11 years, he rose to shop
superintendent. Here he investigated problems of industrial organisation, one of which being the
practice of ‘soldiering’, or taking things easy so that work-rates for the job would be forced up.
This resulted in the problem of doing a fair day’s work for a fair day’s pay, the problem being
what constituted a fair day’s work. Taylor tackled this and produced, after detailed analysis of
jobs, ‘standard times’. Unfortunately, the values used for the new system of payment were based
on the performance of the best workers; this created discontent amongst the average and slower
workers, but his work laid the foundation stone of work measurement.

In 1889 he moved to the Bethlehem Steel Company, where he consolidated his ideas and
conducted some of his most famous experiments in improving labour productivity.

Henry Lawrence Gantt (1861-1919) was a close colleague of Taylor at the Bethlehem Steel
Company, and developed a payment system that allowed even the slowest worker to benefit while
best workers qualified for a handsome bonus. Better use was made of the foremen because they
were sought after by individuals who needed further instructions or help with faulty machines. As
a result, supervision improved, breakdowns were minimized and delays avoided by all concerned.
Eventually individual workers learned to cope on their own with routine problems.
 Possibly Gantt’s production programmes, for which he is remembered, were his biggest
contribution. These are used in industry today and are known as Gantt Charts and show planning
in graphical form in terms of times and the extent to which tasks had been achieved.

Frank (1869-1924) and Lilian Gilbreth have a close relationship with the building industry
for he was a bricklayer in America in the mid-1880s.
As a result of analyzing, and subsequently redesigning, the working methods of typical bricklayers
he was able to reduce the number of movements in laying bricks from 18 per brick to 5 per brick,
with the result that these bricklayers, when re-trained, increased their output from an average of
175 to 350 bricks per hour. The study of task movements, or ‘motion study’ as it was known, was
a development of Taylor’s ideas and represented the Gilbreths’ major contribution to basic
management and techniques. He also developed a scaffold that could be continually adjusted so
that the materials and wall being built were always at the most efficient height to reduce
unnecessary bending and stretching.

14.2.08T12 METHOD STUDY AND WORK MEASUREMENT

The natural division of work study falls between method study and work measurement. The
former is largely concerned with obtaining higher productivity by improving methods of
production. The latter is largely concerned with the establishment of yardsticks for human effort
and, as such, involves the measurement of the time that is required to carry out a specific job under
specified conditions. Either of these aspects of work study can be applied to problem solving
without the other, though often the best results are obtained by a carefully planned combination of
the two. The usual practice is for a method study of some kind to precede a work measurement
activity.

METHOD STUDY
It is the study and recording of an existing or proposed method of doing work, and by careful
and critical examination of the recording produces an easier and more effective way of doing it.
Method study, when properly used, should result in:
1. higher productivity through an improved production facility (site) layout
 2. a better environment for work
3. reduction of danger and fatigue
4. improved quality of work as a result of improved working procedures and use of materials
and manpower
5. better plant and equipment design and use.

Procedure for Method Study

The basic procedure is to:
i) Select the work, operation or process to be studied: The emphasis is usually that of greater
potential cost reduction – direct or indirect. The importance of improving conditions under which
operatives undertake their work should not be overlooked as an indicator for the priority of
selection. Other factors considered are those concerned with reduction of waste materials, reducing
idle time, relieving fatigue and monotony, smoothing the flow of materials, eliminating
unnecessary movement of all resources by improved layout, improving the quality of productivity
and reducing the working capital required to finance work in progress.
ii) Record all relevant facts relating to current or proposed methods of work. Much of the data
collected is presented in a flow chart form.
iii) Analyze and examine critically the data obtained especially in relation to purpose, sequence,
place, person and means, even to the extent of questioning the very purpose of an activity, to
eliminate unnecessary activities and delays. ‘Is this activity necessary?’ ‘Is this the most
economical sequence of events in the process?’ ‘What are the alternative ways of conducting this
operation?’
iv) Develop best method of working, which may be simpler and easier to adopt, taking all the
circumstances into account, thus leading to higher productivity.
v) Install new method into operation making sure everyone knows and accepts their new
role(s). Re-training of personnel may be necessary and care may be required in gaining the
cooperation and assistance of those operatives affected by the changes.
vi) Maintain the new method, making sure system does not slip back into old method. This
involves the monitoring and modifying required to keep the method operational.
PROCESS CHARTS
Process charts provide diagrammatic means for recording the sequence of activities in an
existing method under study. In this way it is possible to have a visual aid to the overall conception
of the method and a sound basis on which to effect improvements. Process charts of all types are
constructed by using five different symbols linked together to represent the sequence of individual
events or activities in the total operation under study. The total operation must be clearly defined
before the study commences, as must be the points where it commences and where it finishes. The
ASME symbols were derived by a committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
from those originally used by Gilbreth, and are now shown.

Symbol Meaning
Ο Operation (i.e. doing something e.g. laying a brick, knocking in a nail)
→ Transport (i.e. moving something – plant, labour or material e.g. pushing a barrow, hoist
by crane)
 Storage (permanent) i.e. material kept and protected until wanted for use e.g. cement in
silo, brick stacks)
D Delay or temporary storage (i.e. when next operation cannot take place e.g. hoist waiting
to be loaded, operatives awaiting material, an excavator awaiting a lorry to load)
□ Inspection (i.e. examining for quality and/or quantity e.g. measuring opening, checking
the weight of ballast at the concrete mixer, checking the vertical height of courses in
brickwork)
◘ Combined activity (i.e. two activities performed at the same time or by same operator
e.g. loading aggregate into weigh batcher)

Process charts can be very useful in assisting with the establishment of an economic layout
for workshops and yards where a repetitive process is to be undertaken. For example, the layout of
a concrete pre-casting yard, an area in which steel reinforcement will be stored, cut and bent or the
layout of a stores compound which is often provided for some of the more valuable building
materials. The charts can be drawn at varying levels of detail depending on the scope of the
process to be recorded.
a) Outline Process Chart
An outline process chart may be used to record a broad and general picture of a process often
at the initiation of an investigation. In such cases it is usually only necessary to use the operation
and inspection symbols.
An example of an outline process chart is shown in Fig. (a) below. The operation is that of
unloading a baulk of timber from a lorry, measuring its length, cutting it to the required length and
placing and fixing it into position as timber supporting an excavation. The whole process is carried
out five times.

One stage more detail in this particular outline process chart can be introduced by including
the cutting and supply of the wedges-operation which are out of the main stream of activity but are
necessary for the completion of the total job, Fig. (b).

b) Flow Process Chart

The outline process charts above record the way in which the work is being carried out. It is
only when this stage has been reached that a further critical examination of the process can take
place with a view to affecting some improvement in the method currently in use. A flow process
chart is used to show greater detail. Many of the component operations of the outline chart can
now be expanded. All the five symbols will be used to record the flow of material through a
process, the sequence of activities of an operative or the sequence of activities of an item of
equipment or plant in its productive capacity. These are the three types of flow process chart which
are known as material-type, man-type and equipment type respectively.
For whatever subject the chart is initiated, it must subsequently remain consistent throughout
and must not switch from operatives’ activities to material flow, for example. An example of a
man-type chart is shown below. Sometimes it is advantageous to the analysis of a problem if the
flow process charts for man or a machine are drawn with the related material-type chart alongside.
The various operations and movements can then be interrelated.

Unload timber from lorry, cut to length, position and wedge in excavation timbering
CHART BEGINS: Man walking to lorry
CHART ENDS: Final inspection of timbering

If it is thought likely that the distance to be traveled or through which some object or material is to
be moved will be of significance in the subsequent analysis, it can be recorded against each
appropriate transport symbol on one side of the chart as shown above. Similarly, where the time
that it takes to carry out an operation may affect the outcome of an analysis, this may also be
recorded alongside the relevant operation symbols.

c) Flow diagram
Whilst a flow chart as described displays only the sequence of events in a process it can be
adapted in such a way as to provide a pictorial view of the various paths of movement. This is
effected by superimposing a flow process sequence on a plan of the area that shows those facilities
that are involved in the operations. This adaptation is known as a flow diagram and in depicting
the movement of people, materials or machines within a general working area it assists with the
detection of congested areas, paths of excessive length and unnecessary journey

d) String Diagram
A string diagram provides a charting device which is similar in purpose to flow diagram. It
does, however, provide a facility to record and analyze more complex situations than with the
former, and more than one subject can be charted on a single diagram. It is an ideal means by
which a delivery or transporting activity can be analyzed, particularly where the movement takes
place in or through a congested area and there is likely to be an overlapping between one subject
and another. In addition, a string diagram can be used in order to compare a new, and hopefully
improved, situation with an existing one.
A string diagram is prepared by using a scale plan of the area (which may be a site, a pre-cast
concrete manufacturing yard or a joiner’s shop, for example) into which pins or tacks are stuck at
every key position, activity point or change of direction in the movement of the subject(s) under
study. Stout strings (or threads), which can be of different colours to indicate different subjects,
can then be stretched between the pins following the route of travel. The finished record illustrates
the extent to which paths of different plant, materials or men will cross each other during the
course of the operation and the length of each route can be determined by the length of thread,
which is needed to cover it. Can highlight short cuts and congested bottlenecks.

e) Multiple Activity Chart

In contrast to the flow charts, a multiple activity chart incorporates a common time scale
against which various activities are plotted. It is used to illustrate the interrelationships between the
activities of two or more subjects. For example, it can be used to examine the interrelationship
between an operator and his machine or between each of a number of men in a gang engaged upon
concreting, bricklaying or unloading, where the activity is a team activity. The use of a multiple
activity chart facilitates balancing the various activities of the members of a gang by highlighting
idle time and thus any weak link in a team. It is an invaluable method in construction studies,
where very few operations are not team efforts.
Time data must be collected (by direct observation using a stopwatch) before a multiple
activity chart can be constructed. Where large groups of men or machines are involved, it may be
necessary to use several observers and to develop a carefully coordinated plan of study, sometimes
using memo-motion photography which involves taking frames at intervals of time whilst being
careful not to destroy the continuity of the action. The operation involved must be such that it can
be seen in its entirety through the lens of a fixed cine camera.

Revision Question
The following is a FLOW PROCESS CHART that shows the information on reinforcement, which
is being used for the construction of reinforced concrete beams. Copy the chart and show the flow
as indicated by the various processes and complete the titles of the FIVE symbols and the
summary. (11½mks)

FLOW PROCESS CHART

STUDY NO….:……………CHARTERED BY……………….DATE……………………..
SHEET NO……………
OPERATION DESCRIPTION…………………………………..
MAN/MATERIALS/PLANT
PRESENT/PROPOSED.

DISTANCE M
ITEM No.

REMAR
TIME

DESCRIPTION
KS

□  LABOUR
1 BARS SELECTED FROM STORE O  D ER

□   LABOUR
2 TAKEN TO BENDING AREA 15 O D ER

□   STEEL
3 LENGTH OF BAR CHECKED O D FIXER

□   STEEL
4 RING CUT TO LENGTH O D FIXER

5 RINGS CHECKED O □   D STEEL

 FIXER

BARS AND RINGS MOVED TO □   LABOUR

6 ASSEMBLY POINT 25 O D ER

7 AWAITING ASSEMBLY O □   D

□   STEEL
8 MADE UP INTO BEAM ASSEMBLY O D FIXER

□   LABOUR
9 CARRIED TO LOCATION 20 O D ER

10 AWAITING FIXING O □   D

□   STEEL
11 FIXING OF BARS IN POSITION O D FIXER

□   STEEL
12 WIRED TO MAIN STEEL BARS O D FIXER

□   STEEL
13 CHECK FOR PLUMBNESS & LEVEL O D FIXER

FINAL CHECK BY FOREMAN □   FOREMA

14 BEFORE CONCRETING O D N

SUMMARY: SYMBOLS
O…………………………………
…………
……………………………………………

D…………………………………………
…
 □…………………………………………
…

……………………………………………

TOTALS

WORK MEASUREMENT
Work measurement is defined in BS 3138 as
The application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified
worker to carry out a specific job at a defined level of performance.
Work measurement techniques usually follow or overlap with a method study, and are
employed to
1. improve methods of working by the use of comparative times
2. improve planning and control of production and costs
3. reduce costs of resources by providing established yardsticks
4. develop a sound basis for incentive schemes.

Procedure for Work Measurement

When work measurement is linked into a method study, it is introduced at the ‘develop best
method’ stage.
i. describe the method or job to be measured, logically from beginning to end – if someone
is to measure an operation, he must be clear what the operation is.
ii. break job into its elements based on time taken. These elements typically last no more
than 30 seconds.
iii. measure performance of operator – record observed time for each element generally
using a stopwatch for the purpose.
iv. rate performance (basic time). This stage is most vulnerable to mistakes or errors on the
part of the investigator who is required to ‘rate’ the worker, i.e. to decide how quickly (or
slowly!) the worker is working compared with a standard.
 v. determine standard time.

14.2.08T13 TIME AND MOTION STUDY

Time study is a work measurement technique for recording the times and rates of working for
the elements of a specified job carried under specified condition and for analyzing the data so as to
obtain the time necessary for the carrying out of the job at a defined level of performance.
This can be carried out quite often by the use of an ordinary wristwatch or stopwatch and is
possibly the most useful form of work measurement used in the building industry; it can be used
on both single operatives or gangs, as required. Stages in time study are:
1. Timing
2. Rating
3. Normalizing
4. Allowances

Timing is the actual taking of the time to complete an operation. The degree of accuracy in timing
will depend upon the task being recorded.

Rating: This is the allocation to a worker a relationship to a standard. The standard rating of 100
in BS 3138 is equivalent to the ‘average rate at which qualified workers will naturally work at a
job, provided they know and adhere to the specified method and provided they are motivated to
apply themselves to their work’. An employee adjudged to be at a slower pace, he may be rated at,
say, 80. The skilled, efficient worker can achieve over 100.

Normalizing: This is the time that in the judgement of the work-study man an element should be
performed. Normalized time is referred to as basic time and is obtained by a simple formula:

Example: If an element took 1.4 min and an employee is given a rating of 90, then
 , which represents the time it would take if a worker was
working at a normal rate.

Standard Time: The time in which an average worker can work continuously under standard
conditions without adversely affecting his health.

Allowances: Can be divided into two groups:

1. Process allowances
2. Rest allowances

PROCESS ALLOWANCE
A process or unavoidable delay allowance is given so that the worker will not lose earnings due
to an enforced delay over which he has no control, e.g. the cleaning of tools or plant.

REST ALLOWANCE
Rest (or relaxation or fatigue) allowance is the time that an operator is allowed for his personal
needs and for fatigue. Varies with every performance and condition of work, and are added so that
a worker can keep physically and psychologically fit to perform an operation for an allotted time.
Items taken into account are as follows:
Basic, 9% minimum
This is the minimum requirement for the personal needs of every person regardless of work.
Variable rest allowance
Position of body, 0 – 7%
This will vary from the sitting in a comfortable chair to working in a cramped position under
stairs or similar.
Conditions, up to 15%
Include such items as: noise, bad light, dust, heat, cold and water. The differences in conditions
are numerous and can range from working in a hot boiler house to excavating in a deep muddy wet
trench.
Mental Strain, up to 8%
 This relates to the concentration that needs to be applied to a piece of work or a task. For
example, a tower crane driver positioning heavy loads, or a painter doing detail design.
Manual effort, up to 20%
A condition very apt in the building industry where a great amount of muscular force is used
from demolition to manual unloading and carrying materials. The allowance is calculated by the
work-study man in the weight that is lifted, pulled or pushed.
Monotony, up to 4%
Generally not very serious in the building industry as most jobs last for a comparatively short
period; there are occasions, however, such as hammer and chisel work in chasing for services.

By adding up the related percentage given to a task, a total rest allowance is obtained – about
40% is an approximate maximum generally accepted.

Contingency allowance: This is a special allowance applied to various tasks that have to be
carried out by the worker who will not be doing a productive job e.g. a joiner sharpening saw or
chisels, consultation with supervisors, obtaining special materials/tools from stores. These
allowances should not exceed 5% and should only be applied to justifiable cases.
A final allowed time for a task can now be ascertained by the simple calculation shown.

Example: Basic Time: 1.26 min

Relaxation Allowance: 30%
Contingency Allowance: 2%

Example
The work of a certain plumber fixing pipes on walls near the floor level was timed and rated for
three complete cycles as shown in table 3. Using the allowances given in table 4, calculate the
standard time. (20 marks)
Solution
Table 3
Description: Fix water pipe to wall near floor level
ELEMENT RATE WATCH READING
IN MINUTES
check time 0.00
1. measure pipe 95 1.25
2. cut pipe 100 2.30
3. thread pipe 105 4.60
4. fix pipe 90 7.10
5. join pipe 95 16.50
light cigarette - 24.10
1. 100 27.00
2. 105 28.25
3. 100 30.40
read drawings - 33.25
4. 95 35.00
5. 95 43.25
1. 105 50.30
2. 100 51.25
3. 100 53.50
4. 95 57.00
5. 100 66.15
75.05
check time 76.00

Table 4
Element personal body effort heat concen-
 No Description needs position ration
.
1. 3 0 4 0 3
2. 1 2 4 1 1
3. 1 2 4 1 1
4. 2 1 4 0 3
5. 1 1 4 0 3

Solution
ELEMENT R WR OT BT
check time 0.00 - -
1. measure pipe 95 1.25 1.05 1.00
2. cut pipe 100 2.30 2.30 2.30
3. thread pipe 105 4.60 2.50 2.60
4. fix pipe 90 7.10 9.40 8.50
5. join pipe 95 16.50 7.60 7.20
light cigarette - 24.10 2.90
1. 100 27.00 1.25 1.25
2. 105 28.25 2.15 2.30
3. 100 30.40 2.85 2.85
read drawings - 33.25 1.75
4. 95 35.00 8.25 7.80
5. 95 43.25 7.05 6.70
1. 105 50.30 0.95 1.00
2. 100 51.25 2.25 2.25
3. 100 53.50 3.50 3.50
4. 95 57.00 9.15 8.70
5. 100 66.15 8.90 8.90
75.05 0.95
check time 76.00
Average Basic times

1 1.0 1.25 1.00 3.25 3 1.08

0
2 2.3 2.30 2.25 6.85 3 2.28
0
3 2.6 2.85 3.50 8.95 3 2.98
0
4 8.5 7.80 8.70 25.00 3 8.33
0
5 7.2 6.90 8.90 23.00 3 7.60
0

1 3 0 4 0 3 1 1.08 0.11 1.19

0
2 1 2 4 1 1 9 2.28 0.21 2.49
3 1 2 4 1 1 9 2.98 0.27 3.25
4 2 1 4 0 3 1 8.33 0.83 9.16
0
5 1 1 4 0 3 9 7.60 0.70 8.28
24.37
Personal allowance 6% 1.46
Contingency allowance % 2.07
27.90
Say 28 standard minutes to fit 1 pipe

Q. Explain the two methods of timing used in time measurement using a stopwatch.
A. Flyback timing: before the start of the next element the hand is returned to zero. Every time
hand returned to zero at start of each element.
Cumulative timing:watch started and hand runs without being returned to zero. In the beginning of
each element the watch reading is noted. Time for each element is obtained by
subtraction.
Selective timing:Used to time an isolated element. Watch is started at the beginning of the element
till the end.
Differential timing:an element is observed and timed with an adjacent longer one…

INCENTIVE SCHEMES

‘Introduction to Work Study’ by the International Labour Office states that an incentive scheme
is:
Any system of remuneration in which the amount earned is dependent on the
results obtained, thereby offering the employee in incentive to achieve better
results.
Incentive schemes and/or productivity agreements should, wherever practicable, be operated by
employers on jobs and in shops and factories in order to:
(a) increase productivity and reduce costs
(b) enable operatives to increase their earnings by increased effort

There set out provisions governing the making between employers and operatives of productivity
agreements, which take into account technological change and have as their objectives
(a) the achievement of a higher rate of productivity through the more effective use of labour,
and
(b) the provision of opportunity for higher earnings.

There are two types of incentive: financial and non-financial. To the worker, the main incentive
is generally one of an increase in his earnings and is the firm’s main method of motivating the
operatives, i.e. creating a situation that encourages a single person or a group of persons to work
harder and produce more, in so doing, it should also be possible to reduce the cost of the unit being
made, basically because more units are being produced with the same cost of overheads as before
increase in production.
The objects of incentives in the building industry:
1. to increase efficiency by reducing cost of building
2. to increase individual and collective production
3. to provide opportunity for increasing earnings
If these objects are achieved, it follows that in any proper incentive scheme, payments should be
strictly related to production.

Financial Incentives
Profit Sharing: Often used in smaller concerns and as a method of holding labour for a given
period, say 6 to 12 months, with the incentive being a reasonable cash settlement at the end of this
period, related to the success and profits of the company.
Disadvantage: ‘Old soldier’ types will benefit from the efforts of the hard worker and a hard-
working productive supervisor will have to carry supervisors on other sites who are not so
industrious.

Hourly plus rate: Used by many companies to attract labour, especially if in short supply. It may
also be used when the quality of the work in hand is more important than the quantity produced.
Disadvantage: The employer has no guarantee that the extra rates are producing the required extra
increase in production.

Bonus Schemes: The most common type of financial incentive used in the industry, for it does
relate earnings to effort if correctly applied.
There are various schemes used to obtain the required results and these should be carefully
studied in relation to the type of project on hand. Basic principles should be applied on all these
bonus schemes to ensure that it runs successfully:
a Scheme should be simple to understand so that operatives can assess increased earning,
remembering to keep tasks small.
b Output and quality of work based on the average operative working under average
conditions – work measurement can be applied here.
 c The percentage saving achieved on a target to be paid out to the operatives must be agreed
before commencement of scheme. This can rate from an operative receiving 100% of
saving to only 50%.
d Targets should be set down in writing. No changes without approval of both parties.
e Targets should not be altered unless upwards; it may possibly be better, therefore, to start
low and increase bonus earnings if necessary.
f Payments should be made when due or at regular intervals, e.g. once a week.
g Losses of one week should not be deducted from gains in other weeks.

Once a scheme is in operation, great care must be exercised to ensure that the incentive
scheme does not produce any running down of standards in the following:
- Safety of the operatives as laid down in the Construction Regulations
- The material waste of normal working is not increased
- The required standards of workmanship are still operational – payments should not be
made for poor work
- Plant used in process is used efficiently and for the purpose it was intended
- The training of apprentices should still continue to a satisfactory standard

To help control standards, it is generally agreed that site supervisory staff whose duties are
purely supervisory should not be included in schemes. A simple method of recording and
calculating a bonus scheme suitable for house development is shown as follows:
 SCHEDULE OF BONUS RECORDINGS

Labour
Week ending
Gang A
21 May 2007
and B

Bonus
No. of Target Total Man hours
units hours target hours Hours 75%
completed each hours worked saved saving

First floor joist 12 5 60 44 16 12

Boarding Ground
floor 8 6 48 36 12 9

Roof Carcass 4 30 120 100 20 15

Total - - 228 180 28 36

It is recommended that the target should be such that the average worker should be able to earn
20% bonus under normal conditions.

Non-financial Incentives
It is not always necessary to give extra payments to motivate people. This can be seen in all
industries where in certain areas the wages are not as high as local competitors, but labour relations
and working conditions are good.
Working Conditions: the general conditions in which a worker has to perform his allotted tasks:
on the building site it can generally be seen by the standard of the site layout and offices, materials
and the general appearance of the job.
Promotion: always an incentive to the ambitious man is a chance of getting to the top, and to
achieve this promotion a man will put extra thought and effort into his daily work.
Security: Possibly one of the best known and sought-after non-financial incentives, especially
when operatives have family commitments, also when unemployment is prevalent. The firm that
offers continuity of work will always attract a steady labour force.
Safety: unfortunately this is not one of the industry’s best selling points and many workers will
work more confidently and willingly if they feel safe getting to and from their place of work and
whilst they are carrying out their productive operations.
High class Work: will often act as an incentive to men for the honour of working on a building of,
say, national importance.

Other non-financial incentives include:

a Social activities
b Pension schemes
c Extra holidays
d Provision of meals
e Training

Example
(a) State five principles of a good financial incentive scheme. (5 marks)
(b) A gang of masons on a contract was given a target of 90 man-hours to build walls. The gang
consisted of a charge hand paid at 1½ shares, two masons at 1¼ shares each and two labourers at 1
share each.
The following record shows the time booked to each man including stoppages:

Charge hand 2 days at 10 hrs each day

Mason No.1 2 days at 10 hrs each day
Mason No.2 2 days at 8 hrs each day
Labourer No.1 2 days at 10 hrs each day
Labourer No.2 1 day at 10 hrs (first day only)
 Work was held up for four hours on the second day due to bad weather.
If the basic rate of pay was sh20 per hour for an 8-hour day and overtime was paid at 1¼ times,
calculate:
(i) Bonus per share
(ii) Bonus earned by each man
(iii) Total earnings for each man in the gang. (15 marks)

Solution
(b) Note: 4 hrs must be deducted from the hours booked against each worker for the stoppage on
the second day due to bad weather.

Chargehand Actual hrs 10 + 6 = 16

Mason No. 1 ” 10 + 6 = 16
Mason No. 2 ” 8 + 4 = 12
Labourer ” 10 + 6 = 16
No.1
Labourer ” 10 = 10
No.1
Total = 70 hrs

Hours saved = 90 – 70 = 20 hrs

Basic rate of payment is sh20 per hr
Bonus earned by the gang = 20 × 20 = sh400
Total share = 16×1½ +16×1¼ + 12×1¼ + 16 ×1 + 10× 1
= 24 + 20 + 15 + 16 + 10
= 85

(i) Bonus per share = 400/85 = 4/705 = 4/71

(ii) Chargehand 4/71 × 24 = 113/00
Mason No.1 4/71 × 20 = 94/20
 ” No.2 4/71 × 15 = 70/65?
Labourer No.1 4/71 × 16 = 75/25
” No.2 4/71 × 10 = 47/10
400/00
(iii)Basic earning

Total earnings
Chargehand 113/00 + 420/00 = 533/00
Mason No.1 94/10 + 420/00 = 514/10
” No.2 70/55 + 320/00 = 490/55
Labourer No.1 75/25 + 420/00 = 395/25
” No.247/10 + 210/00 = 257/10
2190/00
Revision Questions
1 a) With respect to work study:
i) Define Relaxation Allowances
ii) Outline FIVE constituents of Relaxation Allowances (8½mks)
b) State any FIVE benefits of Work Study to a Construction Company. (5mks)
c) If an element took 20 minutes and was given a rating of 80, calculate the basic time.
(3mks)
d) Sketch the SIX symbols used in a flow process chart and explain their meaning.
(6mks)
2 a) Outline the procedure for method study (7mks)
 b) In a work-study exercise, the observed time for a certain task is recorded as 5 minutes.
Determine the standard time for the task using the data given.

Data
Observed rating = 85 (0/100 scale)
Relaxation allowance = 35%
Contingency allowance = 3% (5mks)

3 a) State FIVE objectives of method study (5mks)

b) Prepare an outline process chart for transporting concrete mix from a mixer 10 m away
from the building into formwork at the fourth floor (by barrow and hoist).
(5mks)
c) Briefly explain the following terms as used in work study:
i) Observed time
ii) Basic time
iii) Standard time
iv) Allowed time (6mks)
d) Calculate the standard time given the following:
- Basic time 4.55 minutes
- Rest allowance 20%
- Contingency allowance 5% (4mks)

4 a) Explain the TWO methods of timing used in time measurement using a stopwatch.
(6mks)
b) In an incentive scheme the target set is Ksh 200 per 1000 bricks laid. A gang of 4
bricklayers and 2 labourers laid 4 000 bricks in a week. Calculate:
i) Total pay earned by the whole gang
ii) The earning of a bricklayer and a labourer if the ratio of earning is 4:3
respectively (5mks)
 c) Target set for a gang of masons is 100 man-hours to put up a wall. The gang consists of
two masons paid 1¼ shares each and two labourers paid 1 share each. Time booked for
each man is as follows:
Mason No. 1 2 days at 8 hours
Mason No. 2 2 days at 6 hours
Labourer No. 1 2 days at 8 hours
Labourer No. 2 1 day at 6 hours
If the agreed bonus payment is 10/= per hour saved calculate bonus earned by each man.
(10½mks)

5 a) Outline the procedure followed in method study. (7mks)

b) Table 1 shows the time study data for a certain operation. Using the allowances given in
Table 2, determine the standard time for the operation. (8mks)

Table 1
Elements of the Observation time
Rating
operation (mins)

1 90 2.00

2 100 1.50

3 85 2.60

4 95 3.20

5 110 1.20

6 105 2.60
 Table 2
Relaxation Allowance Contingency Allowance
Element
(%) (%)

1 15 3

2 17 0

3 23 4

4 12 2

5 14 0

6 15 2

6 a) State any SIX objectives of work-study. (3mks)

b) Outline the FOUR stages in time study. (8mks)
c) The work of a carpenter to fix a door has been timed and rated as shown in
Table 3.
Table 4 shows the allowances
Calculate the standard time. (9mks)
 Table 3 – FIXING OF A DOOR
No. ELEMENT OR WR

1 Collects tools and start - 8.00

2 Measure opening 90 8.02

3 Prepare timber (lining) 80 8.12

4 Form holes in wall 80 8.32

5 Fix lining 90 8.44

6 Prepare to fix hinges 80 8.50

7 Hang door 85 9.10

8 Fix architraves 90 9.14

9 Fix locks 95 9.34

Table 4
TOTAL
No. ALLOWANCE

1 25

2 5

3 10

7 The data in Tables 5 and 6 was collected during the fabrication of piggy banks (money
boxes) using pre-prepared pieces of timber.
Given that the cost of timber used to make one box is sh30, cost of labour is sh180 per day
and cost of other required materials is sh10. Establish the price of ONE box. Make any
necessary assumptions. (20mks)
Table 5
WORK STUDY SHEET

OBSERVED TIME
ELEMENT RATING
(MIN)

1. Collects timber pieces 80 2.00

2. Walks to work bench 90 0.35

3. Assembles box 120 2.10

Talks to colleague 2.00

4. Sand papers box 100 3.40

5. Applies varnish and

stores 80 2.00

Admires work 1.00

1. Collects timber pieces 110 1.35

2. Walks to work bench 80 0.44

Smokes 3.60

3. Assembles box 75 3.33

4. Sand papers box 80 4.35

5. Applies varnish and

stores 120 1.26
Table 6: Allowances %
PHYSICAL MONOTON WEATHER
ELEMENT
EFFORT Y CONDITIONS

1 2 5 2

2 2 5 2

3 5 5 2

4 5 5 2

5 - 5 5

8 a) Briefly explain the following terms as used in work study:

i) observed time
ii) basic time
iii) standard time
iv) allowed time (4mks)

b) The work of an operative pre-casting the concrete saddles for the pipeline is subject of
work measurement study and the preliminary information has been entered on the work-
study sheet shown in Table 8. Using the allowances given in Table 7, calculate the standard
time. (16mks)
Table 7 ALLOWANCES

Body Muscular Heat and Mental

Element Personal Monotony Contingency
Position Position Humidity Strain

1 6 2 1 4 1 0 8

2 6 2 2 4 2 0 8

3 6 2 3 4 2 0 8

4 6 2 2 4 1 0 8

5 6 2 1 4 1 0 8
Table 8 WORK STUDY SHEET
ELEMENT R WR

Check time 00.00

1. Clean mould 80 03.05

2. Insert reinforcement 75 14.25

3. Places concrete 70 23.50

4. Vibrates 75 27.00

5. Trowels level 75 31.15

Lights cigarette - 33.20

1. Clean mould 90 37.50

2. Insert reinforcement 80 48.75

Speaks to man
mixing - 56.50

3. Places concrete 75 61.00

4. Vibrates 75 64.00

5. Trowels level 75 69.00

1. Clean mould 80 71.50

Looks around at
others - 81.75

2. Insert reinforcement 90 93.00

3. Places concrete 90 97.15

 4. Vibrates 95 102.00

5. Trowels level 80 105.15

Check time - 107.00

9 a) List SIX aims of work-study. (3mks)

b) Briefly explain the use of process charts in recording data in method study. (7mks)
c) In a work-study exercise, the time taken to complete a certain task was observed to be 4.3
minutes. The work-study man rated the operatives effort as 95 (on a 0/100 scale).
Determine the standard time for the task using the allowances given:
Relaxation allowance = 27%
Contingency allowance = 4% (4mks)
 14.2.04T CONTRACT PLANNING

THE CONCEPT OF PLANNING

Planning is a well thought out guess which aims to lay down directions in which a move is made
forward, taking into account the resources available. In order to make logical satisfactory plans,
all the relevant information has to be collected, analysed critically and used to make calculated
plans to a high degree of accuracy and foresight of the problems and possible delays. In the
building industry, there are a number of types and methods of planning.

1. Policy Planning
Concerned with the operation of an organization as a commercial undertaking, it is the task of
the top management and considers the past and the present and survival to plan for the future as
far as trends, markets and finance are concerned. Some policies are necessary for the success of
any organization. A policy of any organization will generally include:
a) The objective of the business: what will the company do?
b) Financial structure e.g. total working capital and the expected profit returns relative
to the number of projects that the company could undertake
c) Time scale: regular reference is made to policy to ensure that the forecast is going
ahead as planned
d) Overall activities of the business: whether to be general building contractors, a
plumbing sub-contractor or a specialist in carpentry and joinery
e) Purchases: a policy in purchase of plant, equipment, formwork, scaffold etc with
special consideration on whether to buy or hire
f) Organization: the general set up of a business to include the allocation of the heads of
departments, the personnel policy (to include items on training, promotions, pensions
schemes etc) and the like with special emphasis on the need to keep overheads as low
as possible yet remain efficient.

2. Technical Planning
Associated with the technical processes, and concerned with the various methods of arranging
and employing money, materials, personnel and plant (all of which are called resources) to carry
out the day-to-day operations of the company.
The use of planning methods may be divided, very broadly, amongst the following two stages of
the overall construction period:
a) Pre-tender period – the period between the receipt of the tender enquiry at the
contractor’s office (or advertisement) and his submission of the tender
b) Contractperiod – the period between the acceptance of a tender and the completion
of the site works. (Sometimes this later period is divided into the pre-contract
period, which is between the tender acceptance and the commencement of work on
the site, and the contract period of work on the site)
14.2.04T11 PLANNING STAGES IN THE CONTRUCTION PROCESS
PRE-TENDER PLANNING
All that which a builder will skillfully do, after the receipt of tender notice and before submitting
the bid, in order to win a competitive approval to perform a construction activity.
Activities involved include:
1. The client advertises the work in the media or may invite certain contractors to tender for a
project. The architect and his team of professionals are involved.
2. The contractor decides on whether he wishes to tender for the project or not. If he decides to
tender, he responds by
- paying a given fee
- collecting and carefully studying the tender documents and drawings to find out the
quantities of each item of work, materials, time limit and other conditions of work.
- visit the proposed site
- submit back the costed tender documents

At pre-tender stage, all the facts that are possible to gather are collected and critically examined
for the intended purpose of preparing estimates – estimate build-up. Various departments are
normally involved in order to reduce the risks of inaccurate decisions. An example of a
systematic procedure of a tender is as follows:
I The pre-tender report (site investigation)
II Method statement
III Plant schedule
IV Site organisation structure and site on-costs
V Sub-contractors and suppliers
VI Outline programme
VII Final estimate (for Board’s decision)

I. PRE-TENDER REPORT
A comprehensive document detailing all the required information regarding the area and general
site conditions. Though in most cases it would give general basic information, each company
would develop its own to suit the nature of the company and the types of contracts undertaken. A
typical example is as follows:

A.N. OTHER GENERAL CONTRACTORS

PLANNING DEPARTMENT
SITE INVESTIGATION REPORT
PROJECT
PREPARED BY DATE

1. SITE
i. General description of project
ii. Local Authority
iii. Access
iv. Temporary roads
v. Distance of site from main road
vi. Working space for siting offices
vii. Trespass precautions
viii. Police regulations
ix. Concealed services
 x. Nearest Bench Mark
xi. Photographs

2. SUB-STRATA
i. Types of soil
ii. Stability
iii. Anticipated water table
iv. Source of water
v. Pumping
vi. Disposal of water

3. SERVICES AUTHORITY NEAREST SUPPLY

i. Water
ii. Electricity
iii. Telephone
iv. Gas, petrol/diesel, oils & lubricants

4. LABOUR
Availability -Skilled
- Semi-skilled
- Unskilled

5. TIPPING FACILITIES AND RESTRICTIONS

6. LOCAL SUB-CONTRACTORS

7. OTHER SPECIAL DETAILS

Local weather

II. METHOD STATEMENT

This is a worked out best way and means of carrying out a process of construction, carefully
weighing the various alternative methods that could be adopted; what plants to be used and what
qualities are involved. In developing a method statement, consideration has to be given to
whether the cheapest or fastest method is required for a particular construction activity for it may
be expedient to spend a little extra at one stage to finish early so that other operations can be
started. A typical method statement is shown below:

METHOD STATEMENT
 CONTRACT PREPARED BY

CONTRACT NO.

SHEET NO. DATE

PLANT
ACTIVITY METHOD REMARKS
OUTPUT

EXCAVATION

Soil to be moved approx. 30m

Site Stripping Bulldozer - CAT D4

Foundation CAT 950E 2.5m3 bucket Haul to land fill 1km away in a disused
and Drain shovel loading 5m3 tipper quarry
trenches

CONCRETE
Foundations
7NT mixer with loading Required for first 5 weeks
hopper concrete discharged
direct to wheelbarrows

III. PLANT SCHEDULE

Prepared on the completion of the method statement and gives a detailed summary of all the
plants of and equipments required for the construction to completion of the works, repair of
machines, testing facilities etc, shown below:

PLANT SCHEDULE

CONTRACT PREPARED BY
 CONTRACT NO.

SHEET NO. DATE

AVAILABILITY
No. DESCRIPTION WEEKS MAINTENANCE REMARKS
OWN HIRE

1 Tractor CAT Type 1 - √

D4 Bulldozer
-

1 CAT 950 E 2.5 m 2 √ - Daily and weekly routine

bucket shovel

1 10 √ -
7NT Bedford -Do-
Concrete mixer

IV. SITE ORGANISATION AND ON-COST

These are items covered as site overheads and cannot be priced in the course of normal
productive work but still have to be charged to the project. Included are the site staff required for
administration, temporary roads, site huts, hoardings, offices, stores, power, water, telephone etc.
Site supervisory or technical staff costs are calculated in relation to their administrative time. An
example of site on-costs is shown:

SITE ON-COSTS

CONTRACT

CONTRACT NO. 10/07 CONTRACT PERIOD 16 WEEKS

 FOREMAN
SITE STAFF PERSONNEL
General Foreman 16 weeks

Site foreman (Brickwork) 8 weeks

Site foreman (C&J) 6 weeks

Quantity Surveyor 6 weeks

Site Clerk 14 weeks

General Office Cleaner 16 weeks

SITE HUTS, OFFICES AND ACCOMMODATION

1 No. Foreman's Office 16 weeks Telephone installed

1 No. COW's Office 16 weeks -Do-

1 No. General Office 16 weeks -Do-

1 No. Operatives Hut 16 weeks Tables and chairs

1 No. Plant Stores 8 weeks

1 No. General Stores 16 weeks Include lock up box

3 No. Latrines 16 weeks

Compound 16 weeks Open mesh

2 No. NOTICE BOARDS

PLANNING DPT

PREPARED BY

DATE

V. SUB-CONTRACTORS AND SUPPLIERS

A list of the required sub-contractors and suppliers is drawn up and enquiry forms are sent out to
ascertain their availability on dates required and their ability to complete work in whatever time
has been roughly allocated on the pre-tender programme and to obtain quotations. More detailed
questionnaires are sent to selected sub-contractors if a tender is successful for the purpose of
obtaining more detailed and definite information for producing a master plan. Enquiries to
supplies should be more specific about prices, delivery dates and whether the quantity and
quality can be maintained. A sample of sub-contractor’s questionnaire is shown below:

SUB-CONTACTORS QUESTIONNAIRE SHEET

JOB FIRM TRADE DATE

QUESTION ANSWER
1. How long will it take you to complete the whole works?
2. What is your proposed sequence of work?
3. What labour strength do you intend to employ on site?
4. How many visits would you have to make to complete the works?
5. Do you require additional information before commencement on site?
6. What is the minimum notice which may be given for commencement?
7. State your storage requirements
8. What attendance of facilities do you require?
9. Do you agree to comply with conditions of the main contract?
10. Do you agree to enter into a standard form of sub-contract?

VI. OUTLINE PROGRAMME (PRE-TENDER PLAN)

Produced from the estimated information. It is not a detailed plan but an outline of the main
operations and sub-contractor’s work. It enables all parties concerned in the pre-tender
preparation to coordinate their activities and to assess the times required for plant, use of site
huts and supervisor’s duration on site. It is based on a bar or Gantt chart, developed by Henry
Gantt around 1919.

PRE-TENDER PROGRAMME

CONTRACT No. FOR: PLANNING DPT

 DATE: SHEET No.

PREPARED BY

DURATION IN WEEKS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1 Setting out

2 Exc. of Found & Drains

3 Drainage

4 Siteworks to d.p.c.

5 Framework, B'workstruct

6 Roof

7 Installations, 1st Fix plaster

8 2nd Fix, Decoration

9 Services

10 External works, clear

Revision Questions
1 a) List any TEN items of information that are included in a site visit report.
b) Draw a proforma to show a method statement schedule for construction work.

2 a) Define the following as used in pre-tender planning:

i. Pre-tender report
ii. Staff requirement schedule
iii. Plant schedule
iv. Final estimate
b) i. Explain the relationship between pre-tender planning and successful completion of
contract work.
ii. State TWO characteristics of good planning.

PRE-CONTRACT PLANNING

A successful tenderer upon signing the contract documents, becomes a contractor for the
project and will be allowed a short period of time, “the pre-contract period” to make preparations
and organize his resources before actual commencement of work.
During the pre-contract period, the parties concerned: client, builder and architect on one
hand and planning dept and other departments within the company on the other, usually get very
busy in meetings to streamline all matters relating to the contract. The site supervisor is involved
in most of these meetings and in those other departmental meetings within the contractor’s
organization in order to get to grips with problems and matters relating to the contract, as he is
the one to deal with all parties concerned. From all the above and the past planning, a sound
planning for the contract period can be done. The major items considered at this stage include:
1. Site layout and general organization
2. Labour and plant requirements schedules finalized
3. Contract (Master) programme preparation
The use of a checklist at this stage is important as possibilities of items being forgotten are
minimized.

A.N. OTHER CONSTRUCTION COMPANY LTD

PLANNING DEPARTMENT
CONTRACT CHECK LIST
DATE

JOB No.

Responsibility Action Date

Termination
By Clearance

I. INSURANCES Company Secretary

1. Guarantee bond
2. All risks
3. Fire/third party
Value of contract
Period of contract
4. Special
Demolition
Difficult excavation etc
II. WATER FOR WORKS Supervisor
Application
Value of contract
Block plan
Offices supply
Information to plumber
III.TELEPHONE Supervisor
Application
IV. CROSS OVERS
1. Application
2. Hoardings
3. Gantries
V. SEWER CONNECTION Supervisor
1. Application or quote from L.A.
2. Notice required
3. Sketch of drains run
VI. NOTICES Supervisor
 1. Commencement notice to LA.
2. Factory Act Form Safety Officer
3. Registration of office Form Company Secretary
VII. SERVICES Supervisor
1. Electrical
a Supply to offices
b Building Service shops
2. Gas and fuels
Services as necessary
VIII. SIGN BOARD Supervisor
Sign required
Architect details
Sub contractors’ names
IX. SAMPLES
Name of suppliers Buyer
Type required
Dates for approval
X. FIRST AID Safety Officer
As per construction Regul.
XI. SITE RECORD BOX Planner
As check list

Contract Programme
The more complex the job, the more difficult it is to complete within the specified time, the more
the risks involved. In order to minimize this, a master plan is prepared which shows all
concerned what should happen, when it should happen and by whom it is carried out. This is
carried out using any of the many forms of planning techniques, which ultimately shows the
project activities and their related information. The outline programme worked out in the pre-
tender stage will be used as a foundation in the preparing of the more detailed master plan. Two
forms of the master programme:
i) Bar / Gantt chart
ii) Arrow network (critical path diagram)
Whichever method is used, certain characteristics are essential to both.

Characteristics of a Good Plan

1) It should be based on clearly defined objectives
2) Simple to understand
3) Flexible, so that alterations and alternatives can be easily made
4) Provide standards so that control can be maintained
5) Provide a suitable balance of work so that labour, once off the job, need not return
6) All resources should be used to the full and not left standing waiting for other activities to
be completed.
7) It must be suitable for use as a control tool against which progress can be measured
8) It must be sufficiently accurate to enable its use for forecasting requirements of materials,
manpower, machinery and money
 9) It must provide for difficulties likely to be encountered in future in respect of quantity,
scope, processes etc and for making remedial measures.

14.2.04T12 PROGRAMME CALCULATION SHEETS (Preparation of Programme)

The more information available to the planner at this point, the more reliable and accurate will be
his forecast and resulting programme. The use of the bills of quantities to prepare a list of
programme elements generally proves very satisfactory. To assess the duration of an element the
itemized details produced by the quantity surveyor in the bill be collected under the general
heading. For example, under the heading of “Brickwork” would also be collected damp-proof
course, reveals to openings, placing of airbricks and lintels, etc. It will be realized that these
items will have an effect on the output per hour in laying bricks and it is the planner’s job to
assess this output. This will occur for all project elements and takes the form of a calculation
sheet, an example of which is shown below. (A calculation sheet is a proforma into which a
master programme’s elements are entered, i.e. all interrelated items in the bill of quantities are
collected under a general heading in the calculation sheet)

CALCULATION SHEET

PREPARED BY.
CONTRACT……………………. …………

CONTRACT
No…………………

SHEET
No……………………….. DATE ……………

PROD. LABOUR/PLANT DURATION

ACTIVITY QUANTITY OUTPUT
HOURS REQUIREMENTS DAYS
REMARKS

Preparation of Contract Budgets

Just as site production is programmed so that progress can be checked, i.e., estimated time
against actual time, so must the cost of actual work be checked against estimated (tender) price.
Having the master plan now prepared, labour requirements estimated, materials and plant
assessed, a weekly or monthly estimated cost can be calculated. To this must be added such
items as overheads, on-costs, insurance etc.

Short Term Planning

During the course of a project problems, delays, alterations, shortage of labour, bad weather,
etc, may seriously affect the running and completion of the job. This will be shown in the loss of
progress on the master plan. To keep up with this plan each operation is examined in fine detail
by taking a ‘Forward View’ of work to be carried out over a shorter period of time, generally 4 –
6 weeks under the direction of site agent or general foreman.
The assessment of labour, plant and materials, plus the careful co-ordination of sub-
contractors, is a vital part of short term planning if work is to be carried out economically so that
the careful balancing and phasing in sequence, the various operations and labour are essential.
The reason for preparing programmes every 4 weeks for a 6-week period is to give an overlap at
the end of each period because of difficulties that would be met if programmes were end on; it
also provides a buffer period. In this system of planning, the workers are provided with weekly
plans, the object being to ensure that progress is being maintained, that targets set the previous
week have been accomplished and new targets set.
Daily planning forms part of weekly planning. The overall aim of short term planning is
updating of progress of the master plan.

Revision Questions
1. a) To achieve maximum efficiency of operations on a construction site, site layout planning
must aim at maintaining desired output of the planned activities throughout the working
day.
State FIVE site planning measures that may be taken to achieve this. (5 marks)
b) Outline any FOUR factors to be considered in the site layout planning. (8 marks)
2. a) State SIX activities involved in pre-contract planning. (6 marks)
c) List FOUR activities which go on in each of the planning stages in the construction
process.

3. a) State FIVE characteristics of a good master plan. (5 marks)

b) Explain what will happen in the event of the following:
i) the contractor completes the work on time
ii) the contractor completes the work before the end of the contract period.
iii) the contractor completes the work after the completion date. (6 marks)
14.2.04T13 CONSTRUCTION PROGRAMMING METHODS

NETWORK ANALYSIS
Network analysis is the term used to embrace a number of techniques for the planning and
control of complex projects. The two most frequently used forms of network planning are CPM -
Critical Path Method – and PERT – Programme Evaluation and Review Technique. CPM was
developed in 1957 by James E. Kelley, then of Remington Rand and Morgan R. Walker of Du
Pont Engineering Services to help schedule maintenance in chemical plants. PERT was
developed in 1958 by the US Navy’s Special Projects Office in cooperation with Booz, Allen
and Hamilton, a Management Consulting firm. It was developed as a network flow chart with
time as the critical factor for planning and controlling the development of the Polaris missile, a
massive project with about 3000 contractors and agencies and its application is credited with
saving two years from the original of five years required to complete the project.
The major difference between these two forms is that CPM assumes that the time required to
complete an activity can be predicted fairly accurately, and thus the costs involved can be
quantified once the critical path has been identified, whereas PERT assumes that time has to be
estimated in drawing up the critical path. CPM tends to be used in large or complex projects in
construction and manufacturing. PERT tends to be applied to one-off projects of a complex
nature or to projects where time or cost are of overriding importance.
The basis of both CPM and PERT systems is the network diagram.

Network (or Arrow) Diagram

When the sequence or logical order of activities has been worked out, the duration times for
each separate activity can be calculated and a critical path determined (a path that governs the
project duration).

Advantages of Critical Path Method (over Gantt Chart Method)

1. To the programmer, the job sequence or logic can be completely divorced from the time
element in the preparation of the plan.
2. The critical activities are clearly shown and can be altered easily if other activities
become critical because of delays.
3. The non-critical activities can, with due examination, result in a more economical use of
resources.
4. Non-critical activities can be delayed or performed more slowly so that resources may be
used for more critical events, provided that they are not delayed so long that they in turn
become critical.
5. The interrelationship between all the activities is clearly shown by the flow of the
network.

Principles of Network Construction

The sequence or logic diagram is set out by a series of connecting arrows, the planner
questioning each activity as follows:
i) What other activities must be completed before this one can start?
 ii) What other activity can be done at the same time?
iii) What activity cannot start until this one is completed?

BASIC DEFINITIONS
Activity – is a time-consuming element of the programme. Also represents the consumption of
certain resources such as labour, money, or the use of plant or materials. Represented by arrow
of any length; each operation having its arrow. The length of the arrow has no bearing on the
duration of the activity. Direction of the arrow simply indicates the direction of workflow. Its tail
marks the starting point, and the head the completion point.
Events or Nodes – are circles at the start and end of an activity. They have no duration. Inside is
an identity number of the activity. This enables operations to be identified easily by their start
and finish numbers instead of lengthy titles. These are termed i-j numbers.
A B C

Sequential Activities – Activities that can proceed in correct order, one after the other.

Parallel Activities – Activities that can be carried out independently of others at the same time.
It is possible that an event in a diagram will not be reached until a number of activities preceding
it have been completed.

ACTIVITY i-j Number

A 1–2

B 2–3
B and C are parallel activities but they both depend on activity A
finishing first. C 2–4

D 3–5

E 4–6

F 5–6

Dummy Activities
Consider the network below.

If the activities are identified by their i-j notation it will be seen that three of the activities bear
the same i-j configuration. To correct this situation, logical restraints called dummies are added
to the diagram to maintain the unique numbering system. The dummy represents no consumption
of time or resource (itself it is not an activity). It is shown in a diagram by a broken line.
Float – The difference between the time available to do activity and the time required to
complete the activity. It is thus time by which the activities can be delayed without delaying the
completion of the project.

PREPARING AN ARROW DIAGRAM

1. Logic
The procedure or order in which a project is to be tackled. It is arrived at by discussion with all
the concerned parties taking into account no time durations.

2. Time
After the logic diagram, time elements are added to suit the project. This requires accurate
determination of the activity times.

3. Analysis Sheet
Produce an analysis of event times to see along which path of activities the critical line must
follow.
Starting Times
a)Earliest Starting Times (EST)
This is the earliest time an event can occur and is the first calculation to be worked out; this is
done by taking into account all preceding activities on the logic diagram and adding them
together. For example: from the figure given, event 3-4 cannot start until events 0-1, 1-2, 1-3 and
2-3, have been completed, remembering that the longest duration times or longest path on the
logic diagram gives the EST for preceding activities. This is because the shortest time activities
can be done in the longest time but the longest path activities cannot be done in the shortest time!
e.g.

ACTIVITY ANALYSIS SHEET

Event Description Dur Earliest Latest Critical Total

 s i-j Start Finish Start Finish Path Float

0-1 Site Preparation 5 0 5 0 5 * 0

1-2 Exc. Drain Trenches 2 5 7 5 7 * 0

1-3 Exc. Founds 3 5 8 8 11 3

2-3 Drains & M. Holes 4 7 11 7 11 * 0

3-4 Founds 4 11 15 11 15 * 0

4-5 Brickwork 12 15 27 15 27 * 0

5-6 Roof Structure 3 27 30 27 30 * 0

5-7 Partitions 2 27 29 28 30 1

5-8 Frames 3 27 30 29 32 2

6-7 Dummy - - - - - -

6-11 Roof Finish 2 30 32 40 42 10

7-10 First Fix 4 30 34 30 34 * 0

8-9 Glazing 2 30 32 32 34 2

9-10 Dummy - - - - - -

9-13 External Painting 3 32 35 42 45 10

10-12 Plaster 6 34 40 34 40 * 0

11-13 Ex. Plumb 3 32 35 42 45 10

12-13 Int. Finish 5 40 45 40 45 * 0

13-14 Clean 4 45 49 45 49 * 0

Activity 3-4, therefore, cannot start until day 11, for this is the shortest time that all the preceding
activities can be completed; i.e., path 0-1, 1-2, 2-3, NOT path 0-1, 1-3, as this only takes 8 days
and 11 days’ work is to be done before activity 3-4 can be started.

b) Latest Starting Times (LST)

This is the latest time an activity can start in order to be completed on time. It is found by a
process identical to that used for EST, only now working backwards (backward pass) through
the diagram from the completion date.
 An activity is critical if the earliest and latest starting times are the same, as in events 0-1, 1-2,
2-3, etc. If a difference occurs in time between the two times, as in event 1-3, this is called the
“float”; in this instance, event 1-3 gives LST 8 – EST 5 = 3 days float time. The float will
enable:
1. Resources to be used to the full
2. Rearrangement of labour to complete more critical activities if production falls below the set
rate but so long as it is not overdone i.e. to an extent that other activities become critical.

The completed arrow diagram indicates how relevant information can be shown. As site
supervisory staff may not be familiar with CPM, a bar chart may be produced from the arrow
diagram to show activities in a similar form as the Gantt or bar chart. Advantage of the bar chart
is it clearly indicates critical activities, slack or float time and non-critical activities.

Example
Build a concrete block wall with an opening in it for a door. Cast the concrete lintel on the
opening. Make and fix the door lining, plaster wall, fix architraves and skirting, hung the door,
paint the woodwork and paint the wall.

LOGIC
The first step is to consider the precedence or the order in which the work is to be tackled. This
is arrived at by discussion with all concerned until a suitable order of activities is agreed upon.
Remember that at this stage duration times are not taken into account.
The logic for the project may be as follows:
A – Build up the wall to the lintel
B – Cast lintel
C – Build up wall to full height
D – Make door lining (This must be ready in time)
E – Fix door lining
F – Plaster walls
G – Fix architraves These are independent but must
H – Fix skirting be fixed before painting
J – Hung door
K – Paint woodwork
L – Paint walls

TIME
The next step is to add the time elements to suit the project e.g. hours, days or weeks. This
requires accurate determination of activity times as in the case of any programme.
Times determined for the project are:
 i-j Time (days)

A Build up wall to lintel 1-2 6

B Cast lintel 2-3 26

C Build up wall to full height 3-4 3

D Make door lining 1-4 7

E Fix lining 4-5 3

F Plaster wall 5-6 12

G Fix architraves 6-9 2

H Fix skirting 6-8 2

J Hung door 6-7 3

K Paint woodwork 9-10 4

L Paint wall 6-10 4

ANALYSIS
The next step is to produce an analysis of event times as shown below to find out which line of
activity is critical so that the critical path may be drawn. The earliest start time is the first
calculation to be worked out and this is done by taking into account ‘all preceding activities’ on
the logic diagram and adding them up. Remember the ‘longest duration’ times or longest path on
the logic diagram is the earliest starting for preceding activities.

The idea of a dummy activity is represented by a broken arrow which shows a relationship
between events but there is no time element. The latest time an event can start is known as the
latest start and finding the earliest start, only this time working backwards through the diagram
towards the starting date. An activity is critical if the earliest and the latest start times are the
same.
If a difference does occur between these two times, this time is called float. The float time may
be used to enable resources to be used to the full and a re-arrangement of labour to complete
more critical activities if production falls below a set rate.
After completion of the analysis this information is transferred to the network with earliest start
put in square and latest start in a triangle Δ. The critical path is also shown in the diagram.

ANALYSIS SHEET
Events Description Dur Earliest Latest Critical Total
 i-j Start Finish Start Finish Path Float

1-2 Build up wall to lintel 6 0 6 0 6 * 0

1-4 Make door lining 7 0 7 28 35 29

2-3 Cast lintel 26 6 32 6 32 * 0

3-4 Build up wall to full height 3 32 35 32 35 * 0

4-5 Fix lining 3 35 38 35 38 * 0

5-6 Plaster wall 12 38 50 38 50 * 0

6-7 Hung door 3 50 53 50 53 1

6-8 Fix skirting 2 50 52 51 53 * 0

6-9 Fix architraves 2 50 52 51 53 1

6-10 Paint wall 4 50 54 53 57 3

7-9 Dummy 0 52 52 53 53 1

8-9 Dummy 0 53 53 53 53 * 0

9-10 Paint woodwork 4 53 57 53 57 * 0

Q. (a) State FIVE demerits of the critical path method of programming in comparison with
the Gantt programming technique.
(b) The table below shows the event, activity and duration for construction project.
i) By means of a network diagram, calculate the earliest and latest event times and
show the critical path.
ii) Prepare a table of the analysis to show the following:
- Earliest starting and finishing time
- Latest starting and finishing time
- Total float.

EVENT ACTIVITY DURATION (DAYS)

1-2 A 3
 2-3 B 2

2-4 C 4

2-6 D 5

3-5 E 6

4-7 F 7

5-9 G 6

5-10 H 2

6-5 Dummy -

6-7 I 4

7-8 J 4

8-11 K 3

9-11 L 1

10-11 M 5

Q. Identify the critical path in the network shown, and determine the project completion time.

TIME-COST OPTIMIZATION WITH NETWORK ANALYSIS

The policy of any organisation is to reduce the target completion time by employing additional
resources, so that the time saved may be utilized somewhere else to get additional production.
This is referred to as crashing the project. In such situations, the cost of expediting the activities
has to be taken into account.
In order to crash a project successfully, we need to examine the network, note its activities
(both critical and non-critical) and compare normal costs with crash costs for each activity.
Normal cost is the direct cost associated with finishing the project in the normal time. The
crash time estimate is the minimum time that would be required if no costs were spared in trying
to minimize the completion time. It is that time beyond which the duration of the project cannot
be reduced by any amount of increase in resources. The crash cost is the direct cost associated
with doing the job on a crash basis.
The total project cost is the sum of two distinct costs:
1. Direct cost which includes the cost to the contractor of the labour, plant and materials
and, if need arises, of employing a subcontractor, to carry out the activity.
2. Indirect costs generally consist of those costs which are incurred in direct proportion to
the length of time that the contract takes – for example, the wages of the site staff or the
head office expenses. Others can be those incurred by a penalty or bonus clause in the
terms of the contract.
 The minimum cost associated with construction work rarely coincides with the minimum
duration that is necessary to complete the work. The motives regarding minimization of cost with
respect to time, therefore, clash when considering direct and indirect costs since, in the former
case, minimizing duration will almost certainly increase cost, and in the latter, increasing
duration increases total indirect costs. Some balance between the two must be struck.

Procedure for time-cost optimization

1. Establish direct cost-time relationship for various activities of the project by analyzing
the past cost records.
2. Determine the cost slope for various activities and arrange them in ascending order of
cost slope.
3. Determine the total cost (direct cost + indirect cost) from the network of normal
durations. If the network is not given prepare it.
4. Using the network of normal durations crash the activities in the critical path in ascending
order of cost slope
5. Successively, keep on crashing critical activities as in 4 above and determine respective
project durations and total costs. In case more than one path becomes critical, crashing
will have to be done along all such critical paths, simultaneously – till a stage is reached
beyond which no further crashing is possible.
6. Tabulate various project durations and the corresponding total costs. The optimum cost
and time may be determined by inspection.
7. Draw the total cost-time curve. From the curve the minimum total cost is the optimum
cost and the time duration corresponding to this cost is the optimum duration.

Example
For the project network shown and data given below, determine the optimum time duration and
optimum cost. Also plot a total cost-time curve and indicate on it the optimum time and optimum
cost.

Data:
Activity Normal Crash time Normal cost Crash cost Cost slope
 time (days) (days) (Ksh) (Ksh) Ksh per day

1-2 4 3 400 600

2-3 5 2 300 750

2-4 7 5 360 540

3-4 4 2 500 1000

Indirect cost = Ksh 250 per day

Activit Cost slope Ksh/day
y
1-2
Solution
2-3

2-4

Consider the network of normal durations Fig (a). 3-4

Consider the “all crash” network. Critical path is 1–2–4. Fig (b)
Time duration = 8 days
For computing total cost, the activity 3–4 may be completed in 3 days instead of 2 days (as it has
a float of 1 day) without altering the time duration of 8 days.

In the network of normal durations critical activity 2–3 has the least cost slope. Crash 2–3 by 2
days as shown in Fig (c).
Both paths have become critical and hence further crashing will have to be done on both paths.
Crash activity 1–2, common to both paths by one day as shown in Fig (d).

In the network shown in Fig (d), crash activity2-3 by one more day and activity 2–4 also by one
day as shown in Fig (e) as both paths are critical.
Project duration (days) Total Cost (Ksh)

13 4810

11 4610

10 4560

9 4550

8 4640

Prepare table of Total Cost and corresponding Time as shown above. Plot the Total Cost – Time
curve as shown below.

Example
For the network shown, determine the optimum cost and optimum time.
 Normal Crash
Cost slope
Activity Time Cost Time Cost Ksh per week
(weeks) (Ksh) (weeks) (Ksh)

1-2 3 12 000 2 16 000 4 000

1-3 6 18 000 3 24 000 2 000

2-4 2 20 000 1 23 000 3 000

3-4 4 16 000 2 21 000 2 500

4-5 5 30 000 4 35 000 5 000

Indirect cost = Ksh 3 000 per week

Solution
Cost slopes are already given in the data.
Consider the network of normal durations as shown in Fig (a) below

Consider “all crash” network as shown in Fig (b)

Time duration = 9 weeks
For calculating Total Cost, activity 2–4 may be completed in 2 weeks and activity 1–2 may be
completed in 3 weeks without affecting project completion time.

In the network of normal durations (Fig (a)), crash critical activity 1–3 by 3 weeks (it has least
cost slope) as shown in Fig. (c). The critical path remains the same.
In the network (Fig (c)), crash critical activity 3-4 by 2 weeks as shown in Fig (d). The critical
path 1–3–4–5 continues to be critical although path 1-2-4-5 also becomes critical after this
crashing.

In the network in Fig (d) since both paths, 1–2–4–5 and 1–3–4–5 are critical, compression of
completion time can only be achieved by simultaneous crashing on both these paths. Along path
1–3–4–5, activities 1–3 and 3–4 have already been crashed to the full extent. Hence, the only
possibility is to crash activity 4–5, which is common to both by 1 week, as shown in Fig (e).
Duration Time Total cost
(weeks) (Ksh)

15 141000

12 138000

10 137000

9 139000

RESOURCE ALLOCATION

So far network analysis has been considered using one resource only, that is, it has been a time-
only network. The resource of money has entered into the consideration of the network only in
so far as the duration has to be optimized or costs have been collected. At the time of preparing
the network usually it is assumed that all resources needed such as men, materials,
plant/machinery, finance and space, are available in plenty and no consideration of resource
constraint is taken into account, but at the time of execution of the project some resources fall
short of the requirement. In such situations the duration of the project may increase, which will
also escalate the cost of the project.
Large fluctuations in the demand for resources may cause problems in project execution.
Project activities have, therefore, to be scheduled in such a manner that the demand for various
resources is fairly uniform over the entire project duration, with a smooth increase in the
numbers required at the beginning of the contract and a smooth tailing-off at the end. The
smoothing or levelling that will be achieved will almost never be perfect, but a solution is sought
as near the optimum as possible.
 In a project, many activities may have to be undertaken simultaneously. The requirement of
resources for doing this may exceed their availability and levelling is carried out by delaying
some of the non-critical activities which have float. If two or three or more activities compete for
the available resources, the resource will be allocated to that activity with the least total float, the
total float being used as a measure of the criticality of any activity. In this process, the float is
utilized by delaying the activities to cut down the demand for the particular resource.
For a given project, a scaled version of the network is drawn, adopting earliest start times for
all activities. Using this network, cumulative requirement of various resources is determined for
each unit time (day/week/month etc) of the project duration, histograms of which are prepared,
which clearly depict fluctuations in the demand over time. Large variations in the demand for
various resources call for resource levelling.

Example
The time of completion of different activities of a project and the number of labourers required
are shown in the table below. Re-allocate the resources.

Activity Expected time No. of labourers

required

1-2 3 4

1-3 2 5

1-4 5 7

2-7 6 6

3-5 4 2

4-5 3 4

4-6 1 2

5-7 4 5

6-7 2 3

Solution
The network is drawn with the help of data of columns 1 and 2. The earliest start time, the
latest allowable time and total float are determined and then the EST and LST are indicated on
the network as shown below.
 Earliest Latest
Critical Total
Activity Dur
Path Float
Start Finish Start Finish

1-2 3 0 3 3 6 3

1-3 2 0 2 2 4 2

1-4 5 0 5 0 5 * 0

2-7 6 3 9 6 12 3

3-5 4 2 6 4 8 2

4-5 3 5 8 5 8 * 0

4-6 1 5 6 9 10 4

5-7 4 8 12 8 12 * 0

6-7 2 6 8 10 12 4

From table and network diagram shown above, the critical path is 1–4–5–7 and the project
duration is 12 days.
The EST and the labour requirement for each activity is as shown on the bar chart below. The
requirement of labour ranges from 5 to 16. Thus there is much fluctuation in the demand of the
labour. The activities 1–4, 4–5 and 5–7 being critical, their completion duration cannot be
changed. However activities, which have float can be changed in such a way that the total
demand of labour may remain practically the same. The activities 1–2 and 2–7 both have a float
of 3 days and their start times may be delayed by 3 days.

DAY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
 ACTIVITY

1-2

1-3

1-4

2-7

3-5

4-5

4-6

5-7

6-7

TOTAL LABOUR
BEFORE SMOOTHING 16 16 13 15 15 14 13 13 11 5 5 5

TOTAL LABOUR
AFTER SMOOTHING 12 12 11 13 13 8 13 13 11 11 11 11
Labourers required

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Time (days)

Example
The network for a job is shown below and data regarding requirement of manpower for the
various activities is given in the following table. Carry out resource allocation/levelling for the
job.

Requirement per day of Activity

Activity i-j Duration (days) Bar-benders (B) Labourers (L)

 1-2 2 2 2

1-3 4 - 3

2-3 8 6 5

2-4 5 3 4

3-5 7 2 1

4-5 2 1 2

5-6 2 3 3

Solution
The critical path for the network is determined and shown in thick lines. The critical path is 1–
2–3–5–6.

Earliest Latest
Critical Total
Activity Dur.
Path Float
Start Finish Start Finish

1-2 2 0 2 0 2 * 0

1-3 4 0 4 6 10

2-3 8 2 10 2 10 * 0

2-4 5 2 7 10 15

3-5 7 10 17 10 17 * 0

4-5 2 7 9 15 17

5-6 2 17 19 17 19 * 0
 A time-scaled version of the network is prepared adopting earliest start times for all activities
and the critical path is shown along a horizontal line. A table is prepared showing the cumulative
number of bar-benders and labourers required on each day, during the project period.

B 2 2 9 9 9 9 9 7 7 7 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
L 5 5 12 12 9 9 9 7 7 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3
Da 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 13 1 15 16 1 18 19
y 2 4 7
B – Bar-benders, L – Labourers
Histograms are prepared for the cumulative requirements of bar-benders and labourers using the
table prepared above.

It may be seen from the histograms in thick lines that the requirement of bar-benders and
labourers fluctuate substantially over the project duration of 19 days. There is, therefore, a need
to carry out levelling of these resources. The levelling process is carried out for the requirement
of bar-benders because this category of skilled labour is difficult to arrange on a day-to-day
basis. Levelling of the requirement of bar-benders is achieved by adjusting the start times of non-
critical activities as follows:

Adjusted
Non-critical
Activity
Start time Finish time

2-4 11th day 15th day

4-5 16th day 17th day

This adjustment also affects the requirement of labourers. The scaled version of the network and
the cumulative requirement of bar-benders and labourers, after levelling are shown below:

B 2 2 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3
L 5 5 8 8 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 14 15 16 17 18 19
3

Histograms of the cumulative requirement of bar-benders and labourers after levelling are
shown in dotted line. It may be noted that fluctuations in the requirements of bar-benders and
labourers are considerably reduced after the levelling process.

Revision Questions
1 a) Describe each of the following:
i) Short term planning
ii) The significance of a calculation sheet in planning. (6 marks)
b) Table 1 shows the activities involved in a small building project.
i) Draw an arrow diagram of the activities
ii) Prepare an analysis sheet and show the total floats of all activities
iii) Identify the critical activities. (14 marks)
Table 1
Activity Duration (weeks) Preceding Activity

A 3 -

B 4 A

C 6 A

D 0 B

E 6 B

F 4 C, D

G 3 E

H 4 E

I 0 F, G

J 6 F, G

K 4 H, I

L 5 H, I

M 4 J, K

N 3 L

O 2 L

P 5 M, N

Q 2 O, P

2. a) State FIVE needs of planning in the construction industry. (5marks)

b) Using the data given in Table 2, prepare,
(i) the network diagram and analysis of float
(ii) the bar chart showing all the activities at the earliest times
(iii) the distribution and resources allocation under the bar chart. (15 marks)
 Table 2 OPERATIO DURATIO MEN
ACTIVITY
N N REQUIRED

1-2 A 5 10

1-3 B 4 20

2-4 C 2 4

3-4 D 9 2

3-5 E 5 5

4-5 F 3 4

3 a) List four activities which go on in each of the planning stages in the construction process.
(7½ marks)
b) Table 3 shows the activities of a project as extracted from a calculation sheet:
i) prepare a critical path diagram and indicate the critical path
ii) prepare an analysis sheet and calculate the total float for each activity.
iii) Construction plant used in event (1–4) breaks down and is replaced after two days;
what effect will this have on the contract programme?

Table 3

DURATION
ACTIVITY
(DAYS)

1-2 3

1-3 2

1-4 4

2-4 2

2-5 1

3-4 1

4-5 0

4-6 1

5-6 2
3. a) Table 4 shows the activities and durations of a project.
(i) Draw the network diagram
(ii) Determine the duration of the project. (9 marks)
Table 4
Duration
Activit
(weeks)
y
1-2 4

1-3 3

1-4 6

2-5 0

2-7 7

3-5 5

4-5 4

4-6 2

5-7 5

6-7 3

b) Below is an output statement for works in a foundation. Use the information to:
i) Calculate the construction time for the three activities
ii) Show the three activities in form of a Bar Chart
- 900 m2 of foundation brickwork
3 Bricklayers and 1 labourer
Output of 10 m2 per day per man

- 1 excavator output of 10m3 per hour

1000m3 excavation

- Laying concrete in foundation trench

100m3, 2 concretors, output 2m3 per hour for each operative
Take one day to be 7 hours (11mks)

5 a) Table 5 shows the operation, duration and labour for construction of a reinforced concrete
column.
i) Prepare a bar chart from the given information
ii) Under the prepared chart show the labour distribution (10mks)
Table 5
No. Operation Duration Labour

1 Excavate base 6 days

2 Reinforcement 6 days

3 Concrete bases 6 days

4 Column reinforcement 12 days

5 Formwork - fixing 12 days

6 Concrete columns 6 days

7 Formwork - strike 6 days

Labour Schedule
Excavation gang 1

Steel fixers 2

Concrete gang 3

Carpenters gang 1 4

Carpenters gang 2 4

b) Table 6 shows activities, normal time, crash time, crash cost and normal cost for a
project.
i) Using the normal time calculate how long the project will take
ii) Show the critical path
iii) Calculate how much it will cost to reduce the project time to 12 weeks (10mks)

Table 6
Activity Normal time Crash time Crash cost Normal cost

1-2 5 3 2 400 2 000

2-3 8 2 4 500 2 500

2-4 6 4 4 500 3 000

3-5 5 3 3 500 2 250

4-5 4 4 2 000 2 000

 TOTAL 16 900 11 750

6. The following data is necessary for planning of the completion of a project.

NORMAL CRASH
ACTIVITY
Cost Time Cost Time

1-2 20 000 10 24 000 6

A
B 2-3 25 000 16 45 000 4

C 2-4 30 000 12 45 000 8

D 3-5 10 000 10 35 000 6

E 4-5 20 000 8 20 000 8

a) i) Using the normal time, prepare the network

ii) Calculate the total float
iii) Show the critical path (10marks)

b) i) If it is required that the contract duration be reduced to 24 (twenty-four) weeks, then

determine how much it will cost to effect this.
ii) Show the crash network.
(10 marks) Activity Duration Immediately
Preceding
7 a) Table 7 shows the description (Days) Activity activities of a project, their
duration and logical sequence of execution.
A 5 -
i) Develop the mode of connectivity (in
the form [i, j]). B 5 A
ii) Prepare a Critical Path Network
diagram, and C 3 A indicate the critical path.
(14mks)
D 4 B

E 8 B, C

F 6 B, C

G 7 F

H 6 D

I 9 D

J 5 E, H

K 4 G

L 5 J, K
 14.2.07T MATERIALS

14.2.07.T11 MATERIALS COMPUTATION

The documents used in materials computation are:

1.Bill of quantities
 2.Specifications
3.Contract drawings (Working drawings)

Factors to considered when computing materials needed include:

i) Work content
ii) Type of material as quantities vary due to storage, wastage, shrinkage etc.
Wastage is classified into two major categories:

(a) Unavoidable wastes

(b) Avoidable wastes
Unavoidable wastes include:

 Cutting waste e.g. timber, timber products etc

 Breakage during transportation and handling
 Handling e.g. when concreting
 Residual waste e.g. for adhesives, paints etc

Avoidable wastes may be due to:

 Poor instructions
 Incomplete information
 Poor storage leading to deterioration of condition and/or theft
 Poor workmanship and negligence

Shrinkage is governed by type and nature of material e.g. bulking of sand.

Bill of Quantities
A bill of quantities is a written document which contains a complete description of labour,
materials and plant required, contained, outlined and depicted in the architect’s or engineer’s
drawings and specifications where-in under each separate work title. A bill is prepared
containing a complete and tabulated list of detailed items, together with their respective
quantities and full description.

Purposes of a Bill of Quantities

1. It enables all contractors tendering for a job to price.
2. It provides a basis for the valuation of variations which often occur during progress of the work.
3. It gives an itemized list of the component parts of the building with the full description of each
part and in this it may assist the successful contractor in ordering materials and assessing the
labour force in the contract.
4. It, after being priced, helps in cost planning and analysis.
5. It is used in preparation of interim certificates and also the final account.
 Specifications
These are writings by the architect specifying the quality of the materials to be used and the quality
of the work to be carried out. In a bill of quantities there is always a detailed specification covering the
quantity of all the materials and workmanship for all the trades and sections. The specification helps the
contractor during tendering as in the specifications more description is given to an item e.g. Hard-core
filling:

Hard core filling shall be composed of good hard stone, ballast or quarry waste to
the approval of the architect, broken to parts not greater than 150mm ring or to be
75% of the finished thickness of the layers being compacted whichever is lesser
and layers compacted to an average of 225mm thickness.

Computation from Bill of Quantities

Example 1
Using the information given in the table below calculate the quantities of cement, sand and ballast
required.

Description Quantity Units Rate Ksh Cents

Construct a foundation
footing: 50m long

0.6m wide

0.2m deep

mix ratio 1:2:4

8.4 m3

Given sand bulking = 15%

Shrinkage = 35%

Wastage = 5%

Density of cement = 1442 kg/m3

Density of sand = 1600kg/m3

 Density of ballast = 1300kg/m3

Solution
Volume of concrete required = 50 x 0.6 x 0.2

= 6m3 Add 40% shrinkage + wastage

= 8.4m3

In the 1:2:4 concrete mix there are 1+2+4 or 7 parts of ingredients of which cement is 1 part, 2 parts
sand and 4 parts ballast.

Amount of cement required

Computation from Drawings

The elevations, plans and sections of architectural drawings show all the dimensions and wall details
(plus openings etc.). We then can calculate the required quantities of materials (stones, blocks, sand,
cement etc.) from them. The drawings do also show roof and services details and hence can also be
similarly computed.

Example 2
Using the given drawing and the data below, calculate the materials to be ordered for the
substructure work.
 Data
1. Block size 390 x 190 x 190 4. Shrinkage 35%

2. Thickness of mortar joint 10mm 5. Waste 5%

3. Density: Sand 1600 kg/m3 6. Bulking of sand 15%

Cement 1442 kg/m3

Ballast 1300 kg/m3

Solution
FOUNDATION CONCRETE

Mean girth

L W

6000 1,500
Allow for shrinkage and waste = 40%
+2,500

4,000

+6,000

10,000

×2

20,000

-760

Less 4×190 19,240mm

 FOUNDATION WALL

Mortar

Mixing ratio 1:4 = 5 parts

(allowing 15% bulking)

FLOOR
Hardcore
Vol. of hardcore (allowing for, say, 30% compaction)
Blinding

Allowing for compaction, say, 30%

Damp proof membrane

Allowing for end and side laps, say 5%

Concrete floor slab (mix 1:3:6)

40% shrinkage and waste

(Allowing for 15% bulking)

Computation from Specifications

Example 3
Take a pit latrine, constructed of:

i) Walls - masonry stones 230mm thick

 - mortar ratio 1:4

ii) Floor slab - slab 100mm thick ratio 1:2:4

- B.R.C. (mesh wire)

- Cedar posts 4 No.

- Screed 1:1

iii) Roof - G.C.I. sheets gauge 30

- timber – cypress

- wall plate 100mm x 75mm

- Rafters 100mm x 75mm

- Purlins 50mm x 50mm

- fascia board 175mm x 25mm

iv) Door - frame – cypress

- 100mm x 50mm (rebated)
- R.B. door

General Information

Width of cement mortar joint = 10mm Shrinkage = 35%

Surface area of quarry stone = 460 x 235 mm2 Waste = 5%

Roof overlap = 75mm Bulking of sand = 15%

Density: Sand = 1600kg/m3 One 7-tonne lorry →6” stones = 400 r.f.

Cement = 1442kg/m3 →9” stones = 300 r.f.

Ballast = 1300kg/m3

WALLS
Number of lorries

(i) 230 mm stones (300 r.f. per 7-tonne lorry)

300 ft of stones in lorry

No. of lorries required for stones 450mm long each

Amount of mortar required

Add 5% and 35% for waste and shrinkage respectively.

Amount of cement required (mix ratio 1:4)

Amount of sand required

 FLOOR
Concrete floor slab (Ratio 1:2:4)

Slab volume (Assume no opening)

(allowing for 40% shrinkage and waste)

Amount of cement required

Amount sand required

(allowing for 15% bulking)

Amount of ballast required

Cedar post = 4 No.

Screed (mix 1:1)

Amount of cement required

 Amount of sand

ROOF
Timber

(Stud x 2) + wall plate + Rafters size 100 x 75 mm2

1m + 10m + 3m + 12.4m = 26.4 m

size 50mm x 50mm purlins

fascia board 175mm x 25mm

G.C.I sheets

Mesh 0.5 x 3m to BS

Example 4
a Given the surface area of a quarry stone wall is to be 60m2, calculate the number of 7-tonne lorries
required.

Data
i) The wall is to be constructed using 150mm thick stones
ii) Quarry stone surface area is 460 x 235mm2. (6 marks)

b. Calculate the amount of sand and cement required for the quarry stone wall in (a) above

Data
Width of cement mortar joints = 10mm

Density of sand = 1600 kg/m3

Density of cement = 1442 kg/m3

Shrinkage = 35%

Waste = 5%

Sand bulking = 15%

Mortar mix ratio = 1:4 (14 marks)

Solution
a) No. of quarry stones required

Hence No. of 7-tonne lorries required to carry 150mm thick stones is: (assume 400 r.f./7-

tonne lorry)

Hence No. of lorries required to carry 555 stones of 450mm long each will be

b) Amount of mortar required

Add 5% and 35% for waste and shrinkage respectively i.e.,

Amount of sand
Revision Questions

1.The following information was obtained from a bill of quantities on the construction of a church
building:

Volume of concrete in foundation bed = 5m3

Area of block wall in foundation = 90m2

Using the data given, calculate the quantities of the following materials required:

a) Cement in 50 kg bags
b) Sand in tonnes
c) Aggregates in tonnes
d) Number of 390x190x190 mm blocks (20
marks)

Data
- Concrete mix 1:3:4
- Cement: Sand ratio in mortar 1:4
- Density of cement = 1400kg/m3
- Density of sand = 1600kg/m3
- Density of aggregates = 1500kg/m3
- Concrete shrinkage = 20%
- The blocks are to be laid on a 10mm thick mortar
(Make reasonable assumptions for information not given)

2. A 200mm thick concrete base of 1:3:6 mix is to be laid at the bottom of a trench 800mm wide by
1,000m long. Using the given data, calculate the amount of:

i) cement in 50kg bags

ii) sand in tonnes
iii) course aggregate in tonnes
Data:

Density of cement 1,440kg/m3

Density of sand 1,600kg/m3

 Density of aggregate 1,300kg/m3

Shrinkage 33⅓%

Wastage 5%

3. It is proposed to lay a 200mm thick concrete base of a mix 1:3:6 to the bottom of trench 800mm wide
for 1000m long pipeline. Using the given data, calculate the required amount of:
i) cement in 50kg bags
ii) sand in tonnes
iii) course aggregate in tonnes
Data:

Density of cement 1,440kg/m3

Density of sand 1,660kg/m3

Density of aggregate 1,330kg/m3

Shrinkage 33⅓%

Wastage 5% (10mks)

14.2.07.T12 ORDERING AND SUPPLYING OF MATERIALS

For construction projects to proceed, they require a satisfactory supply of raw materials, so that
besides the careful phasing and planning of material required by the builder, it is to his advantage to
foster a good relationship with his suppliers, many of whom will have proved reliable over many years.

The quantities of materials required are computed from contract documents such as schedules of
materials prepared by a material scheduler from drawings and specifications. Usually bulk quantities are
taken from bill of quantities.

It is the responsibility of the buyer to ensure that the architect receives any samples from the
suppliers in the very early stages of contract procedure to satisfy him of the relative merits of the
material. In most cases, a buyer will send enquiries to two or three suppliers or in some cases direct to
manufacturers for such items as sand, gravel, bricks, cement etc regarding descriptions, prices, delivery
dates and such for use by the estimator at the estimating stage of the project in the preparation of the
tender figure.

If a builder is then successful in his bid for the work, he will place his orders with the suppliers of his
choice by comparing the various quotations received in relation to the following:
 Factors considered in the selection of material suppliers
1. Has the supplier been used before?
2. If so, was he reliable?
3. Is the material suitable for the project?
4. Can the material supply be maintained in quantity?
5. Delivery dates
6. Price including (a) Trade discount (b) Cash discount (c) Bulk discount
7. Delivery conditions
8. Do materials measure up to Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS), British Standards (BS) or
other tests that may be required?
9. Any special considerations

Upon the above factors proving satisfactory, a definite order will be placed and, upon
acceptance, a contract is formed.
The dates the materials are required are taken from the project/contract programme. The
management should confirm delivery with supplier at some reasonable time before they are
required. Storage areas for materials should be allocated when planning site layout. On arrival,
check that the stores are available, that the quantity and quality are correct. The site foreman
should then sign for delivery and retain a copy of the delivery note, which is later sent to Head
Office accounts department for payment.

14.2.07.T13 MATERIALS PROCUREMENT DOCUMENTS

Documentation in the supply of materials include:

1. Requisition/Order/Local Purchase Order (L.P.O.)
This is a document used by the site to obtain sundry items from the central stores on a
day-to-day basis, or from suppliers or from manufacturers.

A.N. OTHER LTD

INTERNAL REQUISITION

To. ……………………………………………

From ………………………………………… Contract No. ……

Date. ………………………………………… № 1234

Please supply or order for the above Site/Department, the following which
are required by (enter date)

Quantity Enter full Description of Materials

 FOR OFFICE USE ONLY

Date received Action by Order placed

Order No.

Goods delivered

2. Advice note
This is sent by works or supplier to site, stating date, method of transport and description
of goods dispatched. This will enable site supervisory staff to make adequate preparation for
unloading and storage.

A.N. OTHER CO. LTD № 1234

ADVICE NOTE

INVOICE TO. …………………. DELIVERED TO………………

Dispatched by: Lorry Consignment No. Date

Customers Order Date

QUANTITY DESPATCHED RETURNS

NOTE: If the above are not received within TEN DAYS from the date of this
ADVICE NOTE kindly advise us, otherwise we cannot accept responsibility

3. Delivery note
This is the document from suppliers, manufacturers or central stores that accompanies the
delivered goods to the site. It must be signed by the foreman when he has unloaded the goods
stated on the note and is satisfied with their condition. Careful check must be made to ensure that
all the goods are there and undamaged. Two delivery notes will be supplied by the transport
driver: one for himself as a check to his employer that he has made the delivery satisfactorily,
and one for site reference.
If goods are missing or damaged, this should be clearly shown on the delivery note and
an appropriate letter sent as soon as possible to the supplier, manufacturer or central store. If
goods are returned for any reason with the delivery lorry, the driver should be asked to sign
correction on the delivery note.

DELIVERY NOTE № 1234

Received from. ……………… A.N. OTHER BUILDERS MERCHANTS LTD

MESSRS…………………..……… YOUR ORDER No. …………………..

…………………………………..… DATE……………………………….

Please receive the under mentioned goods.

REMARKS RECEIVED BY:

4. Invoice
 This is very similar to delivery note, the only difference being that the price of the goods is
now clearly shown for payment. This document is sent to the head office where it is checked
against the delivery note which has been sent from the site. If they agree, payment will be made.

INVOICE № 1234

A.N. OTHER GENERAL MERCHANTS

ACCOUNT TO …………………. YOUR ORDER № ……………………..

DELIVERED TO. ………………… DATE. ………………………….

Your
Quantity Description Price Value
Ref. No

TOTAL

5. Payment Voucher
This is a written document, which is kept on record as a proof of payment. After the
payment of the bill of the contractor or supplier, and duly acknowledged, the bill becomes a
voucher.

14.2.07.T14 RECORDS OF MATERIALS

1. Materials record book

This is a complete record of all materials received on site and must be filled in before
delivery notes are sent to head office. Entries should be made on the day of delivery from the
information taken from the delivery notes. The prices and amounts are filled in against each item
at Head Office. A running total cost of materials for a project is easily and quickly obtained.
A.N. OTHER LTD Date

DAILY RETURN №

Office Use Only

Delivered Ticket
Date Material
To. No.
Sh Cts
2. Materials Delivery Book
Often used on site to show clearly when deliveries are due, general bulk phased
deliveries, quite often simply a ruled blackboard on which is chalked amount and date of
delivery.

3. Materials transfer forms

This document is a company document for internal use when materials are moved from
one site to another for any reason. Its correct use ensures that charges for materials can be made
to the receiving project and deducted from the site supplying the goods. In the accounts, the site
giving will be credited, the site receiving will be debited.

A.N. OTHER LTD MATERIAL TRANSFERS

BUILDING CONTRACTORS

To From

Department or
Department or Co. Contract No.
Co.
Contract No.

Date № 1234

Quantity Enter full Description of Materials For Office Use Only

FOR OFFICE USE ONLY

Date Co Main Sub- DR CR DR. COSTED

Code code Contract Contract

Priced By

CR. COSTED

Extended
By
Total Per Transfer Note
4. Inventory

14.2.07.T15 STORAGE OF MATERIALS

Storage of materials can be defined as the provision of adequate space, protection and
control for building materials and components held on site during the construction process.
The main objectives of material storage include:
(a) To see that materials that have been carried into the stores are made available whenever they
are required in a perfect and serviceable condition.
(b) To protect the materials so as to maintain their value and quality
(c) To protect the materials from all kinds of damages and spoilage.

The need for storage and control of materials held on site need the following considerations:
1. Type of material – size, shape, weight and mode of delivery will assist in determining the
safe handling and stacking method(s) to be employed on site, which in turn will enable
handling and storage costs to be estimated.
2. Organisation– this is the planning process of ensuring that all the materials required are
delivered to site at the correct time, in sufficient quantity, of the right quality, the means of
unloading is available and that adequate space for storage or stacking has been allocated
throughout the duration they are on site.
3. Protection – building materials and components can be classified as durable or non-
durable; the latter will usually require some form of weather protection to prevent
deterioration whilst in store.
4. Security – many building materials have a high resale and/or usage value to persons other
than those for whom they were ordered and unless site security is adequate material losses
due to theft and pilferage can become unacceptable.
5. Costs – to achieve on economic balance of how much expenditure can be allocated to site
storage facilities the following should be taken into account:
(a) Storage areas, fencing, racks, bins, etc
(b) Protection requirements
(c) Handling, transporting and stacking requirements
(d) Salaries and wages of staff involved in storage of materials and components
(e) Heating and/or lighting if required
(f) Allowance for losses due to wastage, deterioration, vandalism and theft
(g) Facilities to be provided for subcontractors
6. Control – checking quality and quantity of materials at delivery and during storage period,
recording delivery and issue of materials and monitoring stock holdings.
The following are the common methods of storage of common building materials:

1. Timber and Joinery Items

 From its very nature, timber is highly susceptible to insects, rats, fungi and water/moisture. It
should be stored about 15 – 20 cm above the ground horizontally in order to protect it from
moisture. A rack of scaffold tubulars with a sheet roof covering makes an ideal timber store. The
various section sizes allow good airflow around the timber and the roof provides protection from
the rain and snow.

2. Cement
Whichever type of cement is being used it must be properly stored on site to keep it in
good condition. The cement must be kept dry since contact with any moisture whether direct or
airborne could cause it to set. A rotational used system should be introduced to ensure that the
first batch of cement delivered is the first to be used.
For small contracts: Stacked on a dry, raised platform of timber bearers or sleepers with
a polythene or similar waterproof cover weighted down around edges.

Medium-size Contracts: Cement should be stored in specially constructed stores made of

fireproof ‘sheds’ of galvanized steel sides having damp proof floors, waterproof walls and leak
proof roofs. Cement stacks should be raised leaving a clear distance of 0.3m from the wall of the
room. Height of the stack should not exceed the height of 15 bags. Width of the stack should be
limited to 3m. Stocks received first be issued first with preferably two door system to facilitate
this.
Large Contracts: For bagged cement, watertight container as above. For bulk delivery loose
cement, a portable cement storage silo. Not only does the use of bulk cement offer ease of
handling and compactness of storage, it also ensures that the cement is used in the order in which
it is received, thus reducing the risk of deterioration during the storage on site. Furthermore the
silo is completely waterproof and waste due to broken bags, spillage and pilfering is eliminated.
As silos are filled with weight batchers the older practice of batching according to a bag of
cement is replaced by one which allows mixer to be charged to its rated capacity. In this way the
mixer is neither over- nor under-loaded.

3. Sand and Aggregates

Essentials of storage are to keep different aggregate types and/or sizes separated by sleeper or
concrete block walls constructed high enough to prevent overspill from one compartment to
another. Store on a clean, hard, free draining surface which drains away from stored aggregates
and to keep the stored aggregates clean and free of leaves and rubbish.

If there is no really suitable place on the site put down a 100mm layer of lean concrete,
which should be a high point in the batching area with falls towards the mixer where there
should be proper drains provided for mixer wash water. Alternatively the water/cement ratio of
the mix can be checked and adjusted.

4. Bricks, Blocks and Stones

These should be stacked in alternate directions to form end columns in rows in stable
piles on a level and well-drained surface to prevent shrinkage, near to point of use to reduce
double handling to a minimum. Facing bricks and light-coloured blocks and stones can become
discoloured by atmospheric pollution and/or adverse weather conditions; in these situations the
stacks should be covered with polythene sheeting or similar cover weighted at bottom.

5. Roofing Tiles
These may be supplied loose, in plastic wrapped packs or in unit loads on timber pallets.
They have a greater resistance to load when it is imposed on the edge; for this reason tiles should
be stacked on edge and in pairs head to tail to give protection to the nibs. An ideal tile stack will
be 5-7 rows high with end tiles laid flat to provide an abutment. The fittings such as ridge and
hip tiles should be kept separate and if possible placed on end.

6. Pipes and Drainage Goods

Drainage pipes are supplied loose or strapped together on timber pallets. They are enclosed
by loose bricks forming end ‘column’ or driven-in timber stacks forming end restraint. May be
stored in an open compound; they should be stacked with their barrels horizontal and laid with
spigots and sockets alternatively reversed or placed in layers with the spigots and sockets
reversed in alternate layers with socket ends projecting beyond spigot ends. Fittings should be
kept separate and those like gullies, which can hold water, should be placed upside down and
supported to remain level.
Large items like baths can be kept in the compound and suitably protected, stacked or nested
vertically or horizontally on timber battens. Basins should be stored similar to baths but not more
than four high if nested one on top of another.

7. Reinforcement, Corrugated and Sheet materials

All metals are more or less liable to corrosion. They should be stored flat according to sizes
or gauges on a level surface raised from the ground and covered with a protective polythene
sheeting in a weather proof shed to make them rust and corrosion proof.

8. Scaffold tubes and fittings

Scaffold tubes: store racks for each size in a weatherproof shed.
Fittings: Immersed in oil (in drums), in boxes or packing cases. Should be kept in sets.

9. Ironmongery and Small articles

Ironmongery hand tools and paints are some of the most vulnerable items on a building
site. Small items such as locks, power drills and cans of paints should be kept in a locked hut and
only issued against an authorized stores requisition.

14.2.07.T16 MATERIALS CONTROL RECORD

The prime function here is to ensure that materials are ordered in good time, and that a
very close watch is kept upon planned delivery dates. Schedules are required here so that quick
reference can be made as to when and from whom deliveries are required. (Schedules are aids
often used in materials ordering, usually produced by the quantity surveyor or by the material
scheduler, by systematic analysis of the bill of quantities and contract drawings.) Material in
short supply or late delivery should be chased up immediately, with possible alternative materials
or suppliers being sought.
 Control on site must be exercised in respect of waste, deterioration, pilfering and misuse.
Careful checks should be made to ensure correctness of orders and that materials delivered can
be properly stored and unnecessary handling avoided. Standard quality of materials should be
maintained through checking against samples or specifications. Many materials used on site can
be tested quite simply without the use of expensive laboratory facilities such as would only be
found on the very large complex projects.

14.2.07.T17 CONTROL IN THE USE OF MATERIALS

A big problem on most building sites is the large amount of material that, due to varying
circumstances, becomes classed as waste. Basically this is a problem of the site supervisory staff
to control and wherever possible eliminate; it requires a supervisor to be constantly on the
lookout for loss who should constantly impress up operatives the importance and value of all
materials.

Measures to reduce material waste

1. Ensure that materials are delivered as required so that site storage time is cut to a minimum.
This requires careful phasing of deliveries between site and supplier.
2. Ensure that materials delivered are those specified for that particular job.
3. The issuing of just the right amount of materials with only a reasonable allowance for
wastage to workmen.
4. Ensure that workmen are not producing excessive amounts of ‘off cuts’.
5. Allocate and prepare storage areas. This can be done by marking on the site plan the exact
layout of all material storage areas to facilitate easy and safe delivery and unloading of
materials.
6. Make sure that when materials are stored, they do not deteriorate.
7. Collect waste, e.g. half bricks, and use to prevent more cutting – a few by each bricklayer’s
spot will suffice.

Ways of minimizing theft and pilferage of materials

Many items of building material and small hand tools are lost through pilfering and theft
by the operatives. This may be controlled by adopting the following procedures:
1. Items that are small, e.g. door furniture, should be issued by store men, foreman or the like
and a record kept
2. Accurate stock control must be maintained with regular checks.
3. Compounds and storage sheds should be kept locked after issue of materials
4. Cars, wherever possible, should be allocated space away from the construction so that ‘loot’
cannot quickly be hidden in car boots.
5. Site supervisors must set an example by practicing what is preached.

14.2.07.T18 SECURITY OF MATERIALS

Site security can cause many problems and it becomes very difficult to lay down hard and
fast rules and precautions that can be followed because of the considerable difference in sites,
type of building and the firm’s efficiency in these matters. The problem is that of keeping the
professional criminal out, also the vandal or onlookers and curious visitors who trespass upon the
site and often cause much damage due to ignorance. Security has to guard against two separate
problems:
(a) Theft, especially of high value materials such as copper and lead, that not only results
in loss of money but may also cause delay in construction.
(b) Damage due to unauthorized persons being on site, whether willful or accidental.

Constructing a hoarding around the site may stop the curious sight-seer but will present
little deterrent to a criminal as they are usually easy to scale, and the unwelcome visitor, once
inside, can work undetected as he cannot be seen through the protecting hoarding. Opening
hoarding such as a chain link fence, and with the addition of a few strands of barbed wire at the
top reasonable protection should result.
Inside the site, all movable items and small pieces of plant, equipment and materials
should be locked away and key safely kept and, with careful ordering, stock will only need to be
kept to a minimum, which in itself is a deterrent to a would-be thief as he may consider the site
not worth breaking into as rewards are small. Floodlighting on the site during the hours of
darkness helps to deter the criminal as he can easily be spotted.
Night watchmen may not apprehend a criminal but can disturb him and then have means
of raising the security alarm. A decrease in the use of night watchmen has taken place with the
introduction of guard dogs similar to those on military installations.
The problems of site security are many and varied but it must be remembered that often
the police will be able to offer invaluable advice, especially if the site is situated in a heavy crime
density area.
Revision Questions
1 (a) Sate any EIGHT factors that a contractor may consider in choosing the best quotation from
material suppliers. (4mks)
(b) With the aid of a sketch, explain each of the following documents used in supply of materials:
i) requisition
ii) advice note (10mks)
(c) List THREE factors which influence the storage facilities of any particular material.
(3mks)
(d) State TWO storage requirements for each of the following:
i) small components
ii) sand and aggregates (4mks)

2 (a) List FOUR documents that are used in materials procurement. (2mks)
(b) Outline FIVE measures to be observed in combating security problems on materials storage on
site. (7½mks)
(c) With the help of a labeled sketch, explain how each of the following materials may be stored on
site:
i) cement
ii) scaffold tubes and fittings
iii) timber
iv) PVC pipes (10mks)

3 (a) Explain THREE factors to be considered when selecting a materials supplier. (3mks)

(b) Briefly describe the following documents as used in materials procurement:

i) requisition
ii) delivery note
iii) enquiry form (6mks)
 (c) Briefly explain FOUR ways of reducing materials waste on a large construction site.
(8mks)
(d) Explain how the following materials are stored on site:
i) Cement
ii) Diesel (3 mks)

4 (a) Outline the materials procurement procedure for a small construction site. (9mks)
(b) State the information that should be included in an enquiry to supplier to enable a realistic
quotation to be submitted. (4mks)
(c) Briefly explain how each of the following materials may be damaged, stored and protected on site:
i) bagged cement
ii) blocks
iii) scaffolding
iv) timber joists
(6mks)