a15 Design and Implementation of High Accuracy Circuit Breaker for the Protection of Loads

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF HIGH ACCURACY CIRCUIT
BREAKER FOR THE PROTECTION OF LOADS
ABSTRACT:
The on-time delay circuit not only protects the load from switching surges but also from
quick changeover (off and on) effect of over/ Here is an inexpensive auto cut-off circuit,
which is fabricated using transistor and other discrete components. It can be used to
protect loads such as refrigerator, T.V., and VCR from undesirable over and under line
voltages, as well as surges caused due to sudden failure/resumption of main power
supply. This circuit can be used directly as a standalone circuit between the mains supply
and the load, or it may be inserted between an existing automatic/manual stabilizer and
the load. The over/under voltage cut-off with ON-Time delay provides various types of
protection 1) Over-voltage protection. 2) Under-voltage protection. 3) Protection against
transients. 4) Protection to load from frequent turning ON & OFF by providing time
delay.
Under voltage or over voltage getting time authority peoples get information from GSM
module in SMS format with voltage levels.
Here we use an 8051 microcontroller with 5V DC Power supply. Serial
(UART) protocol is primary concern here. The heart of this project is Bluetooth modem
which works on serial (UART) protocol. Micro controller is interfaced with relays which
are triggered through transistor switching.
DEPT OF EEE Page 1 of 57

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Here is an inexpensive auto cutoff circuit, which is fabricated using transistors
and other discrete components. It can be used to protect loads such as refrigerator, TV,
and VCR from undesirable over and under line voltages, as well as surges caused due to
sudden failure/resumption of mains power supply. This circuit can be used directly as a
standalone circuit between the mains supply and the load, or it may be inserted between
an existing automatic/manual stabilizer and the load. The on-time delay circuit not only
protects the load from switching surges but also from quick changeover (off and on)
effect of over-/under-voltage relay, in case the mains voltage starts fluctuating in the
vicinity of under- or over-voltage preset points. When the mains supply goes out of preset
(over- or under-voltage) limits, the relay/load is turned ‗off‘ immediately, and it is turned
‗on‘ only when AC mains voltage settles within the preset limits for a period equal to the
‗on‘ time delay period. The on-time delay period is pre-settable for 5 seconds to 2
minutes duration. Using presets VR3 and VR4. For electronic loads such as TV and
VCR, the on time delay may be set for 10 seconds to 20 seconds. For refrigerators, the
delay should be preset for about 2 minute‘s duration, to protect the compressor motor
from frequently turning ‗on‘ and ‗off‘.
Overview
The under/over voltage protection circuit with time delay presented here is a low
cost and reliable circuit for protecting such equipments from damages. Whenever the
power line is switched on it gets connected to the appliance only after a delay of a fixed
time. If there is hi/low fluctuations beyond sets limits the appliance get disconnected. The
system tries to connect the power back after the specific time delay, the delay being
counted from the time of disconnection. If the power down time (time for which the
voltage is beyond limits) is less than the delay time, the power resumes after the delay: If
it is equal or more, then the power resumes directly. This circuit has been designed, built
and evaluated by me to use as a protector for my home refrigerator. This is designed

around readily available semi-conductor devices such as standard bipolar medium power
NPN transistor (D313/SL100/C1061), and NE555 timer IC. Its salient feature is that no
relay hunting is employed. This drawback is commonly found in the proctors available in
the market. The complete circuit is consisting of various stages. They are: - Dual rail
power supply, Reference voltage source, Time delay stage and Relay driver stage.
OVER VOLATGE:
An overvoltage is an increase in the rms value of ac voltage greater than 110 percent or
0.11pu at the power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min. over voltages are usually
the result of load switching (e.g., switching off a large load or energizing a capacitor
bank). The over voltages result because either the system is too weak for the desired
voltage regulation or voltage controls are inadequate. Incorrect tap settings on
transformers can also result in system over voltages.
Causes of over voltages:
Overvoltage are less common than under voltage but they also arise due to system
faults. Overvoltage can occur due to single line to ground fault, which in turn will raise
the voltage of the other phases. It can also cause due to disconnection of heavy industrial
loads or switching on the capacitor banks. This is generally due to ungrounded or floating
ground delta systems, where a change in ground reference would give voltage rise to the
ungrounded system. Causes of overvoltage are mainly due to energization of capacitor
bank. It can also be generated by sudden load deduction. Due to the disconnection of load
there is a sudden reduction of current, which will give rise the voltage, where L is the
inductance of the line. The effects of overvoltage are more severe and destructive. It may
cause the electrical equipment to fail, due to overheating caused by high voltage. Also
electronic and other sensitive equipment are prone to malfunction.

CHAPTER-2
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
2.1 Embedded Systems:
An embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one or a

few dedicated functions often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as
part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a
general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible
and to meet a wide range of end-user needs. Embedded systems control many devices in
common use today.
Embedded systems are controlled by one or more main processing cores

that are typically either microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSP). The key
characteristic, however, is being dedicated to handle a particular task, which may require
very powerful processors. For example, air traffic control systems may usefully be
viewed as embedded, even though they involve mainframe computers and dedicated
regional and national networks between airports and radar sites. (Each radar probably
includes one or more embedded systems of its own.)
Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers

can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and
performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of
scale.

Physically embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital

watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory
controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low,
with a single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and
networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.
In general, "embedded system" is not a strictly definable term, as most

systems have some element of extensibility or programmability. For example, handheld
computers share some elements with embedded systems such as the operating systems
and microprocessors which power them, but they allow different applications to be
loaded and peripherals to be connected. Moreover, even systems which don't expose
programmability as a primary feature generally need to support software updates. On a
continuum from "general purpose" to "embedded", large application systems will have
subcomponents at most points even if the system as a whole is "designed to perform one
or a few dedicated functions", and is thus appropriate to call "embedded". A modern
example of embedded system is shown in fig: 2.1.
Fig 2.1:A modern example of embedded system

Labeled parts include microprocessor (4), RAM (6), flash memory

(7).Embedded systems programming is not like normal PC programming. In many ways,
programming for an embedded system is like programming PC 15 years ago. The
hardware for the system is usually chosen to make the device as cheap as possible.
Spending an extra dollar a unit in order to make things easier to program can cost
millions. Hiring a programmer for an extra month is cheap in comparison. This means the
programmer must make do with slow processors and low memory, while at the same time
battling a need for efficiency not seen in most PC applications. Below is a list of issues
specific to the embedded field.
2.1.1 History:
In the earliest years of computers in the 1930–40s, computers were

sometimes dedicated to a single task, but were far too large and expensive for most kinds
of tasks performed by embedded computers of today. Over time however, the concept
of programmable controllers evolved from traditional electromechanical sequencers, via
solid state devices, to the use of computer technology.
One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo
Guidance Computer, developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation
Laboratory. At the project's inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the
riskiest item in the Apollo project as it employed the then newly developed monolithic
integrated circuits to reduce the size and weight. An early mass-produced embedded
system was the Autonetics D-17 guidance computer for the Minuteman missile, released
in 1961. It was built from transistor logic and had a hard disk for main memory. When
the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new
computer that was the first high-volume use of integrated circuits.
2.1.2 Tools:

Embedded development makes up a small fraction of total programming.

There's also a large number of embedded architectures, unlike the PC world where 1
instruction set rules, and the Unix world where there's only 3 or 4 major ones. This means
that the tools are more expensive. It also means that they're lower featured, and less
developed. On a major embedded project, at some point you will almost always find a
compiler bug of some sort.
Debugging tools are another issue. Since you can't always run general
programs on your embedded processor, you can't always run a debugger on it. This
makes fixing your program difficult. Special hardware such as JTAG ports can overcome
this issue in part. However, if you stop on a breakpoint when your system is controlling
real world hardware (such as a motor), permanent equipment damage can occur. As a
result, people doing embedded programming quickly become masters at using serial IO
channels and error message style debugging.
2.1.3 Resources:
To save costs, embedded systems frequently have the cheapest processors

that can do the job. This means your programs need to be written as efficiently as
possible. When dealing with large data sets, issues like memory cache misses that never
matter in PC programming can hurt you. Luckily, this won't happen too often- use
reasonably efficient algorithms to start, and optimize only when necessary. Of course,
normal profilers won't work well, due to the same reason debuggers don't work well.
Memory is also an issue. For the same cost savings reasons, embedded
systems usually have the least memory they can get away with. That means their
algorithms must be memory efficient (unlike in PC programs, you will frequently
sacrifice processor time for memory, rather than the reverse). It also means you can't
afford to leak memory. Embedded applications generally use deterministic memory
techniques and avoid the default "new" and "malloc" functions, so that leaks can be found
and eliminated more easily. Other resources programmers expect may not even exist. For
example, most embedded processors do not have hardware FPUs (Floating-Point

Processing Unit). These resources either need to be emulated in software, or avoided

altogether.
2.1.4 Real Time Issues:
Embedded systems frequently control hardware, and must be able to

respond to them in real time. Failure to do so could cause inaccuracy in measurements, or
even damage hardware such as motors. This is made even more difficult by the lack of
resources available. Almost all embedded systems need to be able to prioritize some tasks
over others, and to be able to put off/skip low priority tasks such as UI in favor of high
priority tasks like hardware control.
2.2 Need For Embedded Systems:
The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless, because every day
new products are introduced to the market that utilizes embedded computers in novel
ways. In recent years, hardware such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and FPGA
chips have become much cheaper. So when implementing a new form of control, it's
wiser to just buy the generic chip and write your own custom software for it. Producing a
custom-made chip to handle a particular task or set of tasks costs far more time and
money. Many embedded computers even come with extensive libraries, so that "writing
your own software" becomes a very trivial task indeed. From an implementation
viewpoint, there is a major difference between a computer and an embedded system.
Embedded systems are often required to provide Real-Time response. The main elements
that make embedded systems unique are its reliability and ease in debugging.
2.2.1 Debugging:
Embedded debugging may be performed at different levels, depending on

the facilities available. From simplest to most sophisticate they can be roughly grouped
into the following areas:
 Interactive resident debugging, using the simple shell provided by the embedded
operating system (e.g. Forth and Basic)

 External debugging using logging or serial port output to trace operation using
either a monitor in flash or using a debug server like the Remedy Debugger which
even works for heterogeneous multi core systems.
 An in-circuit debugger (ICD), a hardware device that connects to the
microprocessor via a JTAG or Nexus interface. This allows the operation of the
microprocessor to be controlled externally, but is typically restricted to specific
debugging capabilities in the processor.
 An in-circuit emulator replaces the microprocessor with a simulated equivalent,
providing full control over all aspects of the microprocessor.
 A complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the hardware,
allowing all of it to be controlled and modified and allowing debugging on a
normal PC.
 Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can typically load and
run software through the tools, view the code running in the processor, and start
or stop its operation. The view of the code may be as assembly code or source-
code.
Because an embedded system is often composed of a wide variety of
elements, the debugging strategy may vary. For instance, debugging a software(and
microprocessor) centric embedded system is different from debugging an embedded
system where most of the processing is performed by peripherals (DSP, FPGA, co-
processor). An increasing number of embedded systems today use more than one single
processor core. A common problem with multi-core development is the proper
synchronization of software execution. In such a case, the embedded system design may
wish to check the data traffic on the busses between the processor cores, which requires
very low-level debugging, at signal/bus level, with a logic analyzer, for instance.
2.2.2 Reliability:
Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run

continuously for years without errors and in some cases recover by themselves if an error
occurs. Therefore the software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that
for personal computers, and unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk drives,
switches or buttons are avoided.
Specific reliability issues may include:
 The system cannot safely be shut down for repair, or it is too inaccessible to
repair. Examples include space systems, undersea cables, navigational beacons,
bore-hole systems, and automobiles.
 The system must be kept running for safety reasons. "Limp modes" are less
tolerable. Often backups are selected by an operator. Examples include aircraft
navigation, reactor control systems, safety-critical chemical factory controls, train
signals, engines on single-engine aircraft.
 The system will lose large amounts of money when shut down: Telephone
switches, factory controls, bridge and elevator controls, funds transfer and market
making, automated sales and service.
A variety of techniques are used, sometimes in combination, to recover
from errors—both software bugs such as memory leaks, and also soft errors in the
hardware:
 Watchdog timer that resets the computer unless the software periodically notifies
the watchdog
 Subsystems with redundant spares that can be switched over to
 software "limp modes" that provide partial function
 Designing with a Trusted Computing Base (TCB) architecture[6] ensures a highly
secure & reliable system environment
 An Embedded Hypervisor is able to provide secure encapsulation for any
subsystem component, so that a compromised software component cannot
interfere with other subsystems, or privileged-level system software. This
encapsulation keeps faults from propagating from one subsystem to another,
improving reliability. This may also allow a subsystem to be automatically shut
down and restarted on fault detection.
 Immunity Aware Programming

2.3 Explanation of Embedded Systems:
2.3.1 Software Architecture:
There are several different types of software architecture in common use.
 Simple Control Loop:
In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls subroutines,
each of which manages a part of the hardware or software.
 Interrupt Controlled System:
Some embedded systems are predominantly interrupt controlled. This

means that tasks performed by the system are triggered by different kinds of events. An
interrupt could be generated for example by a timer in a predefined frequency, or by a
serial port controller receiving a byte. These kinds of systems are used if event handlers
need low latency and the event handlers are short and simple.
Usually these kinds of systems run a simple task in a main loop also, but
this task is not very sensitive to unexpected delays. Sometimes the interrupt handler will
add longer tasks to a queue structure. Later, after the interrupt handler has finished, these
tasks are executed by the main loop. This method brings the system close to a
multitasking kernel with discrete processes.
 Cooperative Multitasking:
A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple

control loop scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an API. The programmer defines a
series of tasks, and each task gets its own environment to “run” in. When a task is idle, it
calls an idle routine, usually called “pause”, “wait”, “yield”, “nop” (stands for no
operation), etc.The advantages and disadvantages are very similar to the control loop,
except that adding new software is easier, by simply writing a new task, or adding to the
queue-interpreter.
 Primitive Multitasking:
In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches between tasks or

threads based on a timer (connected to an interrupt). This is the level at which the system
is generally considered to have an "operating system" kernel. Depending on how much
functionality is required, it introduces more or less of the complexities of managing
multiple tasks running conceptually in parallel.
As any code can potentially damage the data of another task (except in
larger systems using an MMU) programs must be carefully designed and tested, and
access to shared data must be controlled by some synchronization strategy, such as
message queues, semaphores or a non-blocking synchronization scheme.
Because of these complexities, it is common for organizations to buy a

real-time operating system, allowing the application programmers to concentrate on
device functionality rather than operating system services, at least for large systems;
smaller systems often cannot afford the overhead associated with a generic real time
system, due to limitations regarding memory size, performance, and/or battery life.
 Microkernels And Exokernels:
A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS. The usual

arrangement is that the operating system kernel allocates memory and switches the CPU
to different threads of execution. User mode processes implement major functions such
as file systems, network interfaces, etc.
In general, microkernels succeed when the task switching and intertask

communication is fast, and fail when they are slow. Exokernels communicate efficiently
by normal subroutine calls. The hardware and all the software in the system are available
to, and extensible by application programmers. Based on performance, functionality,
requirement the embedded systems are divided into three categories:
2.3.2 Stand Alone Embedded System:

These systems takes the input in the form of electrical signals from
transducers or commands from human beings such as pressing of a button etc.., process
them and produces desired output. This entire process of taking input, processing it and
giving output is done in standalone mode. Such embedded systems comes under stand
alone embedded systems
Eg: microwave oven, air conditioner etc..
2.3.3 Real-time embedded systems:
Embedded systems which are used to perform a specific task or operation

in a specific time period those systems are called as real-time embedded systems. There
are two types of real-time embedded systems.
 Hard Real-time embedded systems:
These embedded systems follow an absolute dead line time period i.e.., if
the tasking is not done in a particular time period then there is a cause of damage to the
entire equipment.
Eg: consider a system in which we have to open a valve within 30 milliseconds. If

this valve is not opened in 30 ms this may cause damage to the entire equipment. So in
such cases we use embedded systems for doing automatic operations.
 Soft Real Time embedded systems:
These embedded systems follow a relative dead line time period i.e.., if the task
is not done in a particular time that will not cause damage to the equipment.
Eg: Consider a TV remote control system ,if the remote control takes a few milliseconds
delay it will not cause damage either to the TV or to the remote control. These systems which will
not cause damage when they are not operated at considerable time period those systems comes
under soft real-time embedded systems.
2.3.4 Network communication embedded systems:

A wide range network interfacing communication is provided by using embedded

systems.
Eg:
 Consider a web camera that is connected to the computer with internet can be
used to spread communication like sending pictures, images, videos etc.., to
another computer with internet connection throughout anywhere in the world.
 Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.
Whenever a person comes near the door, it captures the image of a person
and sends to the desktop of your computer which is connected to internet. This gives an
alerting message with image on to the desktop of your computer, and then you can open
the door lock just by clicking the mouse.
Fig 2.2: Network communication embedded systems
2.3.5 Different types of processing units:

The central processing unit (c.p.u) can be any one of the following
microprocessor, microcontroller, digital signal processing.
 Among these Microcontroller is of low cost processor and one of the main
advantage of microcontrollers is, the components such as memory, serial
communication interfaces, analog to digital converters etc.., all these are built on a
single chip. The numbers of external components that are connected to it are very
less according to the application.
 Microprocessors are more powerful than microcontrollers. They are used in major
applications with a number of tasking requirements. But the microprocessor
requires many external components like memory, serial communication, hard
disk, input output ports etc.., so the power consumption is also very high when
compared to microcontrollers.
 Digital signal processing is used mainly for the applications that particularly
involved with processing of signals
2.4 APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
2.4.1 Consumer applications:
At home we use a number of embedded systems which include microwave

oven, remote control, vcd players, dvd players, camera etc….
Fig2.3: Automatic coffee makes equipment

2.4.2 Office automation:
We use systems like fax machine, modem, printer etc…
Fig2.4: Fax machine Fig2.5: Printing machine
2.4.3. Industrial automation:
Today a lot of industries are using embedded systems for process control.
In industries we design the embedded systems to perform a specific operation like
monitoring temperature, pressure, humidity ,voltage, current etc.., and basing on these
monitored levels we do control other devices, we can send information to a centralized
monitoring station.

Fig2.6: Robot
In critical industries where human presence is avoided there we can use

robots which are programmed to do a specific operation.
2.4.5 Computer networking:
Embedded systems are used as bridges routers etc..
Fig2.7: Computer networking

2.4.6 Tele communications:
Cell phones, web cameras etc.
Fig2.8: Cell Phone Fig2.9: Web camera
CHAPTER-3
BLOCK DIAGRAM
3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OVERVIEW:

Fig.1.1.block diagram
3.2 POWER SUPPLY:

All digital circuits require regulated power supply. In this article we are going to
learn how to get a regulated positive supply from the mains supply.

Fig:3.2 shows the basic block diagram of a fixed regulated power supply. Let us go
through each block.
RANSFORMER
A transformer consists of two coils also called as “WINDINGS” namely

PRIMARY & SECONDARY.
They are linked together through inductively coupled electrical conductors also
called as CORE. A changing current in the primary causes a change in the Magnetic Field
in the core & this in turn induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If load is
applied to the secondary then an alternating current will flow through the load. If we
consider an ideal condition then all the energy from the primary circuit will be transferred
to the secondary circuit through the magnetic field.

So
The secondary voltage of the transformer depends on the number of turns

in the Primary as well as in the secondary.
Rectifier
A rectifier is a device that converts an AC signal into DC signal. For rectification
purpose we use a diode, a diode is a device that allows current to pass only in one
direction i.e. when the anode of the diode is positive with respect to the cathode also
called as forward biased condition & blocks current in the reversed biased condition.
Rectifier can be classified as follows:

1) Half Wave rectifier.
This is the simplest type of rectifier as you can see in the diagram a half wave
rectifier consists of only one diode. When an AC signal is applied to it during the positive
half cycle the diode is forward biased & current flows through it. But during the negative

half cycle diode is reverse biased & no current flows through it. Since only one half of
the input reaches the output, it is very inefficient to be used in power supplies.
2) Full wave rectifier.
Half wave rectifier is quite simple but it is very inefficient, for greater efficiency
we would like to use both the half cycles of the AC signal. This can be achieved by using
a center tapped transformer i.e. we would have to double the size of secondary winding &
provide connection to the center. So during the positive half cycle diode D1 conducts &
D2 is in reverse biased condition. During the negative half cycle diode D2 conducts & D1
is reverse biased. Thus we get both the half cycles across the load.
One of the disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier design is the necessity of using a
center tapped transformer, thus increasing the size & cost of the circuit. This can be
avoided by using the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier.

3) BridgeRectifier.
As the name suggests it converts the full wave i.e. both the positive & the
negative half cycle into DC thus it is much more efficient than Half Wave Rectifier &
that too without using a center tapped transformer thus much more cost effective than
Full Wave Rectifier.
Full Bridge Wave Rectifier consists of four diodes namely D1, D2, D3 and D4.
During the positive half cycle diodes D1 & D4 conduct whereas in the negative half cycle
diodes D2 & D3 conduct thus the diodes keep switching the transformer connections so
we get positive half cycles in the output.

If we use a center tapped transformer for a bridge rectifier we can get both
positive & negative half cycles which can thus be used for generating fixed positive &
fixed negative voltages.
FILTER CAPACITOR
Even though half wave & full wave rectifier give DC output, none of them
provides a constant output voltage. For this we require to smoothen the waveform
received from the rectifier. This can be done by using a capacitor at the output of the
rectifier this capacitor is also called as “FILTER CAPACITOR” or “SMOOTHING
CAPACITOR” or “RESERVOIR CAPACITOR”. Even after using this capacitor a small
amount of ripple will remain.
We place the Filter Capacitor at the output of the rectifier the capacitor will
charge to the peak voltage during each half cycle then will discharge its stored energy
slowly through the load while the rectified voltage drops to zero, thus trying to keep the
voltage as constant as possible.

If we go on increasing the value of the filter capacitor then the Ripple will
decrease. But then the costing will increase. The value of the Filter capacitor depends on
the current consumed by the circuit, the frequency of the waveform & the accepted
ripple.
Where,
Vr= accepted ripple voltage.( should not be more than 10% of the voltage)
I= current consumed by the circuit in Amperes.

F= frequency of the waveform. A half wave rectifier has only one peak in one cycle so
F=25hz
Whereas a full wave rectifier has Two peaks in one cycle so F=100hz.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
A Voltage regulator is a device which converts varying input voltage into a

constant regulated output voltage. Voltage regulator can be of two types
1) Linear Voltage Regulator
Also called as Resistive Voltage regulator because they dissipate the excessive
voltage resistively as heat.
2) Switching Regulators.
They regulate the output voltage by switching the Current ON/OFF very rapidly.
Since their output is either ON or OFF it dissipates very low power thus achieving higher
efficiency as compared to linear voltage regulators. But they are more complex &
generate high noise due to their switching action. For low level of output power
switching regulators tend to be costly but for higher output wattage they are much
cheaper than linear regulators.
The most commonly available Linear Positive Voltage Regulators are the 78XX
series where the XX indicates the output voltage. And 79XX series is for Negative
Voltage Regulators.
After filtering the rectifier output the signal is given to a voltage regulator. The
maximum input voltage that can be applied at the input is 35V.Normally there is a 2-3
Volts drop across the regulator so the input voltage should be at least 2-3 Volts higher
than the output voltage. If the input voltage gets below the Vmin of the regulator due to

the ripple voltage or due to any other reason the voltage regulator will not be able to
produce the correct regulated voltage.
3 Circuit diagram:
Fig 2.3. Circuit Diagram of power supply
IC 7805:
7805 is an integrated three-terminal positive fixed linear voltage regulator. It
supports an input voltage of 10 volts to 35 volts and output voltage of 5 volts. It has a
current rating of 1 amp although lower current models are available. Its output voltage is
fixed at 5.0V. The 7805 also has a built-in current limiter as a safety feature. 7805 is
manufactured by many companies, including National Semiconductors and Fairchild
Semiconductors.
The 7805 will automatically reduce output current if it gets too hot.The last two
digits represent the voltage; for instance, the 7812 is a 12-volt regulator. The 78xx series
of regulators is designed to work in complement with the 79xx series of negative voltage
regulators in systems that provide both positive and negative regulated voltages, since the
78xx series can't regulate negative voltages in such a system.

The 7805 & 78 is one of the most common and well-known of the 78xx series
regulators, as it's small component count and medium-power regulated 5V make it useful
for powering TTL devices.
Table 2.1. Specifications of IC7805
SPECIFICATIONS IC 7805
Vout 5V
Vein - Vout Difference 5V - 20V
Operation Ambient Temp 0 - 125°C
Output Imax 1A
2.4.Voltage variable:
Once triggered, the device continues to conduct until the current through it drops
below a certain threshold value, the holding current, such as at the end of a half-cycle of
alternating current (AC) mains power. This makes the TRIAC a very convenient switch
for AC circuits, allowing the control of very large power flows with milli ampere-scale
control currents. In addition, applying a trigger pulse at a controllable point in an AC
cycle allows one to control the percentage of current that flows through the TRIAC to the
load (phase control).
Theory:
Triggering methods of Triac:

1. Triggering with synchronization on the TRIAC voltage

2. Triggering with synchronization by the mains voltage

3. Triggering synchronized by the mains voltage and suitable for industrial
applications.
Triggering with synchronization on the TRIAC voltage:

The triggering circuit with synchronization across the TRIAC turns on the component at
an angle β after the current drops to zero, such that
β = ω · Tr.
Time Tr is defined by the time constant (P + Rt) C.
ω = 2 · π · f with f = mains frequency.
Fig: Circuit diagram of TRIAC

Fig: Synchronization across the TRIAC - waveforms (general case)
This is the simplest possible circuit but in certain cases it can have an important
drawback.
For example, consider a highly inductive load (L ω / R > 4) where the TRIAC is
turned on with a considerable delay β, perhaps 100° after the mains voltage zero as in
Figure 3.
If the TRIAC is turned on at point A, the conduction ( ) lasts up to about
150°. The TRIAC turns off at point B at + β = 250° after the zero voltage point. At
that instant a negative voltage is applied to the triggering circuit which turns on the
TRIAC at point C after an angle  β of 100°, that is, 350° from the starting point.
The second turn-on occurs at a very low voltage and the angle α’ is much smaller than α.
The following period begins under similar conditions and the unbalance persists.
This type of asymmetrical operation is not only unacceptable but can be dangerous (high
current due to load magnetic saturation due to the dc content of the waveform). The
unbalance is illustrated for a particular case, starting from zero of the mains voltage.
Other causes also produce this behavior.

RELAY MODULE:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a set of input terminals for
a single or multiple control signals, and a set of operating contact terminals. The switch
may have any number of contacts in multiple contact forms, such as make contacts, break
contacts, or combinations thereof.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by an independent low-
power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. Relays were first
used in long-distance telegraph circuits as signal repeaters: they refresh the signal coming
in from one circuit by transmitting it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in
telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.
The traditional form of a relay uses an electromagnet to close or open the
contacts, but other operating principles have been invented, such as in solid-state
relays which use semiconductor properties for control without relying on moving parts.
Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils
are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power
systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called protective relays.
Latching relays require only a single pulse of control power to operate the switch
persistently. Another pulse applied to a second set of control terminals, or a pulse with
opposite polarity, resets the switch, while repeated pulses of the same kind have no
effects. Magnetic latching relays are useful in applications when interrupted power
should not affect the circuits that the relay is controlling.

Chapter-4
Arduino Controller
4.1 Introduction:
Arduino is an open-source hardware and software company, project and user

community that designs and manufactures single-board microcontrollers and
microcontroller kits for building digital devices and interactive objects that can sense
and control both physically and digitally. Its products are licensed under the GNU
Lesser General Public License (LGPL) or the GNU General Public License (GPL),
permitting the manufacture of Arduino boards and software distribution by anyone.
Arduino boards are available commercially in preassembled form or as do-it-yourself
(DIY) kits.
Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The boards
are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be
interfaced to various expansion boards or breadboards (shields) and other circuits.
The boards feature serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus
(USB) on some models, which are also used for loading programs from personal
computers. The microcontrollers are typically programmed using a dialect of features
from the programming languages C and C++. In addition to using traditional compiler
toolchains, the Arduino project provides an integrated development environment
(IDE) based on the Processing language project.
The Arduino project started in 2003 as a program for students at the Interaction
Design Institute Ivrea in Ivrea, Italy, aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way for
novices and professionals to create devices that interact with their environment using
sensors and actuators. Common examples of such devices intended for beginner
hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats and motion detectors.

Arduino Nano Pinout
The Arduino Nano, as the name suggests is a compact, complete and bread-board
friendly microcontroller board. The Nano board weighs around 7 grams with dimensions
of 4.5 cms to 1.8 cms (L to B). This article discusses about the technical specs most
importantly the pinout and functions of each and every pin in the Arduino Nano board.
How different is Arduino Nano?
Arduino Nano has similar functionalities as Arduino Duemilanove but with a

different package. The Nano is inbuilt with the ATmega328P microcontroller, same as
the Arduino UNO. The main difference between them is that the UNO board is presented
in PDIP (Plastic Dual-In-line Package) form with 30 pins and Nano is available in TQFP
(plastic quad flat pack) with 32 pins. The extra 2 pins of Arduino Nano serve for the
ADC functionalities, while UNO has 6 ADC ports but Nano has 8 ADC ports. The Nano
board doesn’t have a DC power jack as other Arduino boards, but instead has a mini-USB
port. This port is used for both programming and serial monitoring. The fascinating
feature in Nano is that it will choose the strongest power source with its potential
difference, and the power source selecting jumper is invalid.
Arduino Nano – Specification:

Arduino Nano Pinout Description
Taking this pin-out diagram below as reference, we shall discuss all the functionalities of
each and every pin.

Fig.4.1. Hardware model.

PINS EXPLANATION:



There are totally 14 digital Pins and 8 Analog pins on your Nano board. The digital pins
can be used to interface sensors by using them as input pins or drive loads by using them
as output pins. A simple function like pinMode() and digitalWrite() can be used to
control their operation. The operating voltage is 0V and 5V for digital pins. The analog
pins can measure analog voltage from 0V to 5V using any of the 8 Analog pins using a
simple function liken analogRead()
These pins apart from serving their purpose can also be used for special purposes which
are discussed below:
 Serial Pins 0 (Rx) and 1 (Tx): Rx and Tx pins are used to receive and transmit
TTL serial data. They are connected with the corresponding ATmega328P USB to
TTL serial chip.
 External Interrupt Pins 2 and 3: These pins can be configured to trigger an

interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM Pins 3, 5, 6, 9 and 11: These pins provide an 8-bit PWM output by using
analogWrite() function.
 SPI Pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO) and 13 (SCK): These pins are used
for SPI communication.

 In-built LED Pin 13: This pin is connected with an built-in LED, when pin 13 is
HIGH – LED is on and when pin 13 is LOW, its off.
 I2C A4 (SDA) and A5 (SCA): Used for IIC communication using Wire library.
 AREF: Used to provide reference voltage for analog inputs with

analogReference() function.
 Each of these Digital & Analog Pins are assigned with multiple functions but their
main function is to be configured as input or output.
 They are acted as input pins when they are interfaced with sensors, but if you are
driving some load then use them as output.
 Functions like pinMode() and digitalWrite() are used to control the operations of
digital pins while analogRead() is used to control analog pins.
 The analog pins come with a total resolution of 10bits which measure the value from
zero to 5V.
 Arduino Nano comes with a crystal oscillator of frequency 16 MHz. It is used to

produce a clock of precise frequency using constant voltage.
 There is one limitation using Arduino Nano i.e. it doesn’t come with DC power jack,
means you can not supply external power source through a battery.
 This board doesn’t use standard USB for connection with a computer, instead, it
comes with Mini USB support.
 Tiny size and breadboard friendly nature make this device an ideal choice for most of
the applications where a size of the electronic components are of great concern.
 Flash memory is 16KB or 32KB that all depends on the Atmega board i.e Atmega168
comes with 16KB of flash memory while Atmega328 comes with a flash memory of
32KB. Flash memory is used for storing code. The 2KB of memory out of total flash
memory is used for a bootloader.

 The SRAM can vary from 1KB or 2KB and EEPROM is 512 bytes or 1KB for
Atmega168 and Atmega328 respectively.
 This board is quite similar to other Arduino boards available in the market, but the
small size makes this board stand out from others.
 Following figure shows the specifications of Arduino Nano Board.

Chapter-5
Software Explanation
5.1 Introduction:
This project is implemented using following software’s:
 Express PCB – for designing circuit
 Arduino IDE compiler - for compilation part
 Proteus 7 (Embedded C) – for simulation part
5.2 Interface:
When a project is first started you will be greeted with a yellow outline. This yellow
outline is the dimension of the PCB. Typically after positioning of parts and traces,
move them to their final position and then crop the PCB to the correct size. However, in
designing a board with a certain size constraint, crop the PCB to the correct size before
starting.
Fig: 5.1 show the toolbar in which the each button has the following functions:

Fig: 5.1 Tool bar necessary for the interface

5.2.1 The Select Tool:
It is fairly obvious what this does. It allows you to move and manipulate parts. When
this tool is selected the top toolbar will show buttons to move traces to the top / bottom
copper layer, and rotate buttons.
The zoom to selection tool: does just that.
5.2.2 The Place Pad:
Button allows you to place small soldier pads which are useful for board connections or
if a part is not in the part library but the part dimensions are available. When this tool is
selected the top toolbar will give you a large selection of round holes, square holes and
surface mount pads.
5.2.3 The Place Component:
Tool allows you to select a component from the top toolbar and then by clicking in the
workspace places that component in the orientation chosen using the buttons next to the
component list. The components can always be rotated afterwards with the select tool if
the orientation is wrong.
5.2.4 The Place Trace:
Tool allows you to place a solid trace on the board of varying thicknesses. The top
toolbar allows you to select the top or bottom layer to place the trace on.
5.2.5 The Insert Corner in Trace:
Button does exactly what it says. When this tool is selected, clicking on a trace will
insert a corner which can be moved to route around components and other traces.
The remove a trace button is not very important since the delete key will achieve the
same result.
5.3 Design Considerations:

Before starting a project there are several ways to design a PCB and one must be
chosen to suit the project’s needs. Single sided, or double sided.,
When making a PCB you have the option of making a single sided board, or a double
sided board. Single sided boards are cheaper to produce and easier to etch, but much
harder to design for large projects. If a lot of parts are being used in a small space it may
be difficult to make a single sided board without jumpering over traces with a cable.
While there’s technically nothing wrong with this, it should be avoided if the signal
travelling over the traces is sensitive (e.g. audio signals).
A double sided board is more expensive to produce professionally, more difficult to etch
on a DIY board, but makes the layout of components a lot smaller and easier. It should
be noted that if a trace is running on the top layer, check with the components to make
sure you can get to its pins with a soldering iron. Large capacitors, relays, and similar
parts which don’t have axial leads can NOT have traces on top unless boards are plated
professionally.
5.4 Arduino Compiling:


In next step download library
As Arduino doesn’t recognize the directory name, please rename it

Launch Arduino by double click “Arduino” below

One example:

Select the target board as “Arduino Uno”:
Click Sketch-> Verify/Compile:
49
CHAPTER-5
PROBLEM EXPLANATION
This project aims to build a system that monitors voltage and provides a breakpoint
based low and high voltage tripping mechanism that avoids any damage to the load.
Various industrial and domestic systems consist of fluctuation in the AC mains
supply. There is a chance of damaging electronic devices that are quite sensitive to
these fluctuations. So there needs to be a tripping system that avoids any damage to
these loads.
Fig.3.1. Schematic diagram of project.
Our system consists of a tripping mechanism that monitors the input voltage
and trips according to limits provides. Here we use a quad comparator IC with two
more comparators to be used as window comparators to it. Well the system delivers
an error as soon as the input voltage falls out of the window range. This trigger then
operates a relay that cuts off the load to avoid any damage to it. We here use a lamp to
demonstrate as a load. Well the system is also configured with an alarm that goes on
as soon as tripping takes place.
50
In this project we are operation with voltage and current levels we fix the voltage and
current values like Voltage should be 200 to 230V and current should be 1A to 3A. if
any unwanted voltage will get time it will be operated to protect the loads.
51
CHAPTER-6
RESULTS EXPLANATION
Fig.5.1. output
Smart under and over voltage protection system for home is designed to insure
protection of home devices like fan, light lamps, television, refrigerator and all other
things you need to protect in case of under and over voltage in main supply. Although
there are circuit breakers available in market to provide protection against under and
over voltage. But once circuit breaker detect problem in main power supply voltage it
turn off main power AC power supply to home devices permanently. Until someone
manually press the button on circuit breaker again. The main disadvantage of circuit
breaker is that you have to control it manually.The main objective of this project is to
add automatic functionality to turn off and turn on main power supply to home
devices in case of over voltage and under voltage of main power supply.
All electrical devices can bear voltage up to certain limits. For example your home
fan normal operating voltage is 220 volt AC. If voltage input to fan become greater
52
than or less than about 20% of normal operating voltage of fan it many burn your fan
and in case of less voltage fan excessive current may flow which in turn cause short
circuit in your home wiring. To avoid all these issues this project is designed which
automatically turn on and turn off main power supply in case of issue in AC main
power supply and on one need to control it manually. Microcontroller is embedded
into this system to make it smart enough to handle all the issues intelligently and to
provide control signals to turn on and off AC main power supply.
Fig.5.2. Operation time
CHAPTER-6
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

53
ADVANTAGES:
1) Highly Sensitive, Low cost and Reliable circuit.

2) Works according to the soil condition.
3) Complete elimination of manpower.
4) Can handle heavy loads up to 7A.
5) System can be switched into manual mode when even required.
LIMITATIONS:
1) This is applicable for only large farms.

2) Have limited life after installation.
54
CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
CONCLUSION:
Thus the proposed prototype scheme has been devised and implemented to trip
the load elements successfully at different overvoltage and over current conditions
within a margin of error that might further be reduced upon future iterations of this
scheme. This scheme is simple, moderately sensitive and reliable and may be
ameliorated based upon this prototype to implement overvoltage and over current
protection simultaneously and improve the simplicity and efficacy of it. It can also be
extended and reprogrammed to offer further protection schemes such as under
voltage, undercurrent and earth fault protection and could offer protection to single
phase AC motors and other electrical machineries. It can also be devised and
programmed to offer comprehensive protection to three phase systems and it may be
regarded as a future scope of this prototype.
FUTURE SCOPE:
The Working of project is basically dependent on the output of the humidity

sensors. Whenever there is need of excess water in the desired field (RICE crops) then
it will not be possible by using sensor. Technology for this we will have to adapt the
DTMF technology. By using this we will be able to irrigate the desired filed and in
desired amount.
55
CHAPTER-8
BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCE :
[1] Srividyadevi, P., D. Pusphalatha, and P. Sharma. "Measurement of Power and

Energy Using Arduino." Res. J. Eng. Sci 2 (2013): 10-15.
[2] Naseem, Adil, and Naveed Alam. "Protection of Distribution Transformer Using
Arduino Platform." Science International 27, no. 1 (2015).
[3] Bhat, Aakanksha, Snigdha Srivastava Swarnim, Shivani Verma, and G. V.

Ramanarao. "Automation of Power Measurement using Integrated Architecture."
[4] Monk, Simon. Programming Arduino. United States of America: McGrawHill

Companies, 2012.
[5] Bayle, Julien. C programming for Arduino. Packt Publishing Ltd., 2013.
[6] Titu Bhowmick, Dharmasa. “Development of Prototype Protection Setup for

Standalone Solar Power System.” American Journal of Electrical Power and Energy
Systems. Vol. 4, No. 6, 2015, pp. 100-105. doi: 10.11648/j.epes.20150406.13
[7] Garcerán Sánchez, José Pedro. "High-quality low-loss low cost dc motor
controller." (2015).
[8] Machowski, Jan, Janusz Bialek, and James Richard Bumby. Power system
dynamics and stability. John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
[9] Gurevich, Vladimir. "Reliability of microprocessor-based relay protection devices:

Myths and reality." Serbian Journal of Electrical Engineering 6, no. 1 (2009): 167-
186.
56
[10] Larson, R. R., A. J. Flechsig, and E. O. Schweitzer. "The design and test of a
digital relay for transformer protection." Power Apparatus and Systems, IEEE
Transactions on 3 (1979): 795-804.
57

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DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF HIGH ACCURACY CIRCUIT

BREAKER FOR THE PROTECTION OF LOADS

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2.1 Embedded Systems:

An embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one or a

Embedded systems are controlled by one or more main processing cores

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers

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Physically embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital

In general, "embedded system" is not a strictly definable term, as most

Fig 2.1:A modern example of embedded system

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Labeled parts include microprocessor (4), RAM (6), flash memory

In the earliest years of computers in the 1930–40s, computers were

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Embedded development makes up a small fraction of total programming.

To save costs, embedded systems frequently have the cheapest processors

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Processing Unit). These resources either need to be emulated in software, or avoided

Embedded systems frequently control hardware, and must be able to

2.2 Need For Embedded Systems:

Embedded debugging may be performed at different levels, depending on

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Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run

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2.3 Explanation of Embedded Systems:

2.3.1 Software Architecture:

There are several different types of software architecture in common use.

 Simple Control Loop:

 Interrupt Controlled System:

Some embedded systems are predominantly interrupt controlled. This

A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple

In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches between tasks or

Because of these complexities, it is common for organizations to buy a

 Microkernels And Exokernels:

A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS. The usual

In general, microkernels succeed when the task switching and intertask

2.3.2 Stand Alone Embedded System:

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Eg: microwave oven, air conditioner etc..

2.3.3 Real-time embedded systems:

Embedded systems which are used to perform a specific task or operation

 Hard Real-time embedded systems:

Eg: consider a system in which we have to open a valve within 30 milliseconds. If

 Soft Real Time embedded systems:

2.3.4 Network communication embedded systems:

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A wide range network interfacing communication is provided by using embedded

 Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.

Fig 2.2: Network communication embedded systems

2.3.5 Different types of processing units:

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2.4 APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

2.4.1 Consumer applications:

At home we use a number of embedded systems which include microwave

Fig2.3: Automatic coffee makes equipment

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2.4.2 Office automation:

We use systems like fax machine, modem, printer etc…

Fig2.4: Fax machine Fig2.5: Printing machine

2.4.3. Industrial automation:

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