2/22/2024

Data and Computer

Communications

Tenth Edition
by William Stallings

Data and Computer Communications, Tenth

Edition by William Stallings, (c) Pearson
Education - Prentice Hall, 2013

CHAPTER 1

Data Communications, Data Networks,

and the Internet

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“The fundamental problem of

communication is that of reproducing at
one point either exactly or approximately a
message selected at another point”

- The Mathematical Theory of

Communication,
Claude Shannon

Technological Advancement
Driving Forces

4

Notable Trends
Trend toward faster and
cheaper, in both computing and
communication
• More powerful computers supporting
more demanding applications
• The increasing use of optical fiber and
high-speed wireless has brought
transmission prices down and greatly
increased capacity
The Internet, the Web, and
associated applications have
emerged as dominant features
for both business and personal
network landscapes
• “Everything over IP”
• Intranets and extranets are being used to
isolate proprietary information
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Today’s networks are more
“intelligent”
• Differing levels of quality of service
(QoS)
• Variety of customizable services in the
areas of network management and
security
Mobility
• iPhone, Droid, and iPad have become
drivers of the evolution of business
networks and their use
• Enterprise applications are now routinely
delivered on mobile devices
• Cloud computing is being embraced
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Changes in Networking
Technology

* Emergence of high-speed LANs

* Corporate WAN needs

* Digital electronics

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Emergence of High-Speed LANs

 Personal computers and microcomputer
workstations have become an essential tool for
office workers Explosive growth
of speed and
computing power
Two of personal
significant computers
trends altered LANs have been
the recognized as a
requirements viable and
of the LAN essential
computing
platform

 Examples of requirements that call for higher-

speed LANs:
 Centralized server farms
 Power workgroups
 High-speed local backbone

Corporate Wide Area

Networking Needs
Changes Growing use of telecommuting

in Nature of the application structure has changed

corporate
data Intranet computing
traffic More reliance on personal computers, workstations, and servers
patterns
are More data-intensive applications
driving Most organizations require access to the Internet
the
creation Traffic patterns have become more unpredictable
of high- Average traffic load has risen
speed
WANs More data is transported off premises and into the wide area

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Digital Electronics
 The rapid conversion of consumer electronics
to digital technology is having an impact on
both the Internet and corporate intranets
 Image and video traffic carried by networks is
dramatically increasing
• Because of their huge storage capacity digital versatile
disks (DVDs) are being incorporated into Web sites
• Digital camcorders have made it easier to make digital
video files to be placed on corporate and Internet Web
sites

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Convergence
 The merger of previously
distinct telephony and Layers:
information technologies and
markets
Applications
 Involves:
Enterprise services
• Moving voice into a These are seen
data infrastructure by the end users Infrastructure
Services the
• Integrating all the voice information
and data networks Communication
network supplies links available to
inside a user
organization into a to support the enterprise
single data network applications
infrastructure
• Then extending that
into the wireless arena
 Foundation is packet-
based transmission
using the Internet
Protocol (IP)
 Increases the function
and scope of both the
infrastructure and the
application base

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Table 1.1
Communications Tasks

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Transmission Lines
Capacity
The basic building block of
any communications facility
is the transmission line
Reliability

The business manager is

concerned with a facility Cost
providing the required
capacity, with acceptable Transmission
reliability, at minimum cost
Line

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Transmission Mediums
Two mediums currently driving
the evolution of data communications
transmission are:

Fiber optic transmissions

and
Wireless transmissions

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Transmission Services
 Remain the most costly component of a
communications budget
 Two major approaches to greater efficiency:

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Networks
 Itis estimated that by 2016 there will be
over 20 billion fixed and mobile networked
devices
 This affects traffic volume in a number of
ways:
• It enables a user to be continuously consuming
network capacity
• Capacity can be consumed on multiple devices
simultaneously
• Different broadband devices enable different
applications which may have greater traffic
generation capability

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Networking
Advances in technology have led to greatly
increased capacity and the concept of
integration, allowing equipment and
networks to work simultaneously

Voice Data

Image Video

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Wide Area Networks (WANs)

 Span a large geographical area

 Require the crossing of public right-of-ways

 Rely in part on common carrier circuits

 Typically
consist of a number of
interconnected switching nodes

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Wide Area Networks

Alternative technologies used include:
 Circuit switching
 Packet switching
 Frame relay
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

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Circuit Switching
 Uses a dedicated communications path
 Connected sequence of physical links
between nodes
 Logical channel dedicated on each link
 Rapid transmission
 The most common example of circuit
switching is the telephone network

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Packet Switching
 Data are sent out in a sequence of small
chunks called packets
 Packets are passed from node to node
along a path leading from source to
destination
 Packet-switching networks are commonly
used for terminal-to-terminal computer and
computer-to-computer communications

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Frame Relay

 Developed to take advantage of high data

rates and low error rates
 Operates at data rates of up to 2 Mbps
 Key to achieving high data rates is to strip
out most of the overhead involved with
error control

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Asynchronous Transfer Mode

(ATM)
 Referred to as cell relay
 Culmination of developments in circuit
switching and packet switching
 Uses fixed-length packets called cells
 Works in range of 10s and 100s of Mbps
and in the Gbps range
 Allows multiple channels with the data rate
on each channel dynamically set on
demand

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Local Area Networks (LAN)

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The Internet

 Internetevolved from ARPANET

 Developed to solve the dilemma of
communicating across arbitrary, multiple,
packet-switched networks
 Foundation is the TCP/IP protocol suite

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30

Table 1.2
Internet Terminology
 Central Office (CO)
 The place where telephone
companies terminate customer
lines and locate switching
equipment to interconnect those
lines with other networks
 Customer Premises
Equipment (CPE)
 Telecommunications equipment
that is located on the customer’s
premises
 Internet Service Provider (ISP)
 A company that provides other
companies or individuals with
access to, or presence on, the
Internet
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 Network Access Point (NAP)
 One of several major Internet
interconnection points that
serve to tie all the ISPs together
 Network Service Provider
(NSP)
 A company that provides
backbone services to an
Internet service provider (ISP)
 Point of Presence (POP)
 A site that has a collection of
telecommunications equipment,
usually refers to ISP or
telephone company sites
(Table can be found on page 27 in textbook)
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Summary

 Transmission mediums  Trends challenging

 Fiber optic data communications:
 Wireless  Traffic growth
 Network categories:  Development of new
services
 Wide Area Networks
 Advances in
 Local Area Networks
technology
 Wireless Networks
 Data Transmission
 Internet and Network Capacity
 Origin Requirements
 Key elements
 Internet architecture
 Convergence

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CHAPTER 2

Protocol Architecture, TCP/IP, and

Internet-Based Applications

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To destroy communication completely, there

must be no rules in common between
transmitter and receiver—neither of alphabet
nor of syntax.

—On Human Communication,

Colin Cherry

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The Need for a Protocol

Architecture
1.) The source must either
activate the direct
communications path or inform
the network of the identity of the
desired destination system
2.) The source system must
ascertain that the destination
system is prepared to receive
data

To transfer data
several tasks
must be
performed:

3.) The file transfer application on

the source system must ascertain 4.) A format translation function
that the file management program may need to be performed by one
on the destination system is or the other system if the file
prepared to accept and store the formats used on the two systems
file for this particular user are different

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Functions of Protocol
Architecture
 Breaks logic into subtask modules which
are implemented separately
 Modules are arranged in a vertical stack
• Each layer in the stack performs a
subset of functions
• Relies on next lower layer for primitive
functions
• Provides services to the next higher layer
• Changes in one layer should not require
changes in other layers
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Key Features of a Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules or conventions
that allow peer layers to communicate
The key features of a protocol are:
• Format of data
Syntax blocks

• Control
information for
Semantics coordination and
error handling

• Speed matching
Timing and sequencing

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A Simple Protocol Architecture

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Communication Layers

Concerned with the exchange

of data between a computer
Network access layer
and the network to which it is
attached

Communication tasks are Collects mechanisms in a

organized into three relatively Transport layer common layer shared by all
independent layers: applications

Contains logic to support

Application layer
applications

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TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

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Physical Layer
 Coversthe physical interface between
computer and network
 Concerned with issues like:
 Characteristics of transmission medium
 Nature of the signals
 Data rates

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Network Access/Data Link Layer

 Covers the exchange of data between an
end system and the network that it is
attached to
 Concerned with:
 Access to and routing data across a network
for two end systems attached to the same
network

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Implements
procedures needed to
allow data to travel
across multiple
interconnected

Internet Layer
networks

Internet Layer

Uses the Internet

Implemented in end Protocol (IP) to
systems and routers provide routing
function

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Host-to-Host (Transport) Layer

• May provide reliable TCP

end-to-end service
or merely an end-to- • Most commonly
end delivery service used protocol to
without reliability provide this
mechanisms functionality

Transmission
Control Protocol

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Application Layer
 Contains the logic needed to support the
various user applications
 A separate module is needed for each
different type of application that is peculiar
to that application

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TCP/IP Address Requirements

Two levels of addressing are needed:

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Transmission Control Protocol

(TCP)
 TCP is the transport layer protocol for most
applications
 TCP provides a reliable connection for transfer
of data between applications
 A TCP segment is the basic protocol unit
 TCP tracks segments between entities for
duration of each connection

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User Datagram Protocol

(UDP)
 Alternative to TCP
 Does not guarantee delivery, preservation of
sequence, or protection against duplication
 Enables a procedure to send messages to other
procedures with a minimum of protocol
mechanism
 Adds port addressing capability to IP
 Used with Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP)
 Includes a checksum to verify that no error occurs
in the data

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Service Primitives and

Parameters

 Servicesbetween adjacent layers

 Expressed as:
s
• Specify the function to be performed

• Used to pass data and control information

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Table 2.1
Service Primitive Types

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Traditional Internet-Based
Applications
 Three common applications that have been
standardized to operate on top of TCP are:
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

• Provides a mechanism for transferring messages among separate

hosts

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

• Used to send files from one system to another under user command
• Both text and binary files are accommodated

Secure Shell (SSH)

• Provides a secure remote logon capability

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Table 2.2
Multimedia Terminology

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Media Types

audio generally image supports the

encompasses sounds that communication of individual
are produced by the human pictures, charts, or
speech mechanism drawings

text is information that can

video service carries
be entered via a keyboard
sequences of pictures in
and is directly readable and
time
printable

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Table 2.3

Domains of Multimedia Systems

and Example Applications

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Multimedia Applications
Information systems Communication
• Information kiosks, electronic systems
books that include audio and • Support collaborative work,
video, and multimedia expert such as videoconferencing
systems

Entertainment systems Business systems

• Computer and network games • Business-oriented multimedia
and other forms of presentations, video
audiovisual entertainment brochures, and online
shopping

Educational systems
• Electronic books with a
multimedia component,
simulation and modeling
applets, and other teaching
support systems

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Multimedia Technologies
 Some technologies that are relevant to the
support of multimedia applications are:

Communications/ Quality of service

Compression Protocols
networking (QoS)

Refers to the
Can deal with
JPG for still transmission
RTP priority, delay
images and
constraints,
networking
delay
technologies
variability
that can
constraints,
support high-
and other
MPG for volume
SIP similar
video multimedia
requirements
traffic

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Sockets Programming
 Concept was developed in the 1980s in the
UNIX environment as the Berkeley Sockets
Interface
 De facto standard application programming
interface (API)
 Basis for Window Sockets (WinSock)
 Enables communication between a client and
server process
 May be connection oriented or
connectionless

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The Socket
 Formed by the concatenation of a port value and an IP
address
 Unique throughout the Internet
 Used to define an API
 Generic communication interface for writing programs that use
TCP or UDP
 Stream sockets
 All blocks of data sent between a pair of sockets are guaranteed
for delivery and arrive in the order that they were sent
 Datagram sockets
 Delivery is not guaranteed, nor is order necessarily preserved
 Raw sockets
 Allow direct access to lower-layer protocols

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Table
2.4

Core
Socket
Functions

(Table can be found

on page 54 in
textbook)

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(Figure 2.13 can be

found on page 57 in
textbook)

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(Figure 2.14 can be

found on page 58 in
textbook)

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Summary
 The need for a protocol
architecture  Traditional internet-
 Simple protocol based applications
architecture
 TCP/IP protocol  Multimedia
architecture  Media types
 TCP/IP layers
 Operation of TCP and IP
 Multimedia applications
 TCP and UDP  Multimedia technologies
 IP and IPv6  Sockets programming
 Protocol interfaces
 Standardization within a  The socket
protocol architecture  Sockets interface calls
 Standards and protocol
layers
 Service primitives and
parameters

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CHAPTER 3

Data Transmission

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“I have been trying to prove the following theorem: for any operators
T,R the length of an arbitrary message f1 multiplied by its essential
spectrum and divided by the distortion of the system is less than a
certain constant times the time of transmission of F multiplied by its
essential spectrum width or—roughly speaking—it is impossible to
reduce bandwidth times transmission time for a given distortion.
This seems to be true although I do not have a general proof as yet.”

—Letter to Vannevar Bush,

February 16, 1939,
from Claude Shannon

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Transmission Terminology
Data transmission occurs between transmitter
and receiver over some transmission medium

Communication
is in the form of
electromagnetic
waves
Unguided
Guided media media
(wireless)
Propagation
Twisted pair,
through air,
coaxial cable,
vacuum, and
optical fiber
seawater

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Transmission Terminology

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Transmission Terminology
 Simplex
 Signals are transmitted in only one direction
 One station is transmitter and the other is
receiver

 Half duplex
 Both stations transmit, but only one at a time

 Full duplex
 Both stations may transmit simultaneously
 The medium is carrying signals in both
directions at the same time

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Sine Wave
 Is the fundamental periodic signal
 Can be represented by three parameters
 Peak amplitude (A)
• Maximum value or strength of the signal over time
• Typically measured in volts
 Frequency (f)
• Rate at which the signal repeats
• Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
• Period (T) is the amount of time for one repetition
• T = 1/f
 Phase ()
• Relative position in time within a single period of signal

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Wavelength ()
The wavelength of
a signal is the
distance occupied
by a single cycle

Can also be stated as the

distance between two Especially when v=c
points of corresponding c = 3*108 m/s (speed
phase of two consecutive of light in free space)
cycles

Assuming signal Or
velocity v, then the
wavelength is related to equivalently
the period as  = vT f = v

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Frequency Domain Concepts

 Signals are made up of many frequencies
 Components are sine waves
 Fourier analysis can show that any signal
is made up of components at various
frequencies, in which each component is a
sinusoid
 Can plot frequency domain functions

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Spectrum and Bandwidth

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Data Rate and Bandwidth

There is a direct relationship between

data rate and bandwidth
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Analog and Digital Data

Transmission

Data Signals Signaling Transmission

Physical Communication
Electric or
Entities that propagation of of data by the
electromagnetic
convey the signal along propagation and
representations
information a suitable processing of
of data
medium signals

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Digital Data

Character
strings
Text
Examples:

IRA

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Advantages and Disadvantages

of Digital Signals

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 To produce a video signal a TV

camera is used
 USA standard is 483 lines per
Video frame, at a rate of 30 complete
Signals frames per second
 Actual standard is 525 lines but about
42 are lost during vertical retrace
 Horizontal scanning frequency is
525 lines x 30 scans = 15750 lines
per second
 Max frequency if line alternates
between black and white as
rapidly as possible

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Table 3.1

Analog and
Digital
Transmission

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Move to Digital
 Digital technology
 LSI and VLSI technology has caused a continuing drop in the cost and
size of digital circuitry
 Data integrity
 The use of repeaters has made it possible to transmit data longer
distances over lower quality lines while maintaining the integrity of the
data
 Capacity utilization
 It has become economical to build transmission links of very high
bandwidth, including satellite channels and optical fiber, and a high
degree of multiplexing is needed to utilize such capacity effectively
 Security and privacy
 Encryption techniques can be readily applied to digital data and to
analog data that have been digitized
 Integration
 Economies of scale and convenience can be achieved by integrating
voice, video, and digital data

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Asynchronous and
Synchronous Transmission
 Asynchronous
 Strategy is to avoid the timing
problem by not sending long,
uninterrupted streams of bits
 Data are transmitted one
character at a time, where each
character is 5 to 8 bits in length
 Timing or synchronization must
only be maintained within each
character
 The receiver has the opportunity
to resynchronize at the
beginning of each new
character
 Synchronous
 A block of bits is transmitted in a
steady stream without start and
stop codes
 Block may be many bits in
length
 To prevent timing drift between
transmitter and receiver, their
clocks must somehow be
synchronized
• Provide a separate clock line
between transmitter and receiver
• Embed the clocking information in
the data signal
 Frame
• Data plus preamble, postamble,
and control information

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Transmission Impairments
 Signal received may differ from signal
transmitted causing:
 Analog - degradation of signal quality
 Digital - bit errors
 Most significant impairments are
 Attenuation and attenuation distortion
 Delay distortion
 Noise

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Received signal
strength must
Equalize be:
attenuation
across the band • Strong enough
of frequencies to be detected
used by using • Sufficiently
loading coils or higher than
amplifiers noise to be
received
without error

Strength can be
increased using
amplifiers or
repeaters

ATTENUATION
 Signal strength falls off with distance over any transmission medium

 Varies with frequency

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Delay Distortion
 Occurs in transmission cables such as twisted
pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber
 Does not occur when signals are transmitted through
the air by means of antennas
 Occurs because propagation velocity of a signal
through a guided medium varies with frequency
 Various frequency components arrive at different
times resulting in phase shifts between the
frequencies
 Particularly critical for digital data since parts of
one bit spill over into others causing intersymbol
interference

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Noise
Unwanted signals
inserted between
transmitter and
receiver

Is the major limiting

factor in
communications
system performance

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Categories of Noise

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Categories of Noise
Crosstalk:
 A signal from one line is
picked up by another
 Can occur by electrical
coupling between nearby
twisted pairs or when
Impulse Noise: microwave antennas pick
up unwanted signals
 Caused by external
electromagnetic interferences
 Noncontinuous, consisting of
irregular pulses or spikes
 Short duration and high
amplitude
 Minor annoyance for analog
signals but a major source of
error in digital data

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Channel Capacity

Maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a

given communications channel under given conditions

Bandwidth
Error rate
The bandwidth
Data rate of the Noise The rate at
transmitted
which errors The main
signal as The greater the
occur, where an constraint on
The rate, in bits constrained by The average bandwidth of a
error is the achieving
per second the transmitter level of noise facility, the
reception of a 1 efficiency is
(bps) at which and the nature over the greater the cost
when a 0 was noise
data can be of the communications
transmitted or
communicated transmission path
the reception of
medium,
a 0 when a 1
expressed in
was transmitted
cycles per
second, or hertz

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Nyquist Bandwidth
In the case of a channel that is noise free:
 The limitation of data rate is simply the bandwidth of the
signal
 If the rate of signal transmission is 2B then a signal with
frequencies no greater than B is sufficient to carry the signal rate
 Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate that can be
carried is 2B
 For binary signals, the data rate that can be supported
by B Hz is 2B bps
 With multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formula becomes:
C = 2B log2M
 Data rate can be increased by increasing the number of
different signal elements
 This increases burden on receiver
 Noise and other impairments limit the practical value of M

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Shannon Capacity Formula

 Considering the relation of data rate, noise and
error rate:
 Faster data rate shortens each bit so bursts of noise
corrupts more bits
 Given noise level, higher rates mean higher errors
 Shannon developed formula relating these to
signal to noise ratio (in decibels)
 SNRdb=10 log10 (signal/noise)
 Capacity C = B log2(1+SNR)
 Theoretical maximum capacity
 Get much lower rates in practice

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Summary
 Transmission
terminology
 Frequency, spectrum,
and bandwidth
 Analog and digital data
transmission
 Analog and digital data
 Analog and digital signals
 Analog and digital
transmission
 Asynchronous and
synchronous transmission
 Transmission
impairments
 Attenuation
 Delay distortion
 Noise
 Channel capacity
 Nyquist bandwidth
 Shannon capacity
formula
 The expression Eb/No

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CHAPTER 5

Signal Encoding Techniques

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“Thus one says, in general, that the function of the

transmitter is to encode, and that of the receiver
to decode, the message. The theory provides for
very sophisticated transmitters and receivers—
such, for example, as possess ‘memories,’ so that
the way they encode a certain symbol of the
message depends not only upon this one symbol
but also upon previous symbols of the message
and the way they have been encoded.”

—The Mathematics of Communication,

Scientific American, July 1949,
Warren Weaver

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Digital Data, Digital Signal

 Digital signal
 Sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage
pulses
 Each pulse is a signal element
 Binary data are transmitted by encoding each
data bit into signal elements

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Terminology
 Unipolar – all signal elements have the same sign
 Polar – one logic state represented by positive
voltage and the other by negative voltage
 Data rate – rate, in bits per second that data are
transmitted
 Duration or length of a bit – time taken for
transmitter to emit the bit
 Modulation rate – rate at which the signal level is
changed; the rate is expressed in baud, which
means signal elements per second
 Mark and space – refer to the binary digits 1 and 0

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Table 5.1
Key Data Transmission Terms

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Interpreting Signals
Tasks involved in interpreting Factors affecting signal
digital signal at the receiver: interpretation:

Timing of bits - when

Signal to noise ratio
they start and end

Signal levels Data rate

Bandwidth

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Table 5.2

Definition
of Digital
Signal
Encoding
Formats

(This table can be found on

page 153 in the textbook)

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Encoding Schemes

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Nonreturn to Zero

 Easiest way to transmit digital signals is to use

two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
 Voltage level is constant during a bit interval
 No transition (no return to a zero voltage level)
 Absence of voltage for 0, constant positive voltage
for 1
 More often, a negative voltage represents one
value and a positive voltage represents the other
(NRZ-L)

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Non-return to Zero Inverted

(NRZI)
 Non-return to zero, invert on ones
 Maintains a constant voltage pulse for duration
of a bit time
 Data are encoded as presence or absence of
signal transition at the beginning of the bit time
 Transition (low to high, high to low) denotes binary 1
 No transition denotes binary 0
Is an example of differential encoding

• Data are represented by changes rather than levels

• More reliable to detect a transition in the presence of
noise than to compare a value to a threshold
• Easy to lose sense of polarity

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Multilevel Binary
Bipolar-AMI
 Use more than two signal levels
 Bipolar-AMI
 Binary 0 represented by no line signal
 Binary 1 represented by positive or
negative pulse
 Binary 1 pulses alternate in polarity
 No loss of sync if a long string of 1s occurs
 No net dc component
 Lower bandwidth
 Easy error detection

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Multilevel Binary
Pseudoternary
 Binary 1 represented by absence of line
signal
 Binary 0 represented by alternating
positive and negative pulses
 No advantage or disadvantage over
bipolar-AMI and each is the basis of some
applications

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Multilevel Binary Issues

 Synchronization with long runs of 0’s or 1’s
 Can insert additional bits that force transitions
 Scramble data
 Not as efficient as NRZ
 Each signal element only represents one bit
• Receiver distinguishes between three levels: +A, -A, 0
 A 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits
 Requires approximately 3dB more signal power for
same probability of bit error

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Manchester Encoding

 There is a transition at the middle of each bit

period
 Midbit transition serves as a clocking
mechanism and also as data
 Low to high transition represents a 1
 High to low transition represents a 0

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Differential Manchester
Encoding

 Midbit transition is only used for clocking

 The encoding of a 0 is represented by the
presence of a transition at the beginning of a bit
period
 A 1 is represented by the absence of a transition
at the beginning of a bit period
 Has the added advantage of employing
differential encoding

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Biphase Pros and Cons

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Table 5.3
Normalized Signal Transition Rate of
Various Digital Signal Encoding
Schemes

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Scrambling Design Goals

 Use scrambling to replace

sequences that would
produce constant voltage
 These filling sequences
must:
 Provide sufficient transitions
for the receiver’s clock to
maintain synchronization
 Be recognized by the
receiver and replaced with
the original data sequence
 Be the same length as the
original sequence so there is
no data rate penalty

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B8ZS
 Bipolarwith 8-zeros substitution
 Coding scheme commonly used in North
America
 Based on a bipolar-AMI
 Amended with the following rules:
• If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage
pulse preceding this octet was positive, then the
eight zeros of the octet are encoded as 000+-0-+
• If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage
pulse preceding this octet was negative, then the
eight zeros of the octet are encoded as 000-+0+-

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Table 5.4
HDB3 Substitution Rules

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Digital Data, Analog Signal

 Main use is public telephone system
 Was designed to receive, switch, and transmit
analog signals
 Has a frequency range of 300Hz to 3400Hz
 Is not at present suitable for handling digital signals
from the subscriber locations
 Uses modem (modulator-demodulator) to convert
digital data to analog signals and vice versa

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Amplitude Shift Keying

(ASK)
 Encode 0/1 by different carrier amplitudes
 Usually have one amplitude zero
 Susceptible to sudden gain changes
 Inefficient
 Used for:
 Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
 Very high speeds over optical fiber

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Binary Frequency Shift

Keying (BFSK)
 Most common form of FSK
 Two binary values are represented by two
different frequencies (near carrier)
 Less susceptible to error than ASK
 Used for:
 Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
 High frequency radio
 Even higher frequency on LANs using coaxial cable

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Multiple FSK
(MFSK)

 Each signaling element represents more

than one bit
 More than two frequencies are used
 More bandwidth efficient
 More susceptible to error

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Phase Shift Keying

(PSK)
 The phase of the carrier signal is shifted to
represent data
 Binary PSK
 Two phases represent the two binary digits
 Differential PSK
 Phase shifted relative to previous transmission
rather than some reference signal

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Table 5.5
Bandwidth Efficiency (R/BT) for Various
Digital-to-Analog Encoding Schemes

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Performance of Digital to
Analog Modulation Schemes

In presence of
Bandwidth
noise
Bit error rate of
ASK/PSK
PSK and QPSK are
bandwidth directly
about 3dB superior
relates to bit rate
to ASK and FSK

MFSK and MPSK

Multilevel PSK have tradeoff
gives significant between bandwidth
improvements efficiency and error
performance

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Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)
 QAM is used in the asymmetric digital subscriber
line (ADSL), in cable modems, and in some wireless
standards
 Is a combination of ASK and PSK
 Logical extension of QPSK
 Send two different signals simultaneously on the
same carrier frequency
 Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
 Each carrier is ASK modulated
 Two independent signals simultaneously transmitted over
the same medium
 At the receiver, the two signals are demodulated and the
results are combined to produce the original binary input

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Analog Data, Digital Signal

 Digitization is the  Analog to digital
conversion of analog conversion is done
data into digital data using a codec
which can then:  Pulse code modulation
 Be transmitted using  Delta modulation
NRZ-L
 Be transmitted using
code other than NRZ-L
 Be converted to
analog signal

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Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

 Based on the sampling theorem:
 “If a signal f(t) is sampled at regular intervals of time
and at a rate higher than twice the highest
signal frequency, then the samples contain all
the information of the original signal. The
function f(t) may be reconstructed from these
samples by the use of a lowpass filter.”
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
 Analog samples
 To convert to digital, each of these analog
samples must be assigned a binary code

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165

Non-Linear Coding

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Delta Modulation (DM)

 Analog input is approximated by a staircase
function
 Can move up or down one quantization level ()
at each sampling interval
 Has binary behavior
 Function only moves up or down at each
sampling interval
 Output of the delta modulation process can be
represented as a single binary digit for each
sample
 1 is generated if the staircase function is to go up
during the next interval, otherwise a 0 is
generated

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170

Summary
 Digital data, digital
signals
 Nonreturn to zero (NRZ)
 Multilevel binary
 Biphase
 Modulation rate
 Scrambling techniques
 Analog data, digital
signals
 Pulse code modulation
 Delta modulation (DM)
 Performance
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 Digital data, analog
signals
 Amplitude shift keying
 Frequency shift keying
 Phase shift keying
 Performance
 Quadrature amplitude
modulation