1|Page Seminar in the Arts of Mughal India
Mughal Painting: Themes and Influences during the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries
Hala Qasqas
Intruduction
This paper is concerned with analyzing
the intellectual and structural influences that
resulted in differents elements of Mughal
painting in India during the seventeenth and
sixteenth centuries. The human body
constitutes a universal, fundamental and
socio-cultural point of reference for artistic
expression in Mughal art. In the Indian
subcontinent, the human body has always
been the subject of representations, even for
non-human subjects through innovative
strategies such as anthropomorphism,
morphology, and personification which are
potent tools of metaphysical articulation.
Therefore, I have selected four paintings as
samples of these strategies, which artistically
have a greater expression than speech,
language, or writing (Gonzale, 2015, 152).
By analyzing the four paintings selected for
this research paper, we will notice that the
human being is central both to the visual
composition of the painting as well as the
story which it represents.
In general, the Mughal artists' approach to
the subject is purely documentary. Their
novels do not evoke religious sentiments, and
thus their paintings remain descriptive visual
narratives. In general, the Mughal school of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was
never intended to display the ideology or
philosophy of a caste, cult, or dogma. This
made it decidedly secular (Verma, 2000,
513). Nevertheless, we can notice some
paintings with a religious character, whether
through the theme, such as paintings of the
Islamic theme, or influences, such as
paintings containing influences from the
Christian religion.
When discussing the originality, themes
and influences of Mughal painting, it is easy
to see a parallel in the issue of originality in
Mughal culture as a whole. Mughal culture
displays a mixture of Persian and Indian
elements and later European influences.
However, it is noticeable that the paintings
painted in the era of Akbar were almost
original and distinct from the previous eras.
In other words, its culture is as original as it
expresses its character. At the same time, we
must realize that this new style did not fully
develop in Akbar's own time. One of Akbar's
painters rarely produced any work of
fundamental importance because they were
occupied mainly with imitating Persian
mannerisms. Mughal painting as an
independent style belongs to the 17th
century, not the 16th century. The true
Mughal style developed very rapidly after
about 1600 AD. The term "Indo-Persian"
only correctly applies to the early Mughal
style: it does not correctly describe late
Mughal work (Coomaraswamy, 1910, 875).
The characteristic of artistic discourse in
the seventeenth century denotes a life of
luxury and prosperity. In the painting focused
on the events of the imperial court, realism
prevailed and proportions were controlled
with complete accuracy. The use of shadows,
light, linear perspective and realistic colour
backgrounds were also widespread. The
Mughal artist seems determined to focus on
the details of each particular subject. Trees,
hills, birds, animals, and buildings are
introduced to accentuate the landscape, but
the focus of the is on the camp assistants,
ordinary people and attendees following the
king. It is clear that the complexity of the
composition for each painting depends on the
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narrative of each individual artist, as well as
dealing with other artistic elements, i.e.,
space and time, balance and rhythm, and
other aspects (Verma, 2016, 388).
This paper will analyze four Mughal
paintings chosen according to their different
themes of religion, architecture, leisure, and
power, which consequently encompass the
many diverse activities that made up
everyday life in the Mughal era. After all, art
is the attempt by humans to portray their own
life experiences and perspectives in
permanent form. Although, as is clear from
these samples, the majority of Mughal art
deals with the secular subject matter, the first
painting, Noah's Ark (circa the late 1570s–ca.
1604), shows a religious perspective of the
world and is a beautiful expression of the
Mughal interest in religious matters. The
second painting is by Bandi, and depicts
Akbar inspecting the construction of
Fatehpur (c. 1590-95). The third painting is
by Govardhan, and depicts Shah Shuja with a
Beloved, (ca. 1596–1645). This painting
shows the bold presence of women through
the Mughal painting, who are rarely seen in
the leisure paintings in Mughal art. The
fourth painting is by Bichitr, and shows
Aurangzeb seated on a golden throne holding
a hawk to depict the power of that era.
Therefore, I will address a question: Did most
Mughal paintings follow a specific theme, as
we note that most themes were about leisure
in the Mughal Emperor court, or is there a
diversity of themes from different
influences? This is what I will try to highlight
in this paper. My objective is to study the
most common themes of Mughal art between
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as
represented by these four paintings in the
Islamic Mughal era.
1. RELIGIOUS THEMES
The Miskin's late-sixteenth-century Noah
Ark's painting was chosen as an example of
Seminar in the Arts of Mughal India
religious themes in Mughal art (Figure 1).
This painting was painted in opaque
watercolour and gold on paper. The overall
Dimensions for it is H x W: 28.1 x 15.6 cm.
It is stored in Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur
M. Sackler Gallery Collection. This painting
is an example of "high," not "folk," culture
(Metcalf, 1995, 960). Prophets are God's
messengers who come from time to time to
guide humanity to God's path of
righteousness. Prophet Noah was among the
many who came as guides and warners to the
people. God appointed Noah as the Prophet
for his people to guide them to the right path.
We were told by The Holy Quran about the
story of Prophet Noah and his people in a
number of Surahs, namely sura (Nuh), sura
(Hud), and sura (al-Mu'minun). It tells us
about the firm belief that the Prophet had in
God and about the final doom of those who
ignored the divine message. Commanding
Prophet Noah to warn his people, God said:
"Warn your people before there comes upon
them a grievous penalty." (Holy Qur'an,
71:1).
The Prophet takes on a new meaning in a
new cultural world. The powerful image of
the Prophet is deeply enriched in the Mughal
context through the combination of
assimilation and resistance that takes shape in
creative expressions such as these (Metcalf,
1995, 960). If we read a little about the artist,
we will discover that Miskin is not a Muslim,
so what prompted him to paint such a
religious topic in a secular court during the
rule of Akbar? It appears that Noah is
visually a representation of the king,
especially his depiction of him as having a
halo and seated with advisers (Behl, 1995,
230). He is the central figure not only for
humans but for creatures in general. The king
is bound to his subjects by oaths of protection
and obedience. Thus it turns out that the
painting represents the type of modern
political system.
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The Indian artist succeeded in portraying
people and animals realistically, but it was
flat and reductive, and he did not focus on
details. This is influenced by Islamic thought
and belief, which does not tend to realistic
diagnosis and tends to abstraction and
reduction because the subject of the painting
is originally religious.
Figure (1) Miskin, Noah Ark, 1570s–ca. 1604, opaque
watercolor and gold on paper, 28.1 x 15.6 cm, Freer
Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery
Collection.
The general scene evokes a sense of
majesty and dread, as it is an mythical subject
borrowed from the stories of the Qur'an,
representing the story of Noah and the Flood.
The whole scene is influenced by the
meanings of Islam, but its details are taken
directly from the Indian environment: from
the distinct Indian appearance of the people’s
Seminar in the Arts of Mughal India
clothing and the colour of their brown skin.
The Mughal character is also evident in terms
of the distribution of the figures who are
realistically painted. The scene, in general,
gives us a sense of movement, imposed by the
nature of the subject, which is originally
derived from inherited cultural traditions.
The sky and other shapes are painted in
realistic colours, and with some shadows and
linear perspectives which appear to set the
style apart from the Persian miniature
tradition from which it derives. A flock of
birds appears in the upper part of the painting,
and these features are influenced by
European art, due to the Mughal emperors'
encouragement to European art by Mughal
artists (Welch, 1978, 56). Flocks of birds in
the distance would seem to be introduced in
Mughal painting under Akbar (Paodi, 2010,
5).
2. ARCHITECTURAL THEMES
I chose Madhav Khord Akbar supervises
the building of Fatehpur Sikri painting (ca.
1590-95) from the Mughal dynasty period
(Figure 2). The illustration shows Akbar
overseeing the city's construction. In light of
the famous religious innovations and new
forms of governance he introduced, Akbar
was what Tusi would call the Possessor of the
Law. The Possessor of the Law is one who
can innovate and invent novel ways to
govern. The city was designed to ingrain his
ethos into everyday material experience and
fulfill the conditions of “A Virtuous City” as
described by Plato for his subjects.
The overall theme is realistically drawn
from the Indian environment. It is noticeable
that there are no European influences in this
painting, in addition to the fact that Islamic
influences appeared in the form of
simplification, especially in architecture. We
see that Emperor Akbar stands at the top of
the painting. This indicates that the main
subject of this painting revolves around the
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emperor. He is dressed in an elegant Indian
garb, indicating the majesty of the imperial
court. In contrast, the rest of the characters
are distributed throughout the painting and
overlapping levels. In this painting, it seems
that the artist has moved away from the use
of the linear perspective and instead uses the
superposition of forms for symbolic
purposes. The effect of class ineq uality is
reflected in this painting. A clear difference
appears between the clothes of the emperor
and his entourage and the clothes of the
workers from the poor class.
Figure (2) Composition by Tulsi, painting by Bandi,
Akbar inspecting the construction of Fathpur, Folio
from the Akbarnama, c. 1590-95, Ink, opaque water
color and gold on paper, 37,6 x 24,3 cm,Victoria and
Albert Museum, London.
Furthermore, there are two women
dressed in clothes with no bright colours in
the lower right. Instead, they are depicted
Seminar in the Arts of Mughal India
wearing long monochromatic dresses and
long white shawls on their heads. The ruler
and his courtiers were painted watching the
workers. Moderately well-dressed
supervisors and builders are shown working
side by side with barely-dressed workers.
Beside Akbar and his entourage, the young
bull-leader, a builder and supervisor, is
shown along with a character about to pick up
a two-man material-carrying device wearing
black pointed slippers (McClary, 2018, 225).
3. GENDER THEMES
I chose Govardhan Shah Shuja with a
Beloved because it inclues a rare instance of
woman as the subject in Mughal art. The
depiction of the Mughal woman herself was
against social norms, as she was not supposed
to appear in society. The portrayal of the men
depicted individually and given solid figures
is offset by the women drawn with repetitive
features and bodies. Combining Indian visual
techniques with Persian traditions. Women in
paintings were not as common before the
Jahangir period. What made it popular was
the powerful influence of Noor Jahan. Royal
ladies lived in separate quarters called
'Zenana' or 'Harem.' The depiction of Mughal
women developed from a mixture of Indian,
Persian, and European models, and Rajput,
Mughal and European women can be
identified by their different features and
clothing (Lavanya, 2016, 1665).
In this painting, the overall theme is
romantic. We see Prince Shuja, the second
son of Shah Jahan, and his love for the
Persian princess, the daughter of Mirza
Rostam, a Safavid man of the Mughal court.
The painting consists of two people, the
prince and the maid. The painting shows
several influences from the pre-Islamic
Indian culture, which was very concerned
with describing love stories. The use of linear
perspective shows how the Mughal artist was
inspired by European art, especially in the
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background of the picture in which depth
appears through the blue gradient until it
reaches a very light sky colour. We also find
the influences of the Indian environment
evident through Indian costumes, bright
colours, and local Indian faces. One of the
essential features of depicting women in
Mughal paintings is that the anatomy and
details of the face and body are not accurately
shown. The painting is dominated by the girl
and the young man in the centre who stand
facing each other. In no other genre are
women allowed to take up so much space in
artistic compositions, in contrast for example
to the previous painting, where the two
women are depicted in the margins and with
very little detail.
Figure (3) Painting by Govardhan, Shah Shuja with a
Beloved, ca. 1596–1645, Ink, opaque watercolor and
gold on paper, 38,69 x 26 cm, Metropolitan Museum
of Art.
Seminar in the Arts of Mughal India
Although the scene depicts a love story, it
is not depicted vulgarly or immorally. Nude
human bodies do not appear, as was
customary in presenting themes of love in the
Indian heritage. The painting is modest and
straightforward, and they are standing on the
green grass. This was influenced by the
interaction of Indian art with Islamic art,
which distances itself from contempt and
promotes high moral values.
4. POWER THEMES
The quantity, quality and extent of
Mughal painting declined during the reign of
Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb was not interested, in
large part because the painting did not fit his
vision of the future. Aurangzeb hoped to
transform the Mughal Empire into a powerful
orthodox Muslim state. Instead of subsidizing
painting, Aurangzeb patronized the books of
Islamic law and the repair and maintenance
of mosques (Ziad, 2002, 178).
I chose Bichitr Aurangzeb seated on a
golden throne holding a Hawk in the Durbar
(circa 1660) (Figure 4) because it depicts the
royality with power in the Mughal court. The
dignified emperor holds a hawk while seated
on an elegantly unpretentious gold throne
beneath a canopy adorned with birds of
paradise. His third son, Muhammad A'zam,
who was born in 1653, stands facing him,
looking very boyish and lively in contrast to
the formality of the others (Welch. 1978,
112). Aurangzeb is shown surrounded by a
halo, like his father, seated on a covered
throne in the center of the composition,
holding in his hand a predatory falcon.
The scene generally shows the grandeur
of the imperial court. This is evident from the
round golden Halo that the painter
surrounded the head of the emperor, who was
seated on a small bed resembling a throne. In
addition to the elegance of the clothes and the
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luxury of the recliner on which he sits,
feathers, pillows and other adornments.
Being surrounded by the entourage who stand
at his service and look at him as if they seek
his approval is a glorification of the emperor
derived from their ancient beliefs.
The influence of the Indian environment
is evident through the Indian faces, bright
colours and local costumes. Also, various
floral and geometric motifs appear anchored
on the tent's roof under which the emperor
and his entourage sheltered. The emperor and
his entourage wear clothes elaborately
decorated with red flowers which match the
splendor of decorations on the emperor's bed.
The emperor holds a white bird, perhaps a
symbol of the purity of the emperor's origin
as well as his strength and greatness.
The artist took care to show the details of the
face, drawing the beards with a pointed end,
and drawing the decorated headdress. The
artist succeeded in his colour treatments, so
the colours are harmonious, which displays
skill and ingenuity in colouring. Also, he
painted the background of the painting as
purely blue, in harmony with the colours in
the foreground.
Figure (4) Painting by Bichitr, Aurangzeb seated on a
golden throne holding a Hawk in the Durbar, ca. 1660,
Seminar in the Arts of Mughal India
Courtesy of the Arthur M. Sackler Museum. Harvard
University Art Museums. Cambridge.
CONCLUSION
In the result, the following points
summarize our observations. In the result, the
following points summarize our
observations. Firstly, Mughal art was
affected by the hot environment, and the
people's skin was brown. ِAlso, The colours
that were used in the paintings were hot
colours, such as red and orange, and this is
reflected in the hot environment in which the
Mughals lived. In addition to the
environment, The Mughals are a people
who love bright colours, so this influenced
Indian paintings which were full of bright
colours.
Secondly, the policy of the Mughal
rulers tended to be grandeur and focus on the
power of the emperor. The impact of this was
reflected on the Mughal painting, as the rulers
appeared surrounded by manifestations of
luxury and extravagance. The effect of
grandeur was evident in Figures (2) & (4).
Figure (2) depicts Akbar overseeing the
construction of his legendary city and his
authority over his people. Figure (4) depicts
Aurangzeb sitting on his ornate throne,
surrounded by his retinue and servants. He
holds in his hands the falcon humiliated for
greatness and strength.
Thirdly, another theme in Mughal art
is the Islamic theme. This effect was evident
in Figure (1) which depicts the Prophet Noah
and his ark. Mughal art was influenced by
Islamic stories. In addition, These paintings
acquired some of the characteristics of
Islamic art by introducing Islamic motifs into
some paintings. Furthermore, Paintings
inspired by the Holy Qur'an were drawn to
prove the Mughal emperors' affiliation with
the Islamic religion.
Forthly, the Mughal continued to take
some of their ancient legacies derived from
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their legends. This appeared in the
embodiment of the famous love themes. This
is what we have clearly seen in Figure (3)
through the painting depicting Shah Shuja
with his lover.
Finaly, Most of their paintings were
propaganda for the rulers because the art of
painting in the Mughal era was produced
under the patronage and guidance of rulers
interested in the arts. They found it an
excellent way to document their deeds and
heroism. Furthermore, Mughal art was
influenced by European art in the seventeenth
century, gaining some of its characteristics,
including the use of shadows and light and
the use of linear perspective.
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