 brain structures of memory

 Baddeley’s working memory model

 Implication of working memory in clinical disorders

 Levels of processing, autobiographical memory and eyewitness testimony

 Forgetting: Reproduction and reconstruction in memory, Theories of forgetting

 the categorization of long-term memory: Semantic Memory, Episodic Memory,

Procedural (Implicit and Explicit)

Models of memory for new information: General approach

Models of memory for new information: Simple association model

Models of memory for new information: SAM Model

Clinical implications of SAM model

Lecture on Prospective memory: types and theory

Lecture on: How to make memory effective?: Mnemonics and metacognition.

SHORT TERM Vs LONG TERM MEMORY
 Only few items can be held in short term memory compared to essentially unlimited capacity in ltem
 Massive difference in duration

Multi store model of ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN

1. Sensory stores , each modality specific (i.e limited to one sensory modality) and holding information
very briefly
2. Short term store of very limited capacity
3. Long term store of essentially unlimited capacity holding information over long periods of time

ACCORDING TO MULTI STORE MODEL environmental stimulation is initially processed by the sensory
stores.

i.e vision,hearing

SENSORY STORES

VISUAL STORES OR ICONIC MEMORY holds visual information briefly.

Atkinson and shriffin and others have assumed iconic memory as PRE ATTENTIVE (NOT DEPENDENT ON
ATTENTION).

ECHOIC MEMORY

The auditory equivalent of iconic memory,holds auditory infotmation for a FEW SECONDS

 PLAY BACK FACILITY-

 Memory duration was longer in left hemisphere because of language processing dominance there.

SHORT TERM MEMORY

Limited capacity

Eg-digit and letter span the maximum no. of items recalled would bde 7

Two reason for rejecting 7 items –

1. Distinguish between items and chunks(group of items) collected together and treated as a single
unit.

IMPORTANCE IF CHUNKING
 Simon in 1974

Immediate serial recall was 22 words with 8 words sentences but only 7 with unrelated words

2. Estimates of short term memory capacity are often inflated because participants performance is
influenced by rehersal and long term memory.

WHAT INFLUENCES CHUNKING)

It is strong determined by information stored in long term memory.

However it also depends on peoples ability to identify patterns or regularities in material presented for
learning.

ARTICULATORY SUPRESSION is a capacity limit of STM. Rapid repetition of simple sounds(eg-the the the)
which uses the articulatory process of PHONOLOGICAL LOOP

Articulatory suppression cognitive technique used in psychology and neuroscience to inhibit speech
production during a task that requires verbal processing. This technique involves asking the
participant to repeat a sound, such as "ahh" or "shh", continuously while performing the task. The
goal is to prevent the participant from engaging in subvocalization or inner speech, which can
interfere with the cognitive task being performed.

How is information lost from stm?

 Atkinson and Shiffrin emphasised the importance of DISPLACEMENT which means the capacity of
short term memory is very limted and so new items often displace items currently in stim.
 Another possibility is the information in stm DECAYS over time due to the absence of rehersal.
 Or maybe it is INTERFERENCE which could come from items on previous trials and from information
presented during retention interval.

Short-term memory (STM) is a temporary memory system that can hold a limited
amount of information for a short period of time. It is also known as working memory
because it is used to process and manipulate information in real-time. STM has a capacity of
approximately 7 ± 2 items and can retain information for a few seconds to a minute
without rehearsal. For example, if you read a phone number and repeat it to yourself a few
times, you can hold it in your STM temporarily.

On the other hand, long-term memory (LTM) is a more permanent memory system that
can store unlimited amounts of information for an extended period of time. It is
organized in a semantic network and is divided into explicit memory (declarative
memory) and implicit memory (procedural memory).

Explicit memory includes facts, events, and personal experiences, and can be consciously
recalled and verbalized. Implicit memory includes skills, habits, and associations, and can
be demonstrated through performance. LTM has an almost limitless capacity and can
retain information for years or even a lifetime.
The transfer of information from STM to LTM is a critical process for memory consolidation.
In order for information to be transferred from STM to LTM, it must be rehearsed and
encoded deeply through meaningful associations with existing knowledge structures in
LTM.

In summary, the main differences between short-term and long-term memory are their
capacity, duration, and processing. STM has a limited capacity, a short duration, and is
used for processing and manipulating information in real-time. LTM has an almost
limitless capacity, a long duration, and is organized in a semantic network with
explicit and implicit memory divisions

What are the model’s limitations?

First, it is very oversimplified (e.g.,

the assumptions that the short-term and long-term stores are both unitary: operating in a single, uniform
way). Below we discuss an approach wherethe single short-term store is replaced by a working memory
system havingfour components. In similar fashion, there are several long-term memory

systems

Second, the assumption that the short-term store is a gateway betweenthe sensory stores and long-term
memory (see Figure 6.1) is incorrect.The information processed in short-term memory has typically already
made contact with information in long-term memory (Logie, 1999). For example, you can only process IBM as
a single chunk in short-term memory after you have accessed long-term memory to obtain the meaning of
IBM.

Third, Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) assumed information in short-term memory represents the “contents of
consciousness”. This impliesonly information processed consciously is stored in long-term memory.However,
there is much evidence for implicit learning (learning without conscious awareness of what has been learned)

Fourth, the assumption all items within short-term memory haveequal status is incorrect. The item
currently being attended to is accessed more rapidly than other items within short-term memory (Vergauwe
&Langerock, 2017).

Fifth, the notion that most information is transferred to long-term memory via rehearsal greatly exaggerates
its role in learning. In fact, only a small fraction of the information stored in long-term memory was

rehearsed during learning.

Sixth, the notion that forgetting from short-term memory is caused by

displacement minimises the role of interference.

Working memory – BADDELEY AND HITCH

Is short term memory useful in everyday life?

They provided kinda an answer to this. When this memory is used and how

BADDELEY AND HITCH IN 1974 provided and answer. They argued we typically use short term memory while
performing complex tasks. The tasks invole storing information about the outcome of early processed in
short term memory while moving on to the later processes.

The summary isight was that STM IS ESSENTIAL TO THE PERFORMANCE OF NUMEROUS TASKS THAT ARE NOT
EXPLICIT MEMORY TASKS.
This made them replace the concept of stm to working memory.

WORKING MEMORY refered to a system or a set of processess holding mental representations temporarily
available for use in thought and action.

CENTRAL EXECUTIVE

Is a modality free attentional system.

Limited capacity

The central executive is a component of the working memory system in Baddeley's model of
working memory. It is responsible for coordinating and controlling the flow of information
between the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. The central executive acts as
the "boss" of the working memory system, deciding which information to attend to, what
strategies to use, and how to allocate resources.

The central executive is also involved in higher-level cognitive processes, such as problem-
solving, decision-making, and planning. It is responsible for manipulating and updating
information in working memory, as well as inhibiting irrelevant or distracting information.

In terms of brain regions, the prefrontal cortex is thought to be involved in the central
executive function. Damage to this region can lead to deficits in working memory, attention,
and executive function.
Baddeley has always recognised that the central executive is associated with several executive functions

For example, Baddeley (1996) speculatively identified four such processes:

(1) focusing attention or concentration;

(2) dividing attention between two stimulus streams;

(3) switching attention between tasks; and

(4) interfacing with longterm memory.

It has proved difficult to obtain consensus on the number and nature of executive processes. However, two
influential theoretical approaches are discussed below.

Brain-damaged individuals whose central executive functioning is impaired suffer from dysexecutive
syndrome( A condition in which damage to the frontal lobes causes impairments to the central executive
component of working memory.) Symptoms include impaired response inhibition, rule deduction and
generation, maintenance and shifting of sets, and information generation (Godefroy et al., 2010).
Unsurprisingly, patients with this syndrome have great problems in holding a job and functioning
adequately in everyday life.

PHONOLOGICAL LOOP

Peech based information is processed and stored briefly and subvocal articulation occurs.

The phonological loop is a part of the working memory system in Baddeley's model of
working memory. It is responsible for helping us remember things we hear, like a phone
number or a name.

The phonological loop has two parts:

 the phonological store, which is like an inner ear that briefly stores the sounds we
hear concerned with SPEECH PERECEPTION
 the articulatory rehearsal process, which is like an inner voice that helps us repeat
the sounds to ourselves so we don't forget them. Speech production giving access to
phological store

For example, if someone tells us their phone number, the phonological store briefly holds
the sounds we hear, and the articulatory rehearsal process repeats the sounds to ourselves
so we can remember them.

The phonological loop is important for language processing, reading, and other tasks that
involve hearing and remembering sounds. It is also thought to be involved in the
development of language skills in children.
  The phonological similarity effect – reduced immediate serial recall when words are phonologically
similar (i.e., have similar sounds).

For example, Baddeley et al. (2018) found that short-term memory was much worse with phonologically
similar words (e.g., pan, cat, bat, ban, pad, man) than phonologically dissimilar words (e.g., man, pen, rim,
cod, bud, peel).

The working memory model does not make it clear whether the phonological similarity effect depends
more on acoustic similarity (similar sounds) or articulatory similarity (similar articulatory movements).

Schweppe et al. (2011) found the effect depends more on acoustic than articulatory similarity. However,
there was an influence of articulatory similarity when recall was spoken.

 Second, there is the word-length effect: word span (words recalled immediately in the correct
order) is greater for short than long words.

Baddeley et al. (1975) obtained this effect with visually presented words. As predicted, the effect
disappeared when participants engaged in articulatory suppression (repeating the digits 1 to 8) to prevent
rehearsal within the phonological loop during list presentation.

In similar fashion, Jacquemot et al. (2011) found a brain-damaged patient with greatly impaired ability to
engage in verbal rehearsal had no word-length effect.

 Jalbert et al. (2011) pointed out a short word generally has more orthographic neighbours (words of
the same length differing from it in only one letter) than a long word. When short (one-syllable) and
long (three-syllable) words were equated for neighbourhood size, the wordlength effect disappeared.
Thus, the word-length effect may be misnamed.

VISUO-SPATIAL SKETCHPAD

Specialised for spatial and visual processing and temporary storage.

The visuo-spatial sketchpad is used for the temporary storage and manipulation of visual patterns and spatial
movement. In essence, visual processing involves remembering what and spatial processing involves
remembering where.

Is there a single system containing combining visual and spatial processing

Logie (1995) identified two separate components:

(1) visual cache: this stores information about visual form and colour;

(2) inner scribe: this processes spatial and movement information; it is involved in the rehearsal of
information in the visual cache and transfers information from the visual cache to the central executive.

RESEARCH

Zimmer (2008) found in a research review that areas within the occipital and temporal lobes were activated
during visual processing. In contrast, areas within the parietal cortex (especially the intraparietal sulcus) were
activated during spatial processing.

For example, when we try to remember a face, the visual cache helps us store information
about the person's features, such as their eye color, hair style, or facial expression.

The inner scribe helps us remember the spatial relationships between these features, such
as the distance between the eyes or the angle of the eyebrows.

The visuo-spatial sketchpad is important for a wide range of tasks, including spatial
navigation, mental rotation, visual search, and mental imagery. It is also thought to be
involved in mathematical and scientific reasoning, as well as in creativity and artistic
abilities.

EPISODIC BUFFER

 It is EPISODIC because it holds integrated information (or chunks) about episodes or event in a
multidimensional code combining visual, auditory and other information sources.

 It acts as a BUFFER between the other working memory components and also links to perception
and long-term memory.

Baddeley (2012) suggested the capacity of the episodic buffer is approximately four chunks (integrated units
of information). This potentially explains why people can recall up to 16 words in immediate recall from
sentences.
Study by Darling and Havelka (2010). Immediate serial recall of random digits was best when they were
presented on a keypad display rather on a single item or linear display (see Figure 6.7).

Why was memory performance best with the keypad display?

This was the only condition which allowed visual information, spatial information and knowledge about
keyboard displays accessed from long-term memory to be integrated within the episodic buffer using
bootstrapping.(supported by visuo-spatial memory)

Darling et al. (2017) discussed several studies showing how memory can be enhanced by the episodic buffer.
Much of this research focused on visuo-spatial bootstrapping (verbal memory being bootstrapped
(supported) by visuo-spatial memory).

What are the model’s limitations?

 First, it is oversimplified. Several kinds of information are not considered within the model (e.g.,
those relating to smell, touch and taste). In addition, we can subdivide spatial working memory into
somewhat separate eye-centred, hand-centred and foot-centred spatial working memory (Postle,
2006). This could lead to an unwieldy model with numerous components each responsible for a
different kind of information.
 Second, the notion of a central executive should be replaced with a theoretical approach identifying
the major executive processes (see below, pp. 257–262).
 Third, the notion that the visuo-spatial sketchpad is a specialised and relatively independent
processing system is doubtful. There is much evidence (Morey, 2018) that it typically interacts with
other working memory components (especially the central executive).
 Fourth, we need more research on the interactions among the four components of working
memory (e.g., how the episodic buffer integrates information from the other components and from
long-term memory).
 Fifth, the common assumption that conscious awareness is necessarily associated with processing
in all working memory components requires further consideration. For example, executive
processes associated with the functioning of the central executive can perhaps occur outside
conscious awareness (Soto & Silvanto, 2014)
TWO THEORIES OF WORKING MEMORY

WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY

) have considered working memory from the perspective of individual differences in working memory
capacity, “the ability to hold and manipulate information in a temporary

Working memory capacity- An assessment of how much information can be processed and stored at the
same time; individuals with high capacity have higher intelligence and more attentional control.

 Daneman and Carpenter (1980) used reading span to assess this capacity. Individuals read sentences
for comprehension (processing task) and then recalled the final word of each sentence (storage task).
The reading span was defined as the largest number of sentences from which individuals could recall
the final words over 50% of the time.
 Operation span is another measure of working memory capacity. Items (e.g., IS (4 × 2) – 3 = 5?
TABLE) are presented. Individuals answer each arithmetical question and try to remember all the last
words. Operation span is the maximum number of items for which individuals can remember all
the last words over half the time. It correlates highly with reading span.
 Working memory capacity correlates positively with intelligence. We can clarify this relationship by
distinguishing between crystallised intelligence (which depends on knowledge, skills and experience)
and fluid intelligence (which involves a rapid understanding of novel relationships; )Working memory
capacity correlates more strongly with fluid intelligence (sometimes as high as +.7 or +.8; Kovacs &
Conway, 2016). The correlation with crystallised intelligence is relatively low because it involves
acquired knowledge whereas working memory capacity depends on cognitive processes and
temporary information storage

How does working memory capacity relate to Baddeley’s working memory model?

The two approaches differ in emphasis. Researchers investigating working memory capacity focus on
individual differences in processing and storage capacity whereas Baddeley focuses on the underlying
structure of working memory. However, there has been some convergence between the two theoretical
approaches. For example, Kovacs and Conway (2016, p. 157) concluded that working memory capacity
“reflects individual differences in the executive component of w

FORGETTING FROM LONG-TERM MEMORY

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913) studied forgetting from long-term memory in detail, using himself as the
only participant

It is often assumed (mistakenly) that forgetting should always be avoided. Nørby (2015) identified three
major functions served by forgetting:

1) It can enhance psychological well-being by reducing access to painful memories.

(2) It is useful to forget outdated information (e.g., where your friends used to live) so it does not interfere
with current information (e.g., where your friends live now). Richards and Frankland (2017) developed this
argument. They argued a major purpose of memory is to enhance decision-making and this purpose is
facilitated when we forget outdated information.

(3) When trying to remember what we have read or heard, it is typically most useful to forget specific details
and focus on the overall gist or message

Below we discuss major theories of forgetting. These theories are not mutually exclusive – they all identify
factors jointly responsible for forgetting.

 DECAY
“forgetting due to a gradual loss of the substrate of memory” (Hardt et al., 2013, p. 111). More
specifically, forgetting often occurs because of decay processes occurring within memory traces
. argued a decay process (operating mostly during sleep) removes numerous trivial memories we
form every day. This decay process is especially active in the hippocampus (part of the medial
temporal lobe involved in acquiring new memories;

 INTERFERENCE THEORY

According to this theory, long-term memory is impaired by two forms of interference:

(1) proactive interference – disruption of memory by previous learning;
Proactive interference typically involves competition between the correct response and an
incorrect one. There is greater competition (and thus more interference) when the incorrect
response is associated with the same stimulus as the correct response. Jacoby et al. (2001) found
proactive interference was due much more to the strength of the incorrect response than the
weakness of the correct response. Thus, it is hard to exclude incorrect responses from the retrieval
process.
(2) retroactive interference – disruption of memory for previous by other learning or processing
during the retention interval
In sum, retroactive interference can occur in two ways:
(1) learning material similar to the original learning material;
(2) distraction involving expenditure of mental effort during the retention interval (non-specific
retroactive interference); this cause of retroactive interference is probably most common in everyday
lif

Retrieval problems play a major role in producing retroactive interference. Lustig et al. (2004) found that
much retroactive interference occurs because people find it hard to avoid retrieving information from the
wrong list.
  MOTIVATED FORGETTING

Interest in motivated forgetting was triggered by the bearded Austrian psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856–
1939). His approach was narrowly focused on repressed traumatic and other distressing memories. More
recently, a broader approach to motivated forgetting has been adopted. Much information in long-term
memory is outdated and useless for present purposes (e.g., where you have previously parked your car).
Thus, motivated or intentional forgetting can be adaptive

REPRESSION-Motivated forgetting of traumatic or other threatening events (especially from childhood)

Freud claime d threatening or traumatic memories often cannot access to concious awareness -this serves to
reduce anxiety. he used the term repression for this.

DIRECTED FORGETTING-reduced long term memory caused by instructions to forget information that had
been presented for learning.

It is studied using the ITEM METHOD-several words are presented each followed by INSTRUCTION to
remember or forget it. After this result was memory performance was bas in words where forget it
instruction was given.

What causes directed forgetting?

The instructions cause learners to direct their rehearsal processes to to-be-remembered items at the
expense of to-be-forgotten ones. Inhibitory processes are also involved. Successful forgetting is associated
with activation in areas within the right frontal cortex involved in inhibition

Think/No-Think paradigm:

suppression Anderson and Green (2001) developed the Think/No-Think paradigm to assess whether
individuals can actively suppress memories. Participants learn a list of cue–target word pairs (e.g., Ordeal–
Roach; Steam–Train). Then they receive the cues studied earlier (e.g., Ordeal; Steam) and try to recall the
associated words (e.g., Roach; Train) (respond condition) or prevent them coming to mind (suppress
condition). Some cues are not presented at this stage (baseline condition).

What strategies do individuals use to produce successful suppression of unwanted memories?

 Direct suppression (focusing on the cue word and blocking out the associated target word) is an
important strategy.
 Thought substitution (associating a different non-target word with each cue word) is also very
common. Bergström et al. (2009) found these strategies were comparably effective in reducing recall
in the suppress condition

What are the limitations of theory and research in this area?

 First, more research is required to clarify the reasons why suppression attempts are often
unsuccessful.
  Second, the reduced recall typically obtained in the suppress condition is not always due exclusively
to inhibitory processes. Some individuals use thought substitution, a strategy which reduces recall by
producing interference or competition with the correct words (Bergström et al., 2009)

CUE-DEPENDENT FORGETTING

forgetting often occurs because we lack the appropriate retrieval cues (cue-dependent forgetting). For
example, suppose you have forgotten the name of an acquaintance. If presented with four names, however,
you might well recognise the correct one.

Tulving (1979) argued that forgetting typically occurs when there is a poor match or fit between memory-
trace information and information available at retrieval.

This notion was expressed in his encoding specificity principle:

“The probability of successful retrieval of the target item is a monotonically increasing function of
informational overlap between the information present at retrieval and the information stored in memory”

Tulving (1979) assumed that when we store information about an event, we also store information about its
context.

According to the encoding specificity principle, memory is better when the retrieval context is the same as
that at learning. Note that context can be external (the environment in which learning and retrieval occur) or
internal (e.g., mood state).

STRENGHTS
The overlap between memory-trace information and that available in retrieval cues often determines
retrieval success.

The principle has also received some support from neuroimaging studies and research on mood-
statedependent memory.

The notion that contextual information (external and internal) strongly influences memory performance has
proved correct.

What are the limitations with Tulving’s approach?

First, he exaggerated the importance of encoding-retrieval overlap as the major factor determining
remembering and forgetting. Remembering typically involves rejecting incorrect items as well as selectng
correct ones. For this purpose, a cue’s ability to discriminate among memory traces is important
Episodic Memory  The what-where-when memory  A stimulus triggering one component (e.g. what) will
trigger the others (where and when)  Personally-experienced past:  Autobiographical knowledge 
Subjective experience  Context dependent Semantic Memory Memory for facts and meanings- knowledge
of the world (stored without contextual elements such as when or where you acquired this information) Self-
referential evaluations (I am hardworking) Declarative Memory  Episodic and semantic memory are types of
declarative memory  Involves learning of associative connections  Linking item with context  Linking 2
memories together  Occurs in hippocampus  Amensiacs have impaired declarative memory Non-
Declarative Memory Downloaded by Shristi Jain (shristij020@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|20067450 Procedural
Memory  The ‘how’ of memory – based on experience  Guides performance without conscious knowledge
 Motor Skills, e.g. how to ride a bike  Automatic activation of a word when speaking  Single response
mechanism (not flexible)  Unconscious recollection (implicit)  Implicit processing e.g. Eich’s 1984 study of
the impact of non-attended auditory stimuli  Primary/physiological response  Conditioning Implicit
Memory  The example of recalling items on a shopping list was an instance of explicit retrieval – you were
consciously trying to recall the items (declarative episodic memory)  But past experiences can affect our
attitudes, feelings and behaviour in the absence of any conscious attempt to recall or conscious memory of
that experience- implicit retrieval (procedural memory) Implicit vs Explicit Memory  Participants read a long
list of words  Explicit memory tests- recall or recognise previously presented words from the study list 
Implicit memory tests- e.g. given word stems and or word fragments and asked to complete them with the
first word that comes to mind- no mention of the study episode  Conscious recollection is not required to
complete the task  But there is typically an increased tendency to complete stems or fragments with words
seen on the earlier study list Memory Processes Encoding- The acquisition of information e.g. studying for an
exam, listening to a conversation, observing an event Retrieval- The ability to recall, recognise or show
evidence of prior learning/encoding In a test, you might deliberately recall some information (bring it back to
mind) You might attempt to pop it into mind with deliberate attempt to retrieve it Recognise the answer in a
multiple-choice exam (one possible answer seems familiar) Processes of encoding and retrieving  Encoding
and retrieval are usually discussed (in theories) or studied (in experiments) as separate processes  However,
successful remembering relies on the interaction between them  Our behaviour when we intentionally try
to acquire information often reflects this interdependence  Example:  We adopt different study techniques
when revising for different types of tests  E.g.- We adopt different study techniques when revising for
different types of tests Downloaded by Shristi Jain (shristij020@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|20067450 
Entwistle and Entwistle (1991) – Students are more likely to use deeper, meaning-based learning methods
when revising for essay exams than for multiple choice Long Term Memory Bahrick (1984) proposed that very
long-term knowledge is preserved in a state he called permastore, highly resistant to forgetting Bahrick: 
Study of memory for the names of people in High School Yearbook  400 participants aged 17-74 years 
Asked to recall names of as many classmates as possible (free recall)

Memory Performance  Long term memory can be tested by:  Free Recall  Cued Recall  Recognition 
Under normal circumstances:  Recognition > Cued Recall > Free Recall  But Memory is not always reliable: 
Errors people make and disease, can tell us how memory works Schema Theory  Knowledge framework
about how the world works and what to expect in certain situations  Built from experience e.g. going to
dentist  Some common content/some unique  Efficient way to categorize and store large quantities of
information in memory  Cognitive economy- a memory wardrobe Schema and Visual Memory  An office
was used as a waiting room for participants in a study  Surprise recall task  Almost all participants
remembered items consistent with office schema (desk and chairs)  Few remembered the skull (8/30) or the
picnic basket (1/30)  9/30 remembered seeing books lining the shelves (not present, but consistent with the
office schema) Memory is affected by schema-driven expectations Schema and Eye-Witness Testimony  75%
of wrongful imprisonments are due to inaccurate eye-witness testimony  Schema representations lead to
expectations that cause distortions/inaccuracies  E.g. Bank Robber Schema (Tuckey and Brewer, 2003) 
Cognitive Interview Yields (25-33% more correct information)  Personally relevant frame or reverse order
recall  Reduces dependency on expectations (schema) Downloaded by Shristi Jain (shristij020@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|20067450 Schematic Memory is efficient (without it we would suffer information overload)
Schematic Memory can result in memory distortion- memory is reconstructed from what is familiar/can play
a role in false accusations False Memories False memory for an event  Due to wording of questions 
Showed participants a car collision on video  Asked post-event questions in one of two conditions  Event
described as “The car ‘smashed’ into or ‘hit’ Results:  Participants who heard smashed rather than hit 
Estimated that car was travelling at a faster speed  More likely to remember non-existent broken glass 
Post-event wording can:  Modify memory of event to conform to post-event information  Cause
reconstructive errors  Over-write original memory of event  Misleading information effect Flashbulb
Memory You’ll always remember where you were when you heard that the twin towers had been attacked,
the London tube had been bombed, Michael Jackson has died, Space shuttle had exploded Challenger Space
Shuttle Disaster (Neisser & Harsch, 1992)  Memory for reception event not for facts  How accurate are
these?  Students were asked- where were you? What were you doing?  One day and 2 years later Results: 
Only 21% heard about the news on TV  But, 2 years later 45% believed they had  25% wrong about
everything  50% wrong about 2/3 of what they recalled  Only 7% perfect scores

 ‘Flash bulb memories’ are not as reliable as they feel

 Memories seem strong due to repeated recall and sharing  But this leads to distortion Contradictory
Evidence

 Nurhan (2003)

 Flashbulb memory for the Marmara Earthquake  Event was accurately recalled and memory consistent
after 1 year  If event was personally relevant Downloaded by Shristi Jain (shristij020@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|20067450  So flashbulb memory may sometimes be special

SAM
The basic framework of SAM assumes that during storage, information is represented in "memory
images",which contain item, associative and contextual information. The amount and type of information

stored is determined by coding processes in STS (elaborative rehearsal). For the usual,

intentional study procedures, the amount of information stored in LTS was assumed to be a

function of the length of time that the item or the pair of items is studied in STS.

According to SAM, retrieval from LTS is a cue-dependent process. These cues may be words

from the studied list, category cues, contextual cues, or any other type of information that the

subject uses in attempting to retrieve information from LTS (or that happens to be present in STS

at the time of retrieval). Whether an image is retrieved or not, depends on the associative

strengths of the retrieval cues to that image.

In the standard SAM model for free recall, it was assumed that the search starts using only

the context cue (the only information available). As the search proceeds any item that is retrieved

is used as an additional cue (for a maximum of Lmax retrieval attempts). If this item+context

search is not successful, the system will revert to using only the context cue.

If the retrieval attempt is successful, the associative connections between the probe cues and the

sampled image are strengthened. Thus, SAM assumes that learning occurs during retrieval as

well as during study.

The Search of Associative Memory (SAM) model proposes that memory is based on a network of
interconnected nodes, with each node representing a concept or piece of information. When we
encounter new information, it activates relevant nodes in the network, which in turn activate other
related nodes. The more strongly interconnected a set of nodes are, the more likely we are to
remember them. The model also takes into account the role of context and the fact that memories
can change over time.
Saying-is-believing effect Tailoring a message about an event to suit a given audience causes subsequent
inaccuracies in memory for that event.

“Remembering is a form of purposeful action” (Neisser, 1996, p. 204). This approach involves three
assumptions about everyday memory:

(1) It is purposeful (i.e., motivated).

(2) It has a personal quality about it, meaning it is influenced by the individual’s personality and other
characteristics.

(3) It is influenced by situational demands (e.g., the wish to impress one’s audience).

The essence of Neisser’s (1996) argument is this: what we remember in everyday life is determined by our
personal goals, whereas what we remember in traditional memory research is mostly determined by the
experimenter’s demands for accuracy. Sometimes we strive for maximal memory accuracy in our everyday
life (e.g., during an examination), but that is typically not our main goal.

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY Long-term memory for the events of one’s own life.

What is the relationship between autobiographical memory and episodic memory?

 One important similarity is that both types of memory relate to personally experienced events.
 In addition, both are susceptible to proactive and retroactive interference and unusual or distinctive
events are especially well remembered.

There are also several differences between them.

 First, autobiographical memory typically relates to events of personal significance whereas episodic
memory (sometimes called “laboratory memory”) often relates to trivial events (e.g., was the word
chair presented in the first list?).
 As a consequence, autobiographical memories are often thought about more often than episodic
ones.
 They also tend to be more organised than episodic memories because they relate to the self.
Second, neuroimaging evidence suggests autobiographical memory is more complex and involves
more brain regions than episodic memory.

MENTALISING(understanding the mental states of oneself and others)

The ability to perceive and interpret behaviour in terms of mental states (e.g., goals; needs).

What are the main functions of autobiographical memory?

Bluck and Alea (2009) identified three key reasons:

(1) social function: bonding with others (e.g., shared memories);

(2) directive function: using the past as a guide to the future;

 (3) self-function: creating a sense of self-continuity over time

 Highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM)

Exceptional ability to recall autobiographical memories in detail, generally accompanied by only average
ability to recall other memories.

 Flashbulb memories

Vivid and detailed personal memories of dramatic events (e.g., 9/11).

Brown and Kulik (1977) argued the following information is typically included in flashbulb memories: ●
informant (person who supplied the information);

● place where the news was heard;

● ongoing event;

● individual’s own emotional state;

● emotional state of others;

● consequences of the event for the individual.

EYEWITNESS MEMORY

Eyewitness memory is often inaccurate due to several reasons, including confirmation bias,
schemas, and the misinformation effect.

Confirmation bias refers to the tendency for eyewitnesses' memory to be influenced by

their prior expectations. Lindholm and Christianson (1998) found that participants were
twice as likely to select an innocent immigrant as an innocent Swede as the culprit in a
simulated robbery, influenced by the fact that immigrants are over-represented in Swedish
crime statistics.

Schemas are packets of knowledge stored in long-term memory that strongly influence
what we remember. Tuckey and Brewer (2003a) showed that eyewitnesses recalled
information relevant to the bank-robbery schema better than irrelevant information.

Memory distortions caused by schemas also occur when eyewitnesses reconstruct an

event's details based on "what must have been true." Tuckey and Brewer (2003b) found that
eyewitnesses interpreted ambiguous information as being consistent with their bank-
robbery schema, leading to systematic memory distortions.

The misinformation effect is another reason why eyewitness memory is often inaccurate.
Loftus and Palmer (1974) found that eyewitnesses' memories for a car accident were
influenced by misleading information provided after the event, such as the verb used to
describe the collision. Later, when asked if they had seen any broken glass, 32% of those
who were previously asked about speed using the verb "smashed" said they had seen
broken glass compared to only 14% of those asked using the verb "hit."

Misinformation can also act as a cue that facilitates retrieval of details from the actual event,
but this effect is generally found for peripheral or minor details rather than central ones.

In summary, eyewitness memory is often inaccurate due to confirmation bias, schemas, and
the misinformation effect. Eyewitnesses' memories are fragile and can easily be distorted by
misleading information provided after the event

Weapon focus effect

The finding that eyewitnesses pay so much attention to the presence of a weapon (e.g., gun) that they ignore
other details and so cannot remember them subsequently

Harada et al. (2015) found observers’ memory for peripheral stimuli was reduced in the presence of a
weapon. This finding is consistent with Easterbrook’s (1959) hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, anxiety
causes a narrowing of attention to central or important stimuli causing a reduction in individuals’ ability to
remember peripheral details (

Pickel (2009) pointed out that individuals often attend to stimuli that are unexpected in the current situation
(inconsistent with their situational schema), which impairs their memory for other stimuli. She argued the
weapon focus effect would be greater when the presence of a weapon was very unexpected. As predicted,
the effect was especially strong when a criminal carrying a folding knife was female, because seeing a woman
with a knife is unexpected

Unconscious transference The tendency of eyewitnesses to misidentify a familiar (but innocent) face as
being the person responsible for a crime.

Other-race effect The finding that recognition memory for same-race faces is generally more accurate than
for other-race faces

What are estimator variables and system variables in eyewitness memory?

  Estimator variables in eyewitness memory refer to factors that are beyond the control of the
criminal justice system, such as lighting and event duration.
 System variables are factors that can be controlled by the criminal justice system, such as
how line-ups are presented to eyewitnesses and interview techniques used to question
eyewitnesses.

LINE UPS

Research indicates that simultaneous line-ups are more likely to result in a correct identification of
the culprit by eyewitnesses. However, innocent individuals are also more likely to be selected in
simultaneous line-ups compared to sequential line-ups. Sequential line-ups allow eyewitnesses to
adopt a more stringent criterion and reduce misidentifications when provided with a "not sure"
option.

COGNITIVE INTERVIEW

The cognitive interview is a technique used by psychologists to maximize the information provided
by eyewitnesses during interviews. It is based on four retrieval rules, which include mental
reinstatement of the environment, encouraging the reporting of every detail, describing the incident
in different orders, and reporting the incident from different viewpoints.

(1) mental reinstatement of the environment and any personal contact experience during the crime (context
reinstatement);

(2) encouraging the reporting of every detail including minor ones;

(3) describing the incident in several different orders (e.g., backwards in time);

(4) reporting the incident from different viewpoints, including those of other eyewitnesses; Anderson and
Pichert (1978) found this strategy useful .

What are the main limitations with the cognitive interview?

 First, the small increase in incorrect eyewitness recall can lead detectives to misinterpret the
evidence.
 Second, it does not reduce the negative effects of misinformation.
 Third, mental or context reinstatement can have a negative effect on recognition memory by
increasing the perceived familiarity of non-target faces (Wong & Read, 2011).
 Fourth, the cognitive interview is less effective when the witnessed event was stressful and there is a
long delay between the event
 and the interview.