AEN 220: MORPHOLOGY, SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS

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PREREQUISITES : AEN 111,210

Purpose
The purpose of this course is to expose the learner to the relationship between
morphology, syntax and semantics as well their scope.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the course the learner should be able to:
a) Define word and explain the distinction between morphology, syntax and
semantics.
b) Describe the structure of words and distinguish between morph, morpheme
and allomorph, root, base and stem.
c) Identify various ways of word formation.
d) Compare traditional grammar with phrase structure, identify sentence
constituents and explain the tenets of phrase structure grammar.
e) Describe sense, semantic features, thematic roles, lexical relations, and the
linkage of all of these to morphology and syntax.
Course content
Definition of and distinction between morphology and syntax. Definition of word,
morphological, sentence structure and major, elements, structure of words and word
formation processes, the morpheme, morph allomorph, bound and free morpheme, word form
and lexeme, root, base and stem. Deviational and inflectional morphology. Traditional
syntax, phrase structure grammar and generative syntax. Structural relations and constituency
in syntax. Semantics definition. Sense and reference, semantic features, thematic roles,
Lexical relations. The linkage between semantics, morphology and syntax.

Teaching Methodologies:
Lectures, Digital platforms, individual study, group discussions and presentations.

Instructional Materials and Equipment

Chalkboard, Handouts, Textbooks, slides.
Course Assessment
Continuous Assessment Tests 40%, Final Examination 60%, Total 100%

References
Adger, David. 2003. Core Syntax. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chomsky, Noam. 1995. The Minimalist Program. Cambridge, Ma.: MIT Press.
Chomsky, Noam. 2000. Minimalist inquiries: The framework. In Roger Martin, David
Michaels, and Juan Uriagereka, eds., Step by Step: Minimalist Essays in Honor of
Howard Lasnik, 89–155, Cambridge, Ma.: MIT Press.
Chomsky, N. 2001. Derivation by phase. In Michael Kenstowicz, ed., Ken Hale: A
Life in Language, 1–52, Cambridge, Ma.: MIT Press.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., Hyams, N., 2007. An Introduction to Language. Thomson
Wadsworth, USA.
MORPHOLOGY SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS

Morphology is the study of words. It has to do with analysis of internal structures of

words. Syntax is the study of how words are combined to form phrases, clause and
sentences. Semantics is the scientific study of meaning.

MORPHOLOGY

It is a sub-branch of linguistics. It deals with the internal structure of

words. The basic units of study in morphology are morphemes. A
morpheme is the smallest unit that has meaning or grammatical function.

What is a word?

It is the smallest unit of grammatical analysis. However, the definition is

not sufficient because in other languages, a single word can be a sentence.
Can be defined as a single distinct meaningful element of speech or writing, used with
others (or sometimes alone) to form a sentence and typically shown with a space on
either side when written or printed.

Morphology can also be said to be the study of word forms. Different

languages have different word forms. If the morpheme is the basic unit of
study, we can therefore say, it is the smallest meaningful unit in
morphology.

Examples
i. irritation
irritate + -ion
(-ion gives meaning of a noun)

TYPES OF MORPHEMES
Morpheme- morpheme, in linguistics, the smallest grammatical unit
of speech; it may be a word, like “place” or “an,” or an element of a
word, like re- and -ed in “reappeared.”
  There are two types of morphemes.
1. Free morphemes
2. Bound morphemes

FREE MORPHEMES

It is a morpheme that can occur on its own or with other morphemes. Free
morpheme entails a lexical meaning. Examples: laugh, walk, book,
person, spoon e.t.c.

These are morphemes that have complete meaning on their own. They are
classified into two:
1. Lexical morphemes e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
2. Functional morphemes e.g. conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns,
articles, interjections.

BOUND MORPHEMES

It cannot occur on its own but it is always attached to a free morpheme.

Although it has a distinct meaning, that meaning is grammatical.
However, a bound morpheme when not attached to a free morpheme, its
meaning become difficult to discern.

Bound morphemes are also classified as affixes. They are used to show
grammatical aspects i.e. tense, plural, progressive aspects, third person
singular, or change of meaning i.e. from one word class to another.

Examples

Book + (-s) Books - which shows plural

Book + (-ing) Booking – which shows progressive

Affixes can be divided into three categories

1. Prefixes: these are bound morphemes that are placed before the root.
2. Infixes: are placed in between the syllables of the root.
3. Suffixes: are placed after the root.
NB. English only has prefixes and suffixes.

Examples of prefixes

- anti - anti-riot
- un - uncomfortable
- post - post colonial
- ex - ex-minister
- in - incorrect

Examples of suffixes

-s - books
-ed – walked, kicked
-y - jumpy, skinny
-ly - happily, humbly
-ism – criticism, antagonism

Example of infixing in a language Tagalog spoken in Philippines.

basa - read
bumasa – command “read!” “-um” is added.
babasa - will read – “ba” is added.

tawag - call
tumawag - call! “-um” added
tatawag - will call. (reduplication of the first syllable)

sulat - write
sumlat - write!
susulat – will write

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN MORPHOLOGY

Stem: A stem is the root or roots of a word, together with any

derivational affixes, to which inflectional affixes are added.
Discussion: A stem consists minimally of a root, but may be
analyzable into a root plus derivational morphemes.
Root: It's what's left after you remove all the affixes — the prefixes like "un-"
or "anti-" and suffixes such as "-able" and "-tion." With a word like "lovely,"
when you take away the suffix "-ly," you're left with the root word "love." A root
is thus defined in terms of analyzability (it is unanalyzable morphologically),
while a stem or theme is defined in terms of the inflectional elements that
attach to it.

Morpheme- A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that contains

meaning. "Dog" is an example of a free morpheme. The word "incoming" has
three morphemes "-in," "come," and "-ing.

A morph is a phonological string (of phonemes) that cannot be

broken down into smaller constituents that have a
lexicogrammatical function.

Allomorph: this is a term given to the different realizations of a

morpheme (different pronunciations of a single morpheme).

Example

The plural morpheme is realized by different allomorphs.

[-z] [hændz] - hands
[-s] [lips] - lips
[-iz] [læşiz] - lashes

The English past tense morpheme also has three different realizations “-
ed”
[-t] - hooked
[-d] - raised
[-id] –landed

INFLECTION

Inflection is the process by which affixes combine with roots to indicate

basic grammatical categories such as tense or plurality e.g. (in ‘cat-s’,
talk-ed’, ‘-s’ and ‘-ed’ are inflectional suffixes). Inflection is viewed as
the process of adding very general meaning to existing words, not as the
creation of new words.
English inflectional morphology

English has only three categories of meaning which expressed

inflectionally, known as inflectional categories. They are number in
nouns, tense/ aspect in verbs and comparison in adjectives. With these
categories, English has very small inventory of affixes.

Inflectional categories and affixes of English.

Word class to which Inflectional category Regular affix used to

inflection applies express category
Nouns Number -s, -es book/books,
bush/bushes
Possessive -’s, -’. The cat’s,
Charles’
Verbs 3rd person singular -s, it rains, Steve writes
present
Past tense -ed, paint/ painted
Perfect aspect -ed, paint/painted (has
painted)
Progressive aspect -ing, fall/falling
Adjectives Comparative -er, tall/taller
Superlative -est, tall/ tallest

DERIVATION

The process by which affixes combine with roots to create new words e.g.
(in ‘modern –ize’, ‘read-er’ ‘ize’ and ‘er’ are derivational suffixes.
Derivation is viewed as using existing words to make new words.
Derivation is much less regular, and therefore much less predictable, than
inflectional morphology. For example, we can predict that most English
words will form their plural by adding the affix (-s) or (-es).

But how we derive nouns from verbs, for example is less predictable.
Why do we add ‘-al’ to ‘refuse’ making ‘refusal’ but ‘ment’ to ‘pay’ to
make ‘payment’. ‘Payal’ and ‘refusement’ are not possible English
words. We have to do more memorizing in derivational morphology than
in learning inflectional morphology.

English derivational morphology

Below is a sample of some English derivational affixes.

affix Classes of word Nature of change Examples

in meaning
Prefix‘-non’ Noun, Negation/ Noun –
adjectives opposite nonstarter
Adjective-non-
partisan
Suffix ‘-ity’ Adjective Change to noun Electricity,
obesity
Prefix ‘un-’ Verb Reserve action Tie/untie
Adjective Opposite quality Clear/unclear
Suffix ‘-ous’ Noun Change to Fame/famous
adjective
Prefix ‘re-’ Verb Repeat action Tie/ retie,
rewrite
Suffix ‘-able’ Verb Change to Print/ printable,
adjective ; means
can undergo
action of the verb

WORD FORMATION
Assumptions.
1. There are units identifiable as words.
2. Some words are formed from already existing words.
Word formation processes/ ways of forming new words in English.

1. STRESS SHIFT/CONVERSION

In this process, no affix is added to the base, but the stress is shifted from
one syllable to the other. With stress shift, comes a change in category.
Noun Verb
c΄ombine comb́ ine
΄implant impl΄ant
΄rewrite rewr΄ite
tr΄ansport transp΄ort
2. BLENDING

It is the process in which parts (which are not morphemes) of two already
existing words are put together to form a new word.

Examples

Motor + hotel motel

Breakfast + lunch brunch
Smoke + fog smog
Television + marathon telethon

3.ACRONYMY

It involves forming words from the initials of a group of words that

designate one concept usually, but not always, capitalized. An acronym is
pronounced as a word if the consonants and the vowels line up in such a
way as to make this possible, otherwise it is pronounced as a string of
letter names.
Examples
 NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization
 AIDS - Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
 Scuba - Self- contained underwater breathing apparatus
 KU - Kenyatta University

4. CLIPPING

This process has an element of reduction where parts of the original word
are omitted.
Examples
 Plane - aeroplane
  Fan - fanatic
 Bro - brother
 Pro - professional
 Flu - influenza
 Gas - gasoline
 Add - addition

5. BACK FORMATION

This is where words are formed by reducing an original word that seems
to have affixes.
Examples
 Edit - editor
 Enthuse - enthusiasm
 Donate - donation
 Opt - option
 Burger - hamburger

6. AFFIXATION

This is adding derivational affix to a word.

Examples
 Abuse - abuser
 Refuse - refusal
 Inspect - inspection
 Cook - pre-cook

7. BORROWING

It is a process in which a word is taken from another language and

adapted for use in another.

Examples
Television, safari, jambo e.t.c.

Word and where borrowed

- spoon -Dutch
- alcohol - Arabic
-Jubilee - Hebrew

8. COMPOUNDING

It involves joining of two words e.g. ‘bookshelf’. Compounds can be

endocentric i.e. their meaning centers around one of the words in the
compound word. In such cases, one of the words modifies the other. E.g.
‘bathroom’, ‘bath’ modifies ‘room’. The main word that is modified is
called the semantic head of the compound word. Other examples:
armchair, beehive e.t.c.

Possible compounds include:

1. Noun + Noun

Headmaster, armchair, goatskin, bedroom e.t.c.

2. Verb + Noun
Jumping rope, playground, pick-pocket, cut throat, flying doctor, spoil
spot e.t.c.
3. Noun + Verb

Baby –sit, nose-bleed, sunshine, stock-take, home-made, town bred, back

stab.

4. Adjective + Noun

Richman, pothead, software, fast food, double talk.

5. Rhyme motivated compounds

Words formed because the two words rhyme. E.g. brain drain, rain drain,
hob knob, nitty gritty. Other have slight change in vowel e.g. flip flop,
wishy washy, rif raf e.t.c.
Exocentric compounds

The meaning of the word is external. The semantic head is external to the
compound word.

Examples

- Egghead - intelligent person

- Hammer head - type of bird
- Red-handed - to be caught off guard.

SYNTAX

Syntax is the study of various ways of combining words to make

sentences.
It has two goals:

1. To provide rules for combining words to form sentences.

S NP + VP + Adj P
The boy / is / smart.
NP VP Adj P

3. To describe the competence of language users. You can make

countless new sentences because you know the rules. One should
also be able to
4. understand new sentences.
POSSIBLE WAYS OF FORMING SENTENCES

a) S.V - Subject + Verb

Mary won.
He came.

b) S.V.O – Subject + Verb + Direct Object

They / may slaughter / the cow.

S V O

He / beat / him.
S V O
c) S.V.C – Subject + Verb + Complement
 Ken / is / enthusiastic.
S V C
The rioters / became / wild.
S V C
d) S.V.A - Subject + Verb + Adverbial
The train / will arrive / tomorrow.
S V A
She / won / convincing.
S V A
e) S.V.O.O – Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object
The grandmother / told / the children / a story.
S V I.O DO
Diana / made /Sam / some porridge.
S V IO DO
f) S.V.O.C – Subject + Verb + Object + Complement

Kenyans /elected /Kibaki /president.

S V O C
He /called /the man /a liar.
S V O C
g) S.V.O.A – Subject + Verb + Object + Adverbial
They / boarded / the bus /late.
S V O A
The boy/ hid /the ball /in a corner.
S V O A
TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR

It started in Greece. The first linguist was a philosopher- Plato. He

recognized that in language, there are sentences. He divided the sentences
into two parts: nominal- noun, and verbal- verb. Later on, Aristotle added
the categories of conjunction, pronouns and articles.

After Greek Grammar was Latin grammar then Hebrew. Much later,
English grammar was written following the Greek and Latin grammar.
The tense system in Latin is: the present, the past, the future. There was
imposition of these into English. English however has only two tenses:
present and past. This is because to mark the future you must add certain
words.

Insights into traditional grammar

Sentences are made up of smaller constituents- words. Words are

classified according to their meaning function. These are:
1. Nouns
These are for naming people, places, things e.g. Nairobi, Mary, desk
alcoholism e.t.c.

2. Verbs
These are words said to be doing words. They involve denoted action e.g.
writing, talking, standing e.t.c.

3. Adjectives
The traditional grammar included articles under adjectives. Adjectives
were seen as describing or modifying nouns and pronouns.
Examples.
That man
The huge man

4. Adverbs
They modify only adjectives, verbs and other adverbs.

5. Prepositions
They were said to be relating words. They relate a pronoun or a noun to
another word in the sentence. E.g. I am sitting on a chair.

6. Pronouns
These are words that replace nouns. A noun names but a pronoun
identifies. E.g. The man was jailed.
He was jailed.

7. Conjunction
The conjunctions were said to be joining words. Two categories of
conjunctions are: coordinating conjunctions and subordinating
conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions join equal categories at: a) word level e.g.

rice and fish.
b) phrase level e.g. the dirty rice and the raw beans.
c) clause level e.g. the dirty rice were sorted out but the raw beans were
cooked.

Subordinating conjunctions join clauses that are unequal both

grammatically e.g. Although he wept, he was not forgiven.
Subordinate C Main C
8.Interjections

These are words used to express strong emotions. E.g. damn!, gosh!, Oh!

AN UPDATED CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS

They are no longer called parts of speech but word classes, forms of
words or word categories. They include:
1. Nouns – nouns include pronouns. i.e. pronouns are a sub class of
nouns.
2. Verbs – include doing words and state words.
3. Adjectives
4. Prepositions
5. Coordinators
6. Subordinators
7. Adverbs
8. Determiners- include:
- Articles e.g. a, an, the
- Demonstratives e.g. that, those, this, these
- Possessives e.g. his, hers, theirs etc
- Quantifiers e.g. one, double, some, several etc.
9. Interjections

PHRASES

Words combine to form larger units called phrases. A phrase is a group of

words without a subject and a finite verb.
Example, The young girl / is going/ to the salon.
Phrase phrase phrase
The traditional grammarians identified several types of phrases named
according to the most important word in the group.

a) Noun Phrases
It is a group of words headed by a noun and contains dependents. The
dependents occur before or after the head in a NP. These dependents
would be articles, adjectives, prepositional phrases etc.

Example
The big / books / with white covers / were sold.
 Pre-head head post head dependent VP
NB. The head word is obligatory. The above sentence can read “Books
were sold.)

b) Verb phrases
the head word is the lexical verbs and the dependents are the auxiliary
verbs. All dependents occur before the head. They occur in a fixed order.
Modal + primary auxiliary + head

She / should / have been / interviewed.

Modal pri. Aux head

c) Adjective phrase
Some dependents within the AdjP occur before the head and others occur
after the head.
Pre- heads
Adverbs of degree e.g. too, very, extremely, so, rather etc.
Example
He is / extremely / selfish.
Pre-head head
Post head
These are prepositional phrases

The cabinet is /too / small/ for all the MPs.

P.H H POST H.
d) Adverbs phrase
Pre-head dependents are adverbs of degree. Post head dependents could
be words, phrases and even clauses.
Examples
i. Omari drinks / very / heavily.
p.h head
ii. The guests arrived /early / enough.
Head p.h

iii. You act / too / quickly / for comfort.

p.h head post h.
iv. They performed / better/ than we expected.
Head post head
e) Prepositional phrase
it begins with a preposition and it is followed by a complement.
Example
He came into the room.
PP
We do not have a head or a dependent in a noun phrase. This is because
the preposition and the complement are equally important.

What is a complement?
- It could be a noun phrase
PP P + NP
She went /into/ the room.
Prep NP
PP P + Pronoun
I sent the mail /to / him.
Prep pro
PP P + Adjective
She married him /for / better / or / for/ worse.
Prep Adj prep Adj
PP P + Adverb
The police searched /in /there.
Prep Adv
PP P + Clause
The public was outraged /by /what he said.
Prep clause
CLAUSES

They are formed by combining phrases.

Definition: a group of words containing a subject and a predicate of its
own and forming part of a sentence. Clause is sentence within a larger
sentence.
1. The main / independent clause
2. The subordinate/ dependent

Subordinate clauses
This is further divided into:
i. noun clause
ii. adjective clauses
iii. adverb clauses
This depends on how they behave. If it behaves like a noun, then a noun
clause, adverb – adverb clause, adjectives- adjective clause.

Noun clause

It functions exactly like a noun i.e. be a subject.

Example
That she lied was obvious.

Subject
That – subordinator
She - subject
Lied – verb
The main sentence is: It was obvious.

Object
She said / that / she was hungry.
Sub. Noun clause
I like /what /he did.
Sub. Noun clause

Adjective clause
It modifies a noun or a pronouns e.g.
1. Athletes who qualify for Olympics practice hard.
2. The report which you brought was good.
3.The man who was beaten is his uncle.

Adverb clause
They modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs by answering how,
where, when, why etc.
Examples
They won because they were united.
All the guests arrived when they were expected.
The attendance was not as good as we expected.

Main clauses
It is a clause that makes complete sense without the help of another. It is a
complete sentence.

Modern grammar
A clause is no longer termed a sentence within a sentence. A clause is a
grammatical category bigger than a phrase but smaller than a sentence. A
new category of clause called a comparative clause has been introduced.
The boy was taller than I had anticipated.
He is now fatter than he was before.

SENTENCE
Traditional grammar says you group together clauses to form a sentence.
There are different definitions of a sentence. It is the expression of a
complete thought or an expression that makes sense. E.g. “Do you know
him?” “Yes”
A sentence is a group of words that contain a subject and a predicate. The
‘subject’ is what is being talked about. The ‘predicate’ is what is said
about the subject. The traditional grammarians categorize sentences
according to structure and function.

a) Structural classification
This is based on the internal structure of a sentence.
1. Simple sentence – sentence which contains one main clause. E.g.
Fatuma is in class.
2. compound sentence – it contains at least two main clauses joined
together by a coordinating conjunction. E.g.
He saw me /but / he did not greet me.
M.C (cord) M.C
The movie teaches /and /entertains at the same time.
M.C cord. MC
3. Complex sentences – contain one main clause and at least one
subordinate clause.
Example
The students enjoyed because they were patient.
M.C S.C
He will be elected if he campaigns well.
M.C S.C

b) Functional classification
These are sentences named based on the functions they play.

1. Declarative sentences – state some information.

They are also called statements e.g. the corrupt will be arrested.
2. Interrogative sentences – they seek information by asking questions
e.g. - Will the corrupt be arrested? (Yes/ No)
- When will the corrupt be arrested? (Open)
3. Imperatives – are used to make someone do something by giving
commands, making requests etc.
- Arrest the corrupt individuals immediately.
- Lend me your pen.
4. Exclamatives – used to express strong feelings e.g.
- How rude are you!
- What a wonderful watch you have!
Short comings of traditional grammar

a) As far as word classes are concerned

1. They described a noun as a word that things. “thing” a concrete object.
They therefore left qualities like “patience”, “kindness”, “helplessness.”

2. They said that a verb is a doing word. They therefore excluded the
stative verbs. “Omari is asleep.”

3. Conjunctions and prepositions have a connecting role. e.g. It is at the

corner. Prepositions are used to show the relations and do not perform a
connective.

b) As far as “subject” is concerned

They said the subject is the doer or actor. Example, “Stella is kind.”
Therefore, in the sentence above, Stella has done nothing which
according to traditional grammar disqualifies her as the subject.
- the book was stolen by Stella. According to traditional grammar “the
book is not a doer, therefore not a subject.”
Stella stole the book. (correct)

c) Prescriptions of traditional grammar

They prescribed the rules for the correct ways of speaking and writing.
i. Do not begin a sentence with a conjunction.
Example, “They were convinced they would win. And they did.” This is
wrong according to traditional grammar.

ii. Do not end a sentence with a preposition. E.g.

- That is the candidate I voted for.(wrong)
- That is the candidate for whom I voted.

iii. We should use ‘may’ and not ‘can’ in expressing a request and in
granting permission.
Example
- Can I talk to the director? (wrong)
- May I talk to the director? (correct)
- Yes you can. (wrong)
- Yes you may. (correct)

iv. “Shall” should only be used if the subject is either “I or We”.

I/ we will leave now. (wrong)
I/ we shall leave now. (correct)
v. “Will” should only be used with second and third person.
- You will be rewarded. (right)
- He will be rewarded. ( right)
- I will be rewarded. (wrong)

vi. Do not split the infinitive

- He wanted to recall the workers quickly. (right)
- He wanted to quickly recall the workers. (wrong)
NB. A split of the infinitive does not interfere with the meaning of the
sentence.

STRUCTURALISM

It came up in response to the short comings of traditional grammar. It

began in the twentieth century in Europe. It was associated with
Ferdinard De Saussure. They were called structalists because of their
belief that grammar has structures at all levels.
Boy – CVC
Boys - boy + s
The boy / is / smart.
NP VP AP
They say that language has variety i.e. formal and informal eg.
- She is taller than I. (formal)
- She is taller than me. (informal)

Modern grammar/ structuralism is descriptive in nature. It tells how a

language is used. They do not pass judgment as traditional grammar. You
should study a language as you find it because no language is exactly the
same as the other. Traditional grammar imposed Latin grammar in the
English language. Languages change with time while traditional grammar
prescribed fixed rules.

How structuralism improved traditional grammar

They based the definitions on form and position.

NOUN
Form
- A word that can take the plural morpheme .eg. student - students
- If a word can accept the possessive morpheme, then it is likely to be a
noun. Example, the boy – the boy’s car
- They gave the possible endings of a noun.
Examples
1. –ment - movement
2. – ness - kindness
3. – ity - brevity
4. – er - butcher

Position of a noun
1. Words that can be preceded with a determiner e.g.
- the teacher
Det noun
2. Put an adjective before it .e.g.
- good student

3. If the word is used as the subject of a sentence, then it mark agreement

with the verb e.g. “the workers have been sacked.”
Subject verb
4. A noun is a word that can be used as a subject, object, complement in a
sentence.
5. They used the test frames to classify words e.g.
- The ----------- was good. Any word that fills the space will be a noun.

VERBS
Form
1. A word that indicates tense and also gave the possible endings. E.g.
- talks
- talked
2. if the word can indicate aspect. Perfective and the progressive aspects.
- -ing is likely to be a verb
- - ed or – en for perfective aspect
Examples
- he has eaten
- he has walked

3. other possible endings for a verb are:

- ise organ (noun) - organize (verb)
- ify solid (noun) - solidify (verb)
-en soft (adjective) – soften ( verb)

Position
- A verb will come typically after the subject.
- The word will mark agreement with subject, then it is likely to be a
verb.
- A verb is a word which functions as a predicate.
- It is capable of being followed by an object.

How Structuralists See the Subject

-Typically it is placed before the verb. Eg. Did he go?
He went.

- It marks agreement with the verb. Eg he goes/ they go

- A subject is typically a noun phrase.
- It is the element that is copied or performed in a question tag. Example,
i. Kamau took the mug, didn’t he?
“he” is a “proform” because it replaces Kamau.

ii. The book was taken by Ahmed, wasn’t it? “it’ is a proform of the
book”

(proform is the word which replaces other words.)

SYNTAGMATIC AND PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS

The components of a sentence can be related syntagmatically or

paradigmatically.

1. Syntagmatic relations

This means a horizontal structure/ chain relations. Linear, ‘and’ relations.

E.g. I /am riding/ a bicycle.
NP VP NP
NP + VP + NP are arranged horizontally.

2. Paradigmatic relations

These are vertical relations “or - relations”

 I am studying syntax.
 I am studying morphology.
 I am studying phonology.

IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS

Immediate are constituents that are closely related. It looks at how words
are arranged in a sentence.
Example
The huge cat / ate the tiny rat.
 Subject Predicate
ICA uses binary method of sentence division. E.g. (subject + predicate)

The huge cat ate the tiny rat.

NP (subject) VP (predicate)
The huge cat ate the tiny cat.

Det NP VP NP
The huge cat ate the tiny rat

Adj Noun Det NP

Huge cat the tiny
rat

Tiny
rat

NB. The main achievement of ICA was to remove ambiguity from a

sentence.

SEMANTICS

It is concerned with meaning. Learning a language includes learning the

agreed upon meanings of certain sounds and also knowing how to
combine units that convey meaning. We are not free at will to change
meanings. All speakers of a language share basic vocabulary, they know
how to combine words and sounds to form sentences and phrase
meanings.

The study of linguistic meaning of words, phrases and sentences is called

semantics.

Semantic properties
Verbs, adjectives, adverbs and nouns (content words) can be specified
through identification of their semantic properties. The same semantic
property can be part of the meaning of different words i.e. can be shared
by many words.

Example
A female can be (mother, girl etc)
Semantic properties help us to specify meaning of words. Example,
- father
- + male
- + adult
- + human
No two words have exactly the same meaning because additional
semantic properties create finer distinctions. Example,
 crowd - a large number of people
 group - a small number of people
 mob - rowdy people
 gang - a group of people with bad motives

 swagger - arrogant walking manner

 Walk - a general word
 wobble - unsteady walking
 toddle - slow walking
 stroll - leisurely walking
 lumber - walking with a lot of difficulty

THE LEXICON

It is part of grammar that contains the knowledge that speakers have

about individual words and morphemes including their semantic
properties. Words that share a semantic property are said to be in a
semantic class. The presence of one semantic property can be inferred
from the presence or absence of another. Example

 puppy - + animate - human + animate

 girl - + animate + human + animate
 cow - + female - human + animate

Intersecting classes share same features. Words that are members of a

class that are marked + human are automatically animate, so you don’t
need to mention the property + animate. This generalization is known as
redundancy rule. A word that is (+ human) is also (+ animate). For
example, we cannot say that “my wife is a woman.”

Homonyms

It is a group of words that share the same spelling or are written

differently but pronounced the same and their meanings are different.
Two words with identical pronunciations but are different in meanings
are two different words. For example, “flour” and “flower”, “tail” and
“tale”, “bred” and “bread”, “ewe” and “you” etc.
Homonyms can create ambiguity (capable) of two or more meanings.
Example: “she cannot bear children.”
May be interpreted as: a) unable to conceive
b) cannot tolerate children.
When this happens, we depend on the context to determine the meaning
the speaker meant when they utter a word that may be ambiguous.

Synonyms

Synonyms are words that are similar in meaning. They sound different
but have nearly similar meanings but not identical meanings.
Example.
 Latrine, lavaratory, jonnies, loo, washroom etc.
 Dirty, unclean, unkempt, dusty, littered, sooty, soily, dingy etc.
 Clever, gifted, sharp, brainy, crafty, intelligent etc.
 couch – sofa
 happy – glad

Degree of similarities in meaning depend on the number of semantic

properties they share. The more semantic properties they share, the more
closer in meaning they are.

Some words have closely related meanings. They are called polysemous.
A polysemous word can share most of its meaning with another word.
This is called partial synonymy, example, mature and ripe.

Sometimes words ordinarily opposite can mean the same thing in certain
context.
Examples
 awful - terrible
 awfully nice - good
 terribly excited - happy
  not bad at all – I am fine

Synonyms help us paraphrase. They enable us restate something that had

already been stated.
Example
 I was glad to see him.
 I was thrilled to see him.
 I was happy to see him.
 I was enraptured to see him.
 I was enthralled to see him.

Antonyms
Meaning of a word may be defined by saying what it is not/ opposite. For
example, “male” means “not female”
Basic property of antonyms is that they share many semantic properties.
“man and woman”
-man - + adult - woman - + adult
- + human - + human
- - female - - male
The property they don’t share is present in one and absent in another.

Kinds of antonyms

1. Complementary antonyms
 Alive - dead
 Awake - asleep
 Present - absent
The opposite is synonymous with the antonym.

2. Gradable pairs
 Big - small
 Hot -cold
 Happy – sad

Negative of one word is not synonymous with the other. For instance, if
someone is not happy it doesn’t necessarily mean that he is sad. More of
one means less of another. E.g. the happier you are the less sad you are.
The taller you are the less short you are.

3. Relational pairs

 Give - receive
  Buy - sell
 Teacher – pupil
 Employer - employee
 Example

If ‘x’ gives ‘y’ to ‘z’, then ‘z’ receives ‘y’ from ‘x’.
If ‘x’ is ‘y’s’ teacher, then ‘y’ is ‘x’s’ pupil.

Formation of antonyms
There are several ways of antonym formation in English.
i. Addition of prefix “-un”
- likely – unlikely
- happy – unhappy
- concerned – unconcerned
- tidy - untidy

ii. Addition of “non-”

- corporation - non-corporation
- entity – non- entity

iii. Addition of “in-”

- correct- incorrect
- decent – indecent
- competent- incompetent
- capable – incapable

iv. Addition of “mis-”

- behave – misbehave
- appropriate - misappropriate
- treat – mistreat

v. Addition of “dis-”
- appear – disappear
- like - dislike

vi. Addition of “im-”

- mobile – immobile
- possible - impossible
- patient - impatient

vi. Addition of ‘mal-’

- practice – malpractice
- function - malfunction

Hyponymy

The meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another.

Example
 Rose – flower
 Dog - animal
 Cyprus – tree
 Heifer – cow
 Carrot - vegetable
Therefore, if any object is a rose, then it is necessarily a flower. A donkey
is a hyponym of animal. An insect is also a hyponym of animal. If there
are two or more words that share a super-ordinate, they are co-hyponyms.
‘Insect’ and ‘donkey’ are co-hyponyms of the word animal’.

The relationship of hyponymy captures the idea of “kind of”

Examples
“A mosquito is a kind of insect.”

Interpretation of meaning

Meaning of a language is the product of the meanings of words in that

language. There are some aspects of meaning that are not from the words
but from the context. The intended speaker’s meaning is called
PRAGMATICS.
To interpret meaning, we need more than the knowledge of individual
words. Meaning of words may be relative. Example, “ big names roll..” “
the boss has been axed.”

CONTEXT

Context influences meaning.

Kinds of context

1. Linguistic context/ co-text

This is the set of other words that are used in the same sentence. It is the
use of the surrounding words and phrases to infer meaning of unfamiliar
expressions.

2. Physical context
Our understanding of what we hear is determined by the time and place
by which we hear linguistic expressions. For instance, the word “bank”
the physical occasion will influence the interpretation.

DEICTIC EXPRESSIONS

Deictic means pointing using language. Someone words cannot be

interpreted especially when the physical context of the speaker is not
known. E.g. tomorrow, yesterday, I, you, there, here, her etc.

Some sentences in English are virtually impossible to understand if you

do not know who is speaking, where, when and about whom. For
instance, “they would have to do that tomorrow because they aren’t here
now.”
- ‘that’ – what does it mean?
- ‘they” – who?
- ‘here” - where?

Deictics depend on the immediate physical context in which they are

spoken to interpret their meaning. They can only be interpreted as the
speaker intended meaning. They only make sense if we know what the
speaker is talking about.

PRESSUPOSITIONS

They are certain assumptions that help us interpret meaning. For example,
“have you seen the cow?” the assumption is that you know that a cow
exist in the context where you are and that you could have seen it.

When a speaker uses deictic expressions, he uses an assumption that the

listener knows which location is talked about. Speakers design linguistic
assumptions on what they think their listeners already know. The
assumptions may be mistaken but they underlie normal use of the
language. What you assume is known by the listener is called
“PRESUPPOSITION”.
“I met your brother yesterday.” Presupposition is that you have a brother.
Make sure your assumptions are correct so that you can be understood.
Presuppositions help in interpreting meaning.

SPEECH ACTS

We can interpret the function of what a speaker says. We can interpret

what they perform. The term “act” covers actions performed by speaker
e.g. question, requesting, commanding or informing. We use certain
forms of language to produce certain functions.
- Have you been to Zanziber? “yes/ no” question (interrogative)
- Eat your food. – imperative ( command)
- Eat your food please. (request)

Tone of voice can help in interpreting the act one wants to perform.
Direct speech acts are the forms that tell you what is required. E.g. “Go
home.”

INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS

When one of the forms is used to perform a function that we do not

always associate with it, then it is an indirect speech act.
Examples
1. “I wonder what he is thinking about.” The sentence is an indirect
question.
2. You left the door open. (statement – it is used to request).

Humorous effects occur when the other person fails to understand the
other’s indirect speech. Example, “do you know where the bus stop is?”
“Yes.” the answer is not appropriate because the person is requesting to
be told where the bus stop is.
Indirect commands are considered more polite than the direct commands.
“Could you pass the salt?” and not “pass the salt.”
“Could you please leave?”
The ability to interpret the function of speech act is an example of
interpretation of what the speaker intends to mean.

SEVEN TYPES OF MEANING

1. Conceptual Meaning

It is the logical meaning associated with a word. It is the literal meaning.

It is also the denotative meaning which is found in the dictionaries.
Conceptual meaning covers the basic essential components conveyed by
a word. For example, “needle” – sharp, thin tool used to sew clothes.
“Queer” – odd or strange

2. Connotative Meaning

It is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers

to. It is a combination of conceptual and other meanings. Example,
“a woman” is + human
+ adult
- male
The above features mark the conceptual meaning.

There are other feature associated with woman i.e. the physical and the
social characteristics – skirt wearer, motherhood, gentleness, responsible,
hardworking, sensitive e.t.c.

Connotations can vary from age to age, society to society whereas

conceptual meanings are fixed.

3. Social meaning

It has to do with the situation in which an utterance takes place. Social

meaning is what a piece of language conveys about the social
circumstances. We recognize words/ pronunciations as being dialectical.
They can give us a clue of the geographical origin of a person.
Crystal and Davy give us the variations in language.

1. Dialect- language of a particular geographical region or social classes.

2. Time – Languages of the 17th century and those of today are different.
Languages keep on changing.
3. Province – Langauge of science, law, journalism, literature etc. this is
use of language according to the discipline.
4. Status – Whether the language is formal, polite, colloquial, courteous
etc.
5. Modality – Langage for memoranda, notices, lectures, jokes, minutes
etc.
6. Singularity- style of an individual writer. Eg. Achebe’s writing may be
different from Ngugi’s.

4. Affective Meaning
This is how language reflects personal feelings or attitudes towards
something or the subject one is talking about. It is conveyed through
conceptual meaning or connotative meaning of words. For example, you
may show that you love someone without talking.

Intonation can be used to show one’s feelings i.e. polite tones, sarcastic
tones therefore, intonation can convey the affective meaning.

Affective meaning is parasitic because it relies on other categories to

convey meaning. Example, “She is so emaciated.” (conceptual) “She is so
skinny.” (connotative to convey negative attitude.)

5. Reflected and Collocative Meanings

Reflected meaning arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings. The

word is also associated with other things.
Example
Prostitute – you can prostitute your ideas
- disease, sex, immorality (reflected meanings)
Politicians - people engaged in politics
- liars, thieves, ( reflected)

Some reflected words convey strong emotions thus difficult to use the
words in their innocent meanings, e.g. prostitute, intercourse
(conversation)

Collocatve meaning consists of associations that a word acquires on

account of the meanings of other words close to it. Words that occur
together in the same environment. Examples
Pretty and handsome (share common ground of good looking) they may
however be distinguished by other words that may co-occur:
A girl – pretty, a boy- handsome
- Pretty – flower, garden, colour, and woman
- Handsome- boy, man, vessel, airline, typewriter

6. Thematic Meaning

It is communicated in the way a speaker organizes a message i.e.

ordering, focused, emphasized constituents.
Example
- Hassan donated the trophy. (active)
- The trophy was donated by Hassan. (passive)
The active sentence seems to ask “What did Hassan donate?” whereas the
second asks “what was donated and by whom?”

Thematic meaning is a matter of choice between alternative grammatical

constructions.
- They stopped at the end of the street. (what they did)
- At the end of the street they stopped. (where)

SENSE AND REFERENCE

Reference

Meaning of a sentence means we can determine the truth value or what

the phrases refer to e.g. to discover the objects the noun phrases refer to.
For instance, “she put a red stone on the wall.” The object pointed to by
the noun phrase is referred to s the referent. The noun phrase that points
out an object is a reference.
Sometimes you may have more than one noun phrase referring to the
same object. This is referred to as Co- referential.

Sense

These are meanings beyond the mere reference. They are additional
meanings to expressions.
Example
-Chairman – power, influence (sense)
- Nairobi – has sense and reference.

NB. Many noun phrases have reference only especially the proper nouns.
The concept of sense enables us to talk about things that we cannot touch,
things with no immediate reference. Example, “In the year 3003, our
descendants will have died.