FAR EASTERN UNIVERSITY

Institute of Architecture and Fine Arts

PLANNING 3
Spatial Planning Theories

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 5

Ruz, Allyson Megan

Lara, Sofhia Ryej

SECTION NO. 3

Adviser
Ar. Parafina, Riaz Zenice

Date of Submission
18 March 2024
I.DEFINITION
CENTER PLACE THEORY

Figure 1: Diagram illustrating Walter Christaller's Central Place Theory (1933)

Source: https://twitter.com/fantasticoco

Central Place Theory, pioneered by German geographer Walter Christaller in his seminal work
"Central Places in Southern Germany" (1933), elucidates the spatial distribution of human settlements and
economic activities within a region. At its core, this theory posits that settlements serve as central places that
provide goods and services to surrounding areas, forming a hierarchical network based on the range and
threshold of services offered. Christaller's theory highlights the rational economic behavior of consumers
seeking to minimize travel distances for essential services, thereby influencing the arrangement and size of
settlements within a geographic area. By conceptualizing urban and rural interactions in terms of market
areas and functional hierarchies, Central Place Theory offers valuable insights into the organization and
dynamics of human settlement patterns. (Flowerdew, 2009)

II. EXAMPLES/APPLICATIONS
Polders of Netherlands

Figure 2: Location of the Noordoostpolder in the center part in the Netherlands

Source: https://twitter.com/fantasticoco

Polders, integral to the Dutch landscape, epitomize the intricate balance between human ingenuity
and environmental challenges. These low-lying tracts of land, meticulously reclaimed from the sea and rivers
through centuries of engineering mastery, are fortified by dikes and embankments to withstand the relentless
forces of water. In the Netherlands, where a significant portion of the terrain lies below sea level, polders
serve as vital repositories of habitable land, agricultural richness, and industrial development. Drew (2023)
Through a network of dikes and drainage systems, these reclaimed areas not only offer fertile soil for
agriculture and urban expansion but also serve as bulwarks against flooding, safeguarding communities and
infrastructure from the vagaries of the sea. Thus, polders stand as enduring symbols of human resilience and
innovation, embodying the Dutch ethos of living harmoniously with water while harnessing its potential for
sustainable growth and prosperity.

Fens of East Anglia

 Figure 2: Location of the Noordoostpolder in the center part in the Netherlands
Source: https://twitter.com/fantasticoco

The Fens of East Anglia in England represent a remarkable example of human intervention in
reclaiming and transforming marshy, low-lying landscapes into fertile and habitable areas. Centuries ago, the
Fens were vast expanses of wetlands, subject to seasonal flooding and inhospitable for human settlement.
However, through a combination of drainage techniques and land reclamation efforts, the Fens were
gradually transformed into arable land, making them suitable for agriculture and human habitation. The fertile
soil of the Fens supports a multitude of settlements, ranging from small villages to larger market towns, which
have historically adhered to the principles of Central Place Theory in their spatial organization. Following the
tenets of Central Place Theory, settlements in the Fens are arranged in a hierarchical pattern, with larger
market towns serving as central hubs surrounded by smaller towns and villages in a triangular or hexagonal
layout. This honeycomb-like distribution optimizes accessibility to goods and services for residents while
promoting economic efficiency and regional connectivity. As a result, the Fens have evolved into a network
of interconnected communities, each fulfilling its role within the broader economic and social landscape of
the region. (Drew, 2023)

The American Midwest

 Figure 3: The American Midwest - Legend America
Source: https://www.legendsofamerica.com/american-midwest/

The American Midwest stands as a vast expanse of fertile flatlands, renowned as the country's
agricultural heartland, punctuated by small towns and occasional industrial cities. Revered as America's
breadbasket, the Midwest contributes significantly to the nation's agricultural output, supplying grains,
livestock, and other agricultural products to domestic and international markets. C.J. Galpin, a distinguished
sociologist at the University of Wisconsin, undertook a comprehensive study of the geographical organization
of rural communities, small towns, and major cities across the American Midwest. Through his research,
Galpin discerned a remarkable pattern in the spatial distribution of settlements, aligning closely with the
principles delineated by Central Place Theory (Drew, 2023) . He observed that these communities and urban
centers were laid out in a series of rough hexagonal patterns, reflecting the hierarchical arrangement and
functional interdependencies outlined by the theory. This hexagonal layout optimized accessibility to goods
and services for residents, fostered economic integration, and facilitated the efficient exchange of agricultural
products and commodities within the region. Galpin's findings underscored the enduring relevance of Central
Place Theory in understanding the spatial organization and socioeconomic dynamics of rural and urban
landscapes in the American Midwest.
Saskatchewan

Figure 4: Map of Sasktechewan

Source: https://www.britannica.com/place/Saskatchewan/Government-and-society

The American Midwest stands as a vast expanse of fertile flatlands, renowned as the country's
agricultural heartland, punctuated by small towns and occasional industrial cities. Revered as America's
breadbasket, the Midwest contributes significantly to the nation's agricultural output, supplying grains,
livestock, and other agricultural products to domestic and international markets. C.J. Galpin, a distinguished
sociologist at the University of Wisconsin, undertook a comprehensive study of the geographical organization
of rural communities, small towns, and major cities across the American Midwest. Through his research,
Galpin discerned a remarkable pattern in the spatial distribution of settlements, aligning closely with the
principles delineated by Central Place Theory (Drew, 2023) . He observed that these communities and urban
centers were laid out in a series of rough hexagonal patterns, reflecting the hierarchical arrangement and
functional interdependencies outlined by the theory. This hexagonal layout optimized accessibility to goods
and services for residents, fostered economic integration, and facilitated the efficient exchange of agricultural
products and commodities within the region. Galpin's findings underscored the enduring relevance of Central
Place Theory in understanding the spatial organization and socioeconomic dynamics of rural and urban
landscapes in the American Midwest.
 III. STRENGTHS
1. Hierarchy of Urban Centres

Figure 5: Hierarchy of Urban Centres with wider urban and functional urban areas in the concept of the
polycentric urban system of Slovenia
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Hierarchy-of-urban-centres-with-wider-urban-and-functional-
urban-areas-in-the-concept-of_fig1_266392875

Larger cities provide high-order goods like jewelry and electronics, while smaller towns offer lower-
order necessities such as groceries. Larger cities are spaced farther apart to accommodate larger
hinterlands, while smaller markets cluster for efficiency. They are arranged in a hexagonal or triangular lattice
to maximize coverage of the hinterland. (Drew, 2023)
2. Integration with other Spatial Model for Expounding the Diverse Range Phenomena

Figure 6: Center Place Theory

Source: https://dhsworldgeo.weebly.com/lesson-4-central-place-theory.html

Central Place Theory (CPT) can be effectively combined with spatial interaction models (SIM) to
understand various urban geographical phenomena. Openshaw and Veneris (2003) demonstrated the
application of CPT in analyzing the distribution of medical care facilities within urban centers. They observed
a hierarchical spatial arrangement similar to that described by CPT for urban settlements. Their study
elucidates how the development of medical care facilities is influenced by the marketing and transport
principles outlined in CPT. Consequently, areas with larger populations tend to have access to higher-order
medical services, aligning with the marketing principle, and are within reach of a significant portion of the
population, reflecting the transport principle. (Drew, 2023)

IV. WEAKNESS
1. Large Number Assumptions
 Figure 6: Center Place Theory
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/central-place-theory

According to Drew Central Place Theory relies on several assumptions, including:

• The areas being studied are entirely flat and boundless.

• Population distribution across the area is uniform.
• Consumers possess comparable purchasing abilities.
• All settlements are equidistant from one another.

These assumptions essentially render the theory a theoretical construct, making its precise application to
real-world scenarios rare.

2. Agriculture Centric
 Figure 7: Central places of different levels.
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667325823002431?dgcid=rss_sd_all

Central Place Theory finds its most suitable application within expansive rural-agrarian regions
characterized by a few market towns dispersed throughout the hinterland. In such settings, the theory
effectively explains the hierarchical organization of settlements and the distribution of goods and services.
However, its relevance diminishes significantly when applied to industrial cities or contemporary urban areas
driven by service sector economies. In these urban landscapes, factors such as diverse consumer
preferences, complex transportation networks, and specialized service offerings often deviate from the
simplified assumptions of Central Place Theory. Consequently, while the theory offers valuable insights into
spatial organization in certain contexts, its utility becomes limited in more complex and dynamic urban
environments shaped by industrialization and service-based economies.
3. Limited capacity to adjust to changes

Figure 8: Change of Planning to Modern Urban.

Source: https://hir.harvard.edu/urban-outfitting-city-design-for-a-modern-world/

The Central Place Theory, developed during the early 20th century amid rapid urbanization, has not
adapted to the significant transformations in cities and villages since its inception. In today's digital age, where
online platforms like Amazon and Etsy dominate commerce, physical marketplaces are no longer essential.
As the theory primarily focuses on physical and spatial aspects, it fails to account for the virtual nature of
contemporary economic activities, rendering it inadequate in explaining these shifts.

V. OPPORTUNITIES
1. Transportation and Infrastructure Planning
 Figure 9: Change of Planning to Modern Urban.
Source: https://www.constructionplusasia.com/sg/how-has-technology-influenced-transport-infrastructure-
planning/

Understanding the spatial distribution of central places can inform decisions regarding
transportation networks, infrastructure development, and urban planning. This includes optimizing the
location of roads, highways, public transit systems, and utility services to efficiently serve population
centers.

2. Market Analysis and Retail Planning

Figure 10: Retail Analysis

 Source: https://www.bae1.com/expertise/san-ramon-retail-market-analysis

The theory provides a framework for analyzing consumer behavior, market dynamics, and retail
patterns. Businesses can strategically locate stores, assess market demand, and plan expansion strategies
based on the hierarchy of central places and consumer accessibility

3. Spatial Economics and Regional Development

Figure 11: Spatial Analysis

Source: https://www.bae1.com/expertise/san-ramon-retail-market-analysis

Central Place Theory is valuable for studying regional disparities, economic growth patterns, and
globalization's impact on local economies. By examining central place hierarchies and interactions,
policymakers can formulate interventions to promote balanced regional development and mitigate economic
inequalities.

VI. THREATS
1. Technological Advancements
 Figure 12: Technological Advancement in Planning
Source: https://www.colliers.com/en-sg/news/civas-how-asian-cities-leverage-technology-in-urban-
planning-jonathan-jacob-video

The rapid advancement of technology, particularly in digitalization and e-commerce, challenges the
assumptions of Central Place Theory. Online shopping platforms and digital marketplaces allow consumers
to access goods and services without relying on traditional physical central places, thereby disrupting
established spatial hierarchies.

2. Decentralization and Polycentric Development

Figure 12: Polycentric Development and the Role of Urban Polycentric Planning in China’s Mega Cities
 Source: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/5/1588

The rapid advancement of technology, particularly in digitalization and e-commerce, challenges the
assumptions of Central Place Theory. Online shopping platforms and digital marketplaces allow consumers
to access goods and services without relying on traditional physical central places, thereby disrupting
established spatial hierarchies.

3. Dynamic Urban Systems

Figure 13: Main characteristics of Basse di Stura area

Source: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/9/8/242

Urban systems are dynamic and subject to constant change due to factors such as population
growth, economic fluctuations, and shifts in consumer behavior. Central Place Theory's static framework may
struggle to capture the complexity and dynamism of urban landscapes, leading to limitations in its ability to
accurately predict spatial patterns and development trends.
VII. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, while Central Place Theory has provided valuable insights into urban and regional
organization, it faces several significant threats and limitations in the modern context. Technological
advancements, including digitalization and e-commerce, challenge traditional spatial hierarchies envisioned
by the theory. Furthermore, the emergence of decentralized and polycentric urban development patterns
complicates the notion of a single dominant central place. Additionally, the dynamic nature of urban systems,
characterized by constant change and evolving socioeconomic factors, presents challenges to the theory's
static framework.
Despite these threats, Central Place Theory remains a foundational concept in urban and regional
planning, providing a framework for understanding spatial organization and economic geography. However,
its adaptation to address contemporary challenges and complexities is crucial for its continued relevance.
Future research and applications of the theory should consider the impact of technological innovation,
evolving urban dynamics, and socioeconomic disparities to develop more comprehensive and nuanced
understandings of spatial organization in the modern world.
VIII. DEFINITION

SECTOR MODEL

Figure 14: Land Use Model Hoyt and His Sector Model of Urban Land Use by Rain Book Urban Planning
Source: https://youtu.be/Aopdq5NUJMU

The sector model is a spatial urban theory developed to describe the internal structure of cities,
particularly in the context of North American urban development. Proposed by Homer Hoyt in the 1930s as
an alternative to the concentric zone model proposed by Ernest Burgess, the sector model suggests that
cities develop in a series of pie-shaped sectors radiating outward from the city center.

In this model, Hoyt identified specific sectors within the city that experience varying levels of land
use intensity and socioeconomic status. Typically, sectors are aligned along transportation routes, such as
railroads or major highways, which influence the direction of urban growth. The model often identifies key
sectors such as the central business district (CBD), industrial zones, high-class residential areas, and lower-
income residential areas. (Hoyt Sector Model: Definition & Examples | StudySmarter,n.d.)

The sector model suggests that different sectors of the city experience different levels of development
and land use intensity based on their proximity to transportation routes and other key factors. It provides a
framework for understanding urban growth patterns and the spatial distribution of various land uses within
cities.

IX. EXAMPLES/APPLICATIONS

Figure 15: Sector Model: A brief analysis | Being Civil Engineer

Source: https://pranilblogs.wordpress.com/2016/10/08/sector-model-a-brief-analysis/

Hoyt's sector model finds compelling examples in various urban landscapes, ranging from smaller cities like
Emporia, Kansas, and Lancaster, Pennsylvania, to major metropolitan hubs like New York City and
Washington, DC.
Philadelphia, PA, serves as an illustrative case study. During the 1930s, Philadelphia adhered closely to the
sector model. Its robust central business district (CBD) thrived alongside industrial sectors, strategically
positioned along key transportation arteries such as major rail lines and the Schuylkill River, facilitating
connections to the Delaware River port. Working-class immigrants settled in neighborhoods like Manayunk
and South Philadelphia, while middle-class communities expanded northward and northeastward onto higher
ground. Hoyt Sector Model: Definition & Examples | StudySmarter. (n.d.)
The "high-class economic sector" emerged along the prestigious Main Line of the Pennsylvania Railroad and
adjacent streetcar lines. As Philadelphia's population spilled into neighboring Montgomery County, the Main
Line evolved into synonymous with some of the nation's most affluent and exclusive suburban enclaves.

Elements of this historical pattern persist today. Impoverished neighborhoods are often situated in
environmentally compromised areas, while the CBD has experienced revitalization with urban repopulation
in recent decades. Exclusive residential neighborhoods along railway corridors continue to characterize the
Main Line region, reflecting enduring aspects of the sector model's influence on Philadelphia's urban
fabric.(Hoyt Sector Model: Definition & Examples | StudySmarter,n.d.)

X. STRENGTHS
1. Clear Spatial Representation

Figure 16: Spatial Analysis

Source: https://www.spiceworks.com/tech/artificial-intelligence/articles/what-is-spatial-analysis/

The sector model provides a clear visual representation of urban land use patterns, with distinct
sectors radiating outward from the city center. This clarity makes it easy for researchers, planners, and
policymakers to understand the spatial organization of cities and analyze trends in land use distribution.
2. Historical Context

Figure 17: Sector Model Theory in Urban Land Use

Source: https://rashidfaridi.com/2020/03/14/sector-model-of-urban-land-use/

The sector model often reflects historical factors that have influenced urban development, such as
transportation networks, industrialization, and migration patterns. By considering historical context, the model
helps researchers and planners understand how cities have evolved over time and anticipate future
development trends.

3. Predictive Ability

The sector model's emphasis on transportation corridors and spatial organization allows for predictions about
future urban growth and development. Planners and policymakers can use the model to anticipate where
new infrastructure and services will be needed based on projected population shifts and changes in land use
patterns.

XI. WEAKNESS

The main weaknesses of the sector model in urban geography include its oversimplified representation of
urban environments, limited applicability to diverse cities, inflexibility in accommodating non-linear
development patterns, neglect of socio-economic factors, and temporal limitations stemming from its
historical context. These weaknesses underscore the need for more nuanced and flexible models that
account for the multifaceted nature of urban development and dynamics. Hoyt Sector Model: Definition &
Examples | StudySmarter. (n.d.)

XII. OPPORTUNITIES

Figure 18: The Sector of Cities

Source: https://cronodon.com/PlanetTech/Cities_Structure.html

The sector model in urban geography presents several opportunities for research, planning, and
analysis. Firstly, it provides a structured framework for urban planners to understand and optimize land use
patterns, facilitating informed decisions on infrastructure development and service provision. Secondly, the
model offers historians and researchers the opportunity to study the historical evolution of cities, shedding
light on the socio-economic factors that have shaped urban landscapes over time. Additionally, the sector
model enables comparative studies across different cities and regions, enhancing our understanding of urban
diversity and dynamics. Furthermore, it serves as a basis for predictive modeling, allowing planners to
anticipate future trends in urban growth and development. Hoyt Sector Model: Definition & Examples |
StudySmarter. (n.d.). Finally, the integration of GIS technology offers new opportunities to enhance the
sector model through spatial analysis and visualization techniques, providing deeper insights into the
complexities of urban environments. Overall, the sector model offers a valuable framework for
interdisciplinary research, informed decision-making, and long-term planning in urban geography.

XIII. THREATS
1. Technological Advancements

Figure 19: Technological Advancement in Planning

Source: https://www.colliers.com/en-sg/news/civas-how-asian-cities-leverage-technology-in-urban-
planning-jonathan-jacob-video

The rapid advancement of technology, particularly in digitalization and e-commerce, challenges the
assumptions of Central Place Theory. Online shopping platforms and digital marketplaces allow consumers
to access goods and services without relying on traditional physical central places, thereby disrupting
established spatial hierarchies. Hoyt Sector Model: Definition & Examples | StudySmarter. (n.d.)

XIV. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the Hyott’s Sector Model had a significant potential within the architecture field,
highlighting its strengths in innovative design, interdisciplinary collaboration, and sustainability integration.
These strengths position the sector model as a catalyst for positive change, offering architects a framework
to create impactful, resilient, and environmentally conscious built environments. However, the analysis also
unveils critical threats such as regulatory complexities, environmental uncertainties, and resource constraints
that could impede the sector model's progress. Addressing these threats demands proactive measures,
including advocating for supportive policies, harnessing technological advancements, and fostering resilient
strategies to navigate challenges effectively.

Moving forward, stakeholders must capitalize on the identified strengths while mitigating the threats to
maximize the sector model's impact. By embracing innovation, fostering collaboration, and adopting
sustainable practices, the architectural community can harness the sector model's potential to drive positive
transformation. This entails fostering a culture of adaptability, continuously refining strategies, and engaging
in cross-sector partnerships to address evolving challenges. Through collective efforts and strategic
initiatives, the sector model in architecture can pave the way for a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive
built environment, shaping a brighter future for generations to come.

XV. DEFINITION

POLYCENTRIC DEVELOPMENT

Figure 20: The proposed concept of polycentric development pattern

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-proposed-concept-of-polycentric-development-pattern-
Source-Own-creation-2008_fig27_26989850
 This theory emphasizes the decentralization of urban development and the creation of multiple
centers of activity within a region. Unlike traditional models that focus on a single central business district,
polycentric development promotes the growth of several smaller centers, each with its own distinct economic,
residential, and recreational functions.

Polycentric development aims to distribute resources and opportunities more evenly across a region,
reducing congestion, improving accessibility, and enhancing overall quality of life. By fostering the
development of multiple centers, this theory seeks to create a more balanced and resilient urban structure,
reducing dependence on a single central node and promoting sustainable growth patterns.

XVI. EXAMPLES/APPLICATIONS

GREATER LONDON

Figure 21: Greater London

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_London

London is often cited as an example of polycentric development with several significant centers of
activity beyond the traditional Central Business District (CBD) in the city center. Areas like Canary Wharf in
East London, the West End, and Stratford have developed as major business and commercial hubs, each
with its own distinct character and economic base. The decentralization of activity has helped alleviate
congestion in the city center while promoting economic growth in peripheral areas.

RANDSTAD, NETHERLANDS

Figure 22:The Randstad study area within the Netherlands

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Randstad-study-area-within-the-
Netherlands_fig1_306134987

Randstad is a polycentric urban region in the Netherlands, comprising major cities like Amsterdam,
Rotterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht, among others. Rather than relying solely on Amsterdam as the primary
economic and cultural center, the Randstad has developed multiple urban nodes, each contributing to the
region's overall dynamism. This decentralized approach has facilitated economic diversification, improved
accessibility, and enhanced the quality of life for residents across the region. (Zeljic, A. S. ,2019)
XVII. STRENGTHS

Figure 23: Between cooperation and competition: why polycentric development matters
Source: https://www.espon.eu/polycentricity-2016

1. Diversification of Economic Centers: Polycentric development fosters the emergence of multiple

economic centers within a region, reducing dependence on a single central business district. This
diversification enhances economic resilience, as disruptions in one area are less likely to have a
catastrophic impact on the entire region's economy. (Zeljic, A. S. ,2019)

2. Enhanced Quality of Life: Polycentric development often leads to the creation of vibrant mixed-use
neighborhoods in peripheral areas, offering residents access to amenities, employment
opportunities, and recreational spaces closer to home. This decentralized approach can contribute
 to a higher quality of life by promoting walkability, reducing urban sprawl, and fostering community
cohesion.

3. Improved Accessibility: By dispersing activity across multiple centers, polycentric development

can enhance accessibility for residents and businesses. Well-planned transportation networks and
infrastructure connections between centers can reduce travel distances, congestion, and commuting
times.

XVIII. WEAKNESS

Figure 24: Alternative paths for the evolution of polycentric urban regions
Source: https://www.espon.eu/polycentricity-2016

1. Coordination Challenges: Implementing polycentric development requires coordination among

various stakeholders, including local governments, developers, and community organizations.
Ensuring alignment in planning priorities, infrastructure investments, and land use policies across
multiple centers can be challenging and may lead to fragmentation or conflicting interests.
 2. Enhanced Quality of Life: Polycentric development often leads to the creation of vibrant mixed-use
neighborhoods in peripheral areas, offering residents access to amenities, employment
opportunities, and recreational spaces closer to home. This decentralized approach can contribute
to a higher quality of life by promoting walkability, reducing urban sprawl, and fostering community
cohesion.

3. Potential for Spatial Inequities: By dispersing activity across multiple centers, polycentric
development can enhance accessibility for residents and businesses. Well-planned transportation
networks and infrastructure connections between centers can reduce travel distances, congestion,
and commuting times.

XIX. OPPORTUNITIES

Figure 25: Spatial Development Strategy of Slovenia

Source: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Territorial-Cohesion-and-Polycentric-Development-of-
Nata%C5%A1aPichler-Lamov%C5%A1ek/02f9ed5371b3a9a4b960e275285d7cb680a9c9ea

1. Revitalization of Peripheral Areas: Polycentric development presents an opportunity to revitalize

underutilized or marginalized peripheral areas by attracting investment, fostering economic activity,
and improving infrastructure. Strategic planning interventions and targeted incentives can unlock the
potential of these areas, creating new opportunities for growth and development.

2. Innovation and Entrepreneurship: By fostering a diverse urban landscape with multiple centers of
activity, polycentric development can stimulate innovation, entrepreneurship, and knowledge
exchange. Clusters of industry specialization in different centers can facilitate collaboration,
knowledge spillovers, and the emergence of new economic sectors. (Zeljic, A. S. ,2019)

3. Sustainable Urban Growth: Polycentric development aligns with principles of sustainable urban
growth by promoting compact, mixed-use development patterns, reducing reliance on private
vehicles, and preserving green spaces. Investing in sustainable infrastructure, renewable energy,
and green technologies can further enhance the environmental sustainability of polycentric regions.
XX. THREATS

Figure 26: Polycentric Systems and Territorial Cohesion

Source: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-03386-6_4

1. Urban Sprawl and Fragmentation: Polycentric development presents an opportunity to revitalize

underutilized or marginalized peripheral areas by attracting investment, fostering economic activity,
and improving infrastructure. Strategic planning interventions and targeted incentives can unlock the
potential of these areas, creating new opportunities for growth and development. (Zeljic, A. S. ,2019)

2. Gentrification and Displacement: By fostering a diverse urban landscape with multiple centers of
activity, polycentric development can stimulate innovation, entrepreneurship, and knowledge
exchange. Clusters of industry specialization in different centers can facilitate collaboration,
knowledge spillovers, and the emergence of new economic sectors.
 3. Climate Change Vulnerability: Polycentric development aligns with principles of sustainable urban
growth by promoting compact, mixed-use development patterns, reducing reliance on private
vehicles, and preserving green spaces. Investing in sustainable infrastructure, renewable energy,
and green technologies can further enhance the environmental sustainability of polycentric regions.

XXI. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the potential of polycentric development as a strategy for fostering sustainable,
resilient, and inclusive urban growth. By decentralizing economic activity, enhancing accessibility, and
improving quality of life, polycentric development offers a promising framework for addressing the complex
challenges facing rapidly urbanizing regions. However, it also underscores several key considerations and
challenges that must be carefully managed to realize its full potential.

While polycentric development presents opportunities for revitalizing peripheral areas, stimulating
innovation, and promoting sustainability, it requires coordinated planning, robust infrastructure investment,
and equitable resource allocation to overcome its weaknesses and threats. Addressing coordination
challenges, mitigating spatial inequities, and managing the risks of urban sprawl and gentrification are
essential to ensure that polycentric development contributes to inclusive and equitable urbanization.
.
Moving forward, stakeholders must work collaboratively to harness the strengths of polycentric
development while addressing its weaknesses and threats through strategic planning, policy interventions,
and community engagement. By embracing innovation, fostering partnerships, and prioritizing sustainability,
polycentric regions can emerge as models of resilient and livable urban environments, shaping a more
prosperous and sustainable future for residents and businesses alike.
II.DEFINITION
URBAN REALMS MODEL

Figure 27: Vance’s Urban Realms Model

Source: world geography indonesia: Image. (n.d.).
https://worldgeographyindonesia.files.wordpress.com/2015/05/vance.jpg

Numerous city models have been proposed; the Urban Realms concept is the most recent. The prior
versions are incredibly well-organized and densely packed, allowing individuals to move around without
spending much time traveling. However, as time has passed and technology has advanced, cities have
expanded due to the increasing usage of automobiles. Suburban areas increasingly provide some of the
purposes of the central business district, making them less significant.
James E. Vance Jr. created the Urban Realms model in 1964. To develop this model, he studied the
urban ecology and economic activity of San Francisco. According to the model, modern metropolitan cities
differ from older ones because the Central Business District (CBD) houses most financial activity. However,
residential districts can also house retail centers and office buildings. Having offices and retail establishments
outside of the CBD creates areas that might stand alone.
According to the concept, the CBD's significance could be reduced if part of its operations were relocated
to the suburbs. Like little cities, each realm exists independently of the others but joins to form a massive
urban city. Urban growth would be fine in this automobile-dependent model. Therefore, it extends endlessly,
which explains some of the characteristics of urban growth. The suburbs would grow so much that they
became exurbs, still constituting another metropolitan area.

EXAMPLES/APPLICATIONS San Francisco

 James Vance Jr. developed the concept of urban realms to investigate inner-city degradation issues in
San Francisco. Still, it has since been implemented in other cities across the globe. The Spanish established
San Francisco as a harbor town in the late 1700s. The Mission San Francisco de Asis, a Christian mission
founded in 1776, was one of its first communities. The district around the mission became known as the
Mission District, while the mission eventually gave its name to the surrounding city. The Mission district, which
was formerly the historical center around which San Francisco was built, is currently among the city's poorest
areas. In a similar vein, the historically East Asian immigrant-populated Chinatown district is still largely
destitute.
However, most of San Francisco's expansion in the 20th and 21st centuries has come from its "exurbs,
which have developed into separate and autonomous realms in their own right." These "exurbs" include
Berkeley, the site of the University of California; San Jose, which is currently home to more people than San
Francisco itself; Oakland, and the well-known Silicon Valley, which is a part of the broader San Francisco
Bay Area.

Image Source: Hu, R. (2013). Urban design plans for downtown San Francisco: a paradigm shift?
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Urban-Design-Plans-for-Downtown-San-Francisco%3A-A-
Hu/871b8027cf5407334f1dcee14ca67f27ea23d1c8/figure/0
The exurbs are closely associated with San Francisco even if they are geographically separated from
the city (Silicon Valley and San Jose are roughly 50 km away). For example, San Francisco's once-rich
neighborhoods, like Chinatown and the Mission District, are being touched up and gentrified to make them
appear more desirable as real estate investments for tech millionaires from Silicon Valley. This is a result of
the dot com boom in Silicon Valley.
Since tech companies now provide their employees with shuttle services, transportation is no longer an
obstacle to mobility, which has increased rent in San Francisco's older, more central neighborhoods.
Meanwhile, the people who live in these historic districts continue to live in poverty. Residents of San
Francisco's old historic core oppose the gentrification process, which has recently resulted in confrontations
between them and real estate investors from the suburbs (Nieves, 2000).
Atlanta, Georgia
According to Fujii & Hartshorne's (1995) analysis of Atlanta, the city may have started as a traditional
concentric zone model-based metropolis with a central business area (CBD), downtown, and uptown.

Image Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Atlanta-GA-Metropolitan-Area-and-territory-

considered-for-inclusion-in-the-extended_fig1_227545957
However, its numerous suburbs had established downtowns and CBDs by the middle of the 20th century.
Thus, the writers pinpoint up to four "downtowns" in Atlanta throughout the middle of the 20th century. They
also point out that these diverse urban and suburban ecosystems are linked to one another and cities in and
of themselves, indicating that an urban realms-based model—rather than the numerous nuclei model—better
captures Atlanta's growth trajectory.
 IV. STRENGTHS
1. It is Applicable to Large Cities
- The world has become more and more urbanized. As per the United Nations, up to 33 megacities
exist globally, characterized as urban agglomerations with a population exceeding 10 million. The
number will continue to grow as more people migrate for employment to significant cities. In light of
this, an urban geography theory specifically designed to characterize large towns is required. A
growing number of people on the planet choose to live in a small number of these vast
"megalopolises."
2. It Explains Inner-city Decay
- The urban realm's idea explains why, as commercial activity continues to move outside to other
realms, the historic inner core of a city suffers from an economic and cultural decline. Over time, the
central business center gradually deteriorates as the suburbs and exurbs grow into independent
areas that are independent of it.
3. It Explains the Impact of Gentrification
- The process of gentrification—the eviction of poorer citizens from a region when wealthy individuals
move in—has also been studied using the urban domains paradigm. This process happens when
trade moves from the old central business area to the suburbs and exurbs, causing the former inner
core to deteriorate and decline.

Vance was among the first to draw attention to the problem of class strife in cities with his work on
this subject. One helpful explanation for the gentrification of historically central but impoverished city
core locations is Vance's singular insight into the interdependence of urban realms (despite their
distance from one another). It enables us to comprehend how the wealthy continue to desire,
and the once historic center of the city remains ingrained in the urban imagination despite the
exurbia's remoteness from where they live and work.

V. WEAKNESS
1. It Does Not Take Into Account Race and Ethnicity
- Like many of its predecessors, the urban realms model was developed when research on the
relationship between race, ethnicity, and urban poverty was starting. As such, it needs to provide a
sufficient explanation for how race affects patterns of urban residence.

For example, in San Francisco, East Asians and Hispanics lived in Chinatown and the Mission
District, two historic neighborhoods. These neighborhoods suffered the most when businesses
relocated to the suburbs and exurbs due to city growth. At the same time, White "tech-bros"
dominated the new, tech-enabled development's primary benefactors (Perales, 2017).
Numerous studies have observed that San Francisco's African-American population is continuing to decrease
in direct proportion to the growth of the city's tech industry:
 • According to Atkins (2012), gentrification in San Francisco has resulted in a higher likelihood of
African American displacement relative to other ethnic groups.
• Although African Americans made up 50% of Oakland's population in 1990, Levin (2014) observed
that by 2011, their share had dropped to 30%.
High-value tech skills were more likely to be possessed by the migrants to San Francisco (typically white
males). On the other hand, people with less education and less employable skills—typically African
Americans or Hispanics—were more likely to have left San Francisco.

2. It is Overly Simplistic
- According to the urban realms model, a city's land space can be used for the following four land
uses: public/semi-public, commercial, industrial, and residential. There has been contention that this
four-category land use scheme needs to be more intricate in order to accurately represent the
intricacy of actual cities.For example, real estate developers in numerous megacities worldwide
develop creative solutions that defy this crude categorization to handle the ever more restrictive
difficulties of decreasing space.

The SOHO unit is one example of this. Small Office Home Office is referred to as SOHO. A SOHO
unit has two sections: one for residential usage and the other for business office use. Cities with
limited space, like Singapore, are seeing a rise in the popularity of SOHOs (Rajasurian, 2022).
Because a SOHO crosses the boundaries between residential and commercial uses, it fits outside
the standard four categories used by the urban realms model to classify land uses.

VI. OPPORTUNITIES
3. Integration with Technology:
- Modern technological developments, such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), offer chances
to improve the Urban Realms Model by integrating spatial data for more precise analysis and
visualization.
4. Expansion of Variables:
- The model's application and relevance could be increased by expanding its incorporation to include
other variables, such as cultural influences, environmental factors, and demographic trends, through
further research and development.
5. Policy Relevance:
- The model's insights can help shape urban policies and tactics that support sustainable growth,
enhance infrastructure, and alleviate socioeconomic inequality in metropolitan areas.
6. Interdisciplinary Collaboration:
- By incorporating different viewpoints and approaches, collaboration amongst urban planners,
geographers, economists, sociologists, and other specialists can enhance the model and provide a
more thorough understanding of urban systems.
VII. THREATS
Changing Urban Dynamics:
- The Urban Realms Model's validity may be questioned by rapidly changing socioeconomic
developments and urbanization, necessitating ongoing revision and modification to stay relevant.

Environmental Pressures:
- The environment can be severely strained by urban growth, resulting in pollution, habitat loss, and
loss of resources, all of which could jeopardize the sustainability of the urban realms shown in the
model.
Social Inequalities:
- Due to the model's emphasis on spatial organization, social inequality within cities may go unnoticed,
worsening gaps in possibilities, assets, and services.
Criticism and Resistance:
- Urban theorists and practitioners who support different frameworks or methods for comprehending
and planning urban regions may oppose and criticize the concept.

VIII. CONCLUSION

The urban realms model mitigates some of the shortcomings of the numerous nuclei approach. Major
megacities are made up of numerous smaller, independent cities that interact with one another while yet
having unique hubs for business, industry, and housing. Each world is its realm that interacts with and
influences the others rather than being a nucleus reliant upon the central downtown area.
 IX. DEFINITION

MULTIPLE NUCLEI MODEL

Figure 14: Harric & Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model

Source: StudySmarter. (n.d.). https://app.studysmarter.de/studyset/9791163/summary/63486106
The Multiple nuclei model outperforms the concentric zone model by suggesting that cities might be
made up of numerous commercial centers or multiple nuclei around which commercial and residential zones
emerge rather than just one central business district (CBD). Due to the varying geographical and
environmental requirements of different commercial and industrial activities, such diverse centers emerge.
For example, industries that rely on exports or imports need to be situated close to seaports or airports.
The concentric zone model was initially presented in 1925, when commercial aviation was still in its
infancy and airports were still required in most significant cities. CBDs were usually found around interior
transit hubs or seaports, where the town was first established. But in a matter of decades, airports were
considered indispensable landmarks in most of the world's largest cities. Commercial ecosystems sprang up
around airports, including air cargo-related firms, hotels catering to frequent travelers, and residential
buildings housing the labor force employed by all these air travel-related businesses.
Nowadays, the majority of big cities have two or more CBDs. Most significant cities have evolved to have
multiple CBDs and thus multiple nuclei as a result of the development of other, newer forms of industry and
commerce in the 20th century, such as software and technology, movies and entertainment, etc., that were
little known in 1925 when Ernest Burgess first developed the concentric zone model.
X. EXAMPLES/APPLICATIONS

Houston, Texas

Image Source: Burgess, H. (n.d.). Urban models 4-box Analysis. Ppt Download.
https://slideplayer.com/slide/14068759/
Midway through the 19th century, Texas' extensive cotton plantations produced cotton, leading to
Houston's founding as a hub for transportation and storage. Thus, the cotton storage and transportation
sectors were the locations of the first commercial and residential hubs. Following the discovery of oil in Texas
in the late 19th century, the oil and gas sector significantly contributed to Houston's GDP. Petrochemical
products, oilfield equipment, and drilling supplies became a vital industry in Houston. As a result, the city
formed a new "nucleus" around which concentric zones of expansion spread.
The city's expansion in the latter half of the 20th century was greatly aided by the services sector,
especially in the medical field. The largest medical complex in the world is the Texas Medical Center, which
is in southern Houston and is home to more than 60 hospitals, medical research facilities, and nursing and
paramedical institutions (Sachs, 2011). It sees over 10 million patients annually and employs over a million
workers. Most of the more than 20,000 local residents work at the medical facility.
As a result, in the late 20th century, a third nucleus emerged—different from the cotton and oil and gas
centers. Many software and technology companies, including Hewlett-Packard (HP), have declared that they
will be moving their headquarters to Houston in the twenty-first century as part of a more significant movement
of IT companies from California to Texas. This is causing the emergence of a second nucleus (Folger, 2021).
The other nucleus, which supports more established sectors, is nonetheless crucial to the city's economy
simultaneously. Texas and Houston's economies rely heavily on oil and cotton, but technology and medical
advancements are critical for employment creation and growth. Houston thus has a minimum of four nuclei,
each with a distinct functional specialty.

Delhi, India

Image Source: Delhi Master Plan 2021 - Map, Summary & Free Download! (2021, September 28).
AssetYogi. https://assetyogi.com/delhi-master-plan/
Since the tenth century CE, Delhi has played a significant role in world affairs by acting as the capital
of several sizable South Asian empires. Consequently, the town grew around several nuclei related to the
commercial and administrative inclinations of the state or empire that governed it.
For example, the walled city of Delhi, commonly referred to as Old Delhi, served as the capital of the
Mughal Empire, which controlled most of South Asia from the 16th to the 18th century. Narrow, twisting
streets, busy bazaars teeming with hawkers peddling their wares, roadside kiosks piled high with savory and
spice goods, and majestic medieval mosques, minarets, and mausoleums built of marble and red sandstone
are what define this section of the city.
At the close of the 20th century, this area, called South Delhi, became the latest of Delhi's several
foci and cultural and economic centers. When the Indian IT industry took off in the early years of the twenty-
first century, a new hub called Gurgaon—a Delhi suburb now called Gurugram—arose even farther south.
Several of the largest multinational firms in the world choose to headquarters themselves there and manage
their activities throughout Asia. The offices of nearly all major international corporations, including British
Petroleum, Bank of America, and Boston Consulting Group, are located in Gurgaon's many steel and glass
skyscrapers. These various nuclei cohabit in the contemporary city of Delhi while having existed apart for
more than five centuries.
Chicago

Image Source: View of the vertical Space Problem | Cartographic Perspectives. (n.d.).
https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/cp74-perdue/html

The numerous nuclei concept was initially developed to describe Chicago's development in the middle
of the 20th century. The Chicago Portage, a water transportation system that connected the Great Lakes
waterways to the Mississippi River and allowed easy access from the North Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky
Mountains in the American Midwest and down to the Gulf of Mexico where the Mississippi River drained, was
the center of economic activity in Chicago at the time of its founding in the early 19th century. Thus, the
transportation and waterway sectors gave rise to Chicago's early central business districts (CBDs). However,
as time went on, other sectors of the economy, such as manufacturing, banking, aerospace, and education,
prospered, and the city's various nuclei began to emerge in multiple places.
Among the top colleges in the world is the University of Chicago, which has graduated over 94 Nobel
Laureates during their lives. The university is in Chicago's Hyde Park district, also home to several other
academic institutions. It is well known for being a center for higher learning that draws top researchers from
around the globe. As a result, Hyde Park is only one of the many hubs around which Chicago keeps growing.
London
London's political, administrative, and commercial hubs are divided into several nuclei. The Bank of
England is located in The City of London, also called "The City," a major financial and business center in
London. Known as "The City" or "the square mile" due to its 1.12 square mile expanse, it is home to the
global headquarters of several of the biggest companies, such as Unilever and Standard Chartered Bank.
 The second economic hub of London, Canary Wharf, is 2.5 miles east of "The City" and is home to some
of the city's most prominent skyscrapers, including the 50-story One Canada Square, formerly the highest
skyscraper in the United Kingdom. Westminster, the location of the British Parliament, and Buckingham
Palace, the home of the English queen, constitute a third core of London. As a result, Westminster serves as
London's political and administrative hub.
Lagos, Nigeria
Lagos is the most populated metropolis in Africa and the largest city in Nigeria. Nigeria's oil sector is
centered around this seaport, one of Africa's busiest and home to the continent's most well-known film and
entertainment industries. Nigeria is one of the world's top exporters of crude oil. Furthermore, Lagos serves
as West Africa's center for information and communication technology (ICT).
As other industrial and commercial hubs arise in various parts of the city, Lagos' land use patterns follow
the numerous nuclei model due to these vast and diverse enterprises (Olayiwola et al., 2005). Situated in the
center of Lagos Island, Lagos's Central Business District (CBD) encompasses commercial thoroughfares
from the colonial era, including Church Street, Broad Street, and Balogun Street. Lagos has established
several additional CBDs to meet the rapidly growing metropolis's demands. Two CBDs are located: one in
Ikeja, which is 17 kilometers from Lagos, and the other in the Lekki Special Economic Zone (SEZ), a suburb
of Lagos.

XI. STRENGTHS
1. Explains Multiple Central Business Districts Within a Single City
The numerous nuclei model's capacity to explain the existence of distinct CBDs is undoubtedly a
benefit above its predecessors. This served as the model's primary purpose.
2. Explains the Development of Suburbs and Satellite Towns
In contrast to the concentric zone model, the numerous nuclei model provides a compelling
explanation for how suburbs and satellite towns grow out from the primary urban center and
eventually become independent urban centers.
3. Makes More Practical Assumptions
The flat, infinite amount of land that may be used to expand a metropolis was one of the fundamental
tenets of the concentric zone model. On the other hand, the numerous nuclei model starts with the
premise that the terrain's constraints would influence how locals use the land because the ground is
not flat. As a result, it becomes more valuable in real-world situations.
XII. WEAKNESS
Fails to Explain the Development of Slums and Informal Settlements
Most large cities now have slums, squatter colonies, and informal settlements as an integral part of
their landscape. These are primarily found in large quantities in Asia, Africa, and Latin America urban
settings. Slums' appearance and placement within the urban landscape's geographical division, as
specified by the numerous nuclei model, are not explained by this model
XIII. OPPORTUNITIES
Basis for further research
- Notwithstanding its drawbacks, the Multiple Nuclei Model offers an insightful framework for analyzing
urban dynamics and can guide future investigations into the variables affecting the emergence and
development of urban nuclei.
Informing urban policy
- Comprehending the existence and interplay of various nuclei in urban environments can facilitate
formulating urban policies, enabling decision-makers to more efficiently allocate resources towards
public services, zoning laws, and infrastructure development.

XIV. THREATS
Inadequate representation
- Urban planning tactics may prove inefficient if the Multiple Nuclei Model is the only one utilized, as
this could result in neglecting other important elements influencing urban development.
Risk of overspecialization
- Planners can focus too limited on particular city functions or centers, ignoring the interdependence
and connectivity of many urban landscape elements.

XV. CONCLUSION
The multiple nuclei concept significantly outperformed the concentric zone model. More realistic
assumptions are made, and cities' observed land usage patterns are more effectively explained. But it doesn't
address how slums and informal settlements, which comprise a sizable portion of most metropolitan
landscapes, came to be.
Real-world cities like Lagos, New York City, and London follow numerous nuclei concepts. Each of these
cities has more than one CBD, each serving different industries and functions.

XVI. DEFINITION

CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL

 Figure 28: Concentric Zone Model
Source: https://helpfulprofessor.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/concentric-zone-model.jpg
Sociologist Ernest Burgess first presented the model in 1925, and several scholars have since improved
upon it. According to the concentric zone model, cities expand in rings from a core commercial area.Office
buildings, retail stores, and other companies are located in the CBD, the innermost ring. Residential areas
with a lesser density comprise the transition zone, the following ring. While there might be some commercial
growth along essential routes, the other rings are mainly made up of single-family houses.
The Five Zones In The Concentric Zone Model
The Central Business District
- The central business area, or CBD, is the city's commercial and economic hub. Usually, the majority
of the town's industry, commerce, and jobs are concentrated in this area because it is the oldest.
This area has a relatively high population density. In North America, this area is commonly referred
to as downtown.
The Transition Zone
- There is a combination of residential and business properties in the transition zone. Most residential
apartments are of low quality, and the only people who choose to live in the CBD are laborers.
The Working Class Residential Zone (InnerSuburbs)
- Most working-class employees in the central business district reside in this area. The working classes
find it advantageous because of its closeness to the CBD, as in the past, they lacked the resources
to travel there for employment.
The Middle-Class Residential Zone Or The Outer Suburbs
- Better and more expensive housing is available in this region for those who can afford it. It's usually
enough removed from the CBD to be considered a comparatively newer area with better facilities
and newer structures.
The Upper-Class Residential Zone Or The Outskirts Of Outer Suburbs
- Usually, the wealthiest area inside the metropolitan agglomeration is this one. The housing is
generously sized and dispersed, and the inhabitants can afford to drive their cars to work in the
central business district. This was considered a luxury when the model was created in the early 20th
century. Uptown is the term used to describe this area in North America.
.

XVII. EXAMPLES/APPLICATIONS

GREATER LONDON

Figure 21: Greater London

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_London

London is often cited as an example of polycentric development with several significant centers of
activity beyond the traditional Central Business District (CBD) in the city center. Areas like Canary Wharf in
East London, the West End, and Stratford have developed as major business and commercial hubs, each
with its own distinct character and economic base. The decentralization of activity has helped alleviate
congestion in the city center while promoting economic growth in peripheral areas.

RANDSTAD, NETHERLANDS

Figure 22:The Randstad study area within the Netherlands

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Randstad-study-area-within-the-
Netherlands_fig1_306134987

Randstad is a polycentric urban region in the Netherlands, comprising major cities like Amsterdam,
Rotterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht, among others. Rather than relying solely on Amsterdam as the primary
economic and cultural center, the Randstad has developed multiple urban nodes, each contributing to the
region's overall dynamism. This decentralized approach has facilitated economic diversification, improved
accessibility, and enhanced the quality of life for residents across the region. (Zeljic, A. S. ,2019)
XVIII. STRENGTHS
Simplicity
- The model allows researchers, politicians, and urban planners to comprehend the fundamentals of
urban land use by clearly describing urban structure.
Historical significance
- The concept is still relevant today, as seen by its significant impact on urban planning and the
ongoing conversations it sparks about urban development and spatial organization.
Useful heuristic tool
- The model's concentric rings provide a valuable heuristic for comprehending the overall spatial
arrangement of cities and as a springboard for deeper investigation and analysis of urban dynamics.

XX. OPPORTUNITIES
Basis for comparison
- The Concentric Zone Model gives academics and planners a starting point for contrasting and
comparing various land use patterns and urban architecture, enabling them to find patterns and
distinctions between cities and regions.
Inspiration for further research
- Despite its shortcomings, the model can further investigate the variables influencing urban spatial
organization and the processes by which cities change.

XXI. THREATS
Misinterpretation and oversimplification
- Metropolitan dynamics can be superficially understood by relying only on the Concentric Zone Model, which
ignores the many relationships and processes that influence metropolitan environments.
Resistance to change
- Due to its historical popularity and simplicity, the model may make it more challenging to embrace more
complex and context-specific approaches to urban planning and development, which could perpetuate
antiquated or ineffective methods.

XXII. CONCLUSION
The large industrial metropolis was a relatively new phenomenon when the concentric zone model was
developed. The plan has a few drawbacks regarding 21st-century cities because they are nearly a
century old.
The basic tenets of the model, which state that transportation accessibility and industrial and commercial
development trail population expansion, are still applicable, nevertheless. The model also served as the
basis for several other urban geography models, including the Urban Realms Model, the Sector Model
created by Homer Hoyt in 1939, and the Multiple Nuclei model created by Chauncy Harris and Edward
Ullman in 1945.
These models of urban geography need to be further refined since a large portion of the working classes
no longer have a pressing concern for commute time or proximity to their place of employment. Today,
a large portion of the urban population works in the service sector, and remote work and work-from-home
opportunities are becoming more and more common.
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