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382 ❍ CHAPTER 10 INFERENCE FROM SMALL SAMPLES

FI GURE 10 .1 0( a )
● Two-Sample T-Test and CI: Online, Classroom
MINITAB output for
Example 10.5
using both methods. As long as both analyses lead to the same conclusions, you need
not concern yourself with the equality or inequality of variances.
The MINITAB and Excel outputs resulting from the pooled method of analysis for the
data of Example 10.5 are shown in Figure 10.10(a) and (b). Notice that the ratio of
the two sample variances, (4.94/4.48)2 ! 1.22, is less than 3, which makes the pooled
method appropriate. The calculated value of t ! 1.65 and the exact p-value ! .059
with 16 degrees of freedom are shown in both of the outputs. The exact p-value makes
it quite easy for you to determine the significance or nonsignificance of the sample
results. You will find instructions for generating this output in the section “Technol-
ogy Today” at the end of this chapter.
Two-sample T for Online vs Classroom
N Mean StDev SE Mean
Online 9 35.22 4.94 1.6
Classroom 9 31.56 4.48 1.5
Difference = mu (Online) - mu (Classroom)
Estimate for difference: 3.67
95% lower bound for difference: -0.21
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs >): T-Value = 1.65 P-Value = 0.059 DF = 16
Both use Pooled StDev = 4.7155

FI GURE 10 .1 0( b )
●
Excel output for
Example 10.5

If there is reason to believe that the normality assumptions have been violated, you can
test for a shift in location of two population distributions using the nonparametric Wilcoxon
rank sum test of Chapter 15. This test procedure, which requires fewer assumptions con-
cerning the nature of the population probability distributions, is almost as sensitive in de-
tecting a difference in population means when the conditions necessary for the t-test are
satisfied. It may be more sensitive when the normality assumption is not satisfied.

10.4 EXERCISES

BASIC TECHNIQUES
10.18 Give the number of degrees of freedom for s2, 10.19 Calculate s 2, the pooled estimator for s 2, in
2
the pooled estimator of s , in these cases: these cases:
a. n1 ! 16, n2 ! 8 a. n1 ! 10, n2 ! 4, s12 ! 3.4, s22 ! 4.9
b. n1 ! 10, n2 ! 12 b. n1 ! 12, n2 ! 21, s12 ! 18, s22 ! 23
c. n1 ! 15, n2 ! 3
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10.4 SMALL-SAMPLE INFERENCES FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO POPULATION MEANS ❍ 383

10.20 Two independent random samples of sizes b. What is the observed value of the test statistic?
n1 ! 4 and n2 ! 5 are selected from each of two What is the p-value associated with this test?
normal populations: c. What is the pooled estimate s 2 of the population
variance?
Population 1 12 3 8 5
Population 2 14 7 7 9 6 d. Use the answers to part b to draw conclusions
about the difference in the two population means.
a. Calculate s 2, the pooled estimator of s 2. e. Find the 95% confidence interval for the difference
b. Find a 90% confidence interval for (m1 " m2), the in the population means. Does this interval confirm
difference between the two population means. your conclusions in part d?
c. Test H0 : (m1 " m2) ! 0 against Ha : (m1 " m2) # 0 10.24 The MS Excel printout shows a test for the dif-
for a ! .05. State your conclusions. ference in two population means.
10.21 Independent random samples of n1 ! 16 and
n2 ! 13 observations were selected from two normal MS Excel output for Exercise 10.24
populations with equal variances:
Population
1 2
Sample Size 16 13
Sample Mean 34.6 32.2
Sample Variance 4.8 5.9

a. Suppose you wish to detect a difference between

the population means. State the null and alternative
hypotheses for the test.
b. Find the rejection region for the test in part a for
a ! .01.
c. Find the value of the test statistic.
d. Find the approximate p-value for the test. a. Do the two sample variances indicate that the assump-
tion of a common population variance is reasonable?
e. Conduct the test and state your conclusions.
b. What is the observed value of the test statistic? If
10.22 Refer to Exercise 10.21. Find a 99% confi- this is a two-tailed test, what is the p-value associ-
dence interval for (m1 " m2). ated with the test?
10.23 The MINITAB printout shows a test for the dif- c. What is the pooled estimate s2 of the population
ference in two population means. variance?
d. Use the answers to part b to draw conclusions about
MINITAB output for Exercise 10.23 the difference in the two population means.
e. Use the information in the printout to construct a
Two-Sample T-Test and CI: Sample 1, Sample 2 95% confidence interval for the difference in the
Two-sample T for Sample 1 vs Sample 2 population means. Does this interval confirm your
N Mean StDev SE Mean
Sample 1 6 29.00 4.00 1.6
conclusions in part d?
Sample 2 7 28.86 4.67 1.8
Difference = mu (Sample 1) - mu (Sample 2) APPLICATIONS
Estimate for difference: 0.14 10.25 Healthy Teeth Jan Lindhe conducted a study
95% CI for difference: (-5.2, 5.5)
on the effect of an oral antiplaque rinse on plaque
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs not =):
T-Value = 0.06 P-Value = 0.95 DF = 11 buildup on teeth.6 Fourteen people whose teeth were
Both use Pooled StDev = 4.38 thoroughly cleaned and polished were randomly
assigned to two groups of seven subjects each. Both
a. Do the two sample standard deviations indicate that groups were assigned to use oral rinses (no brushing)
the assumption of a common population variance is for a 2-week period. Group 1 used a rinse that
reasonable? contained an antiplaque agent. Group 2, the control
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384 ❍ CHAPTER 10 INFERENCE FROM SMALL SAMPLES

group, received a similar rinse except that, unknown to 10.27 Runners and Cyclists Chronic anterior com-
the subjects, the rinse contained no antiplaque agent. A partment syndrome is a condition characterized by
plaque index x, a measure of plaque buildup, was exercise-induced pain in the lower leg. Swelling and
recorded at 14 days with means and standard devia- impaired nerve and muscle function also accompany this
tions for the two groups shown in the table. pain, which is relieved by rest. Susan Beckham and col-
Control Group Antiplaque Group leagues conducted an experiment involving 10 healthy
runners and 10 healthy cyclists to determine whether
Sample Size 7 7
there are significant differences in pressure measure-
Mean 1.26 .78
Standard Deviation .32 .32 ments within the anterior muscle compartment for run-
ners and cyclists.7 The data summary—compartment
a. State the null and alternative hypotheses that should pressure in millimeters of mercury (Hg)—is as follows:
be used to test the effectiveness of the antiplaque
Runners Cyclists
oral rinse.
Standard Standard
b. Do the data provide sufficient evidence to indicate Condition Mean Deviation Mean Deviation
that the oral antiplaque rinse is effective? Test using
Rest 14.5 3.92 11.1 3.98
a ! .05.
80% maximal
c. Find the approximate p-value for the test. O2 consumption 12.2 3.49 11.5 4.95
Maximal O2 consumption 19.1 16.9 12.2 4.47
10.26 Tuna, again In Exercise 10.6 we
EX1026 presented data on the estimated average price for a. Test for a significant difference in the average com-
a 6-ounce can or a 7.06-ounce pouch of tuna, based on partment pressure between runners and cyclists
prices paid nationally in supermarkets. A portion of the under the resting condition. Use a ! .05.
data is reproduced in the table below. Use the MINITAB b. Construct a 95% confidence interval estimate of the
printout to answer the questions. difference in means for runners and cyclists under
Light Tuna Light Tuna the condition of exercising at 80% of maximal
in Water in Oil oxygen consumption.
.99 .53 2.56 .62 c. To test for a significant difference in the average com-
1.92 1.41 1.92 .66 partment pressures at maximal oxygen consumption,
1.23 1.12 1.30 .62 should you use the pooled or unpooled t-test? Explain.
.85 .63 1.79 .65
.65 .67 1.23 .60 10.28 Disinfectants An experiment published in The
.69 .60 .67 American Biology Teacher studied the efficacy of using
.60 .66
95% ethanol or 20% bleach as a disinfectant in removing
MINITAB output for Exercise 10.26 bacterial and fungal contamination when culturing plant
Two-Sample T-Test and CI: Water, Oil tissues. The experiment was repeated 15 times with each
Two-sample T for Water vs Oil
disinfectant, using eggplant as the plant tissue being cul-
N Mean StDev SE Mean tured.8 Five cuttings per plant were placed on a petri dish
Water 14 0.896 0.400 0.11 for each disinfectant and stored at 25°C for 4 weeks. The
Oil 11 1.147 0.679 0.20 observation reported was the number of uncontaminated
Difference = mu (Water) - mu (Oil) eggplant cuttings after the 4-week storage.
Estimate for difference: -0.251
95% CI for difference: (-0.700, 0.198) Disinfectant 95% Ethanol 20% Bleach
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs not =): Mean 3.73 4.80
T-Value = -1.16 P-Value = 0.260 DF = 23 Variance 2.78095 .17143
Both use Pooled StDev = 0.5389 n 15 15
Pooled variance 1.47619
a. Do the data in the table present sufficient evidence
to indicate a difference in the average prices of light a. Are you willing to assume that the underlying vari-
tuna in water versus oil? Test using a ! .05. ances are equal?
b. What is the p-value for the test? b. Using the information from part a, are you willing
c. The MINITAB analysis uses the pooled estimate of to conclude that there is a significant difference in
s 2. Is the assumption of equal variances reason- the mean numbers of uncontaminated eggplants for
able? Why or why not? the two disinfectants tested?
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10.4 SMALL-SAMPLE INFERENCES FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO POPULATION MEANS ❍ 385

10.29 Titanium A geologist collected 20 dif- a. Do the data provide sufficient evidence to indicate
EX1029 ferent ore samples, all of the same weight, and that the mean oxygen content below the town is less
randomly divided them into two groups. The titanium than the mean oxygen content above? Test using
contents of the samples, found using two different a ! .05.
methods, are listed in the table: b. Suppose you prefer estimation as a method of infer-
Method 1 Method 2 ence. Estimate the difference in the mean dissolved
oxygen contents for locations above and below the
.011 .013 .013 .015 .014 .011 .016 .013 .012 .015
town. Use a 95% confidence interval.
.013 .010 .013 .011 .012 .012 .017 .013 .014 .015
10.32 Freestyle Swimmers In an effort to
a. Use an appropriate method to test for a significant EX1032 compare the average swimming times for two
difference in the average titanium contents using swimmers, each swimmer was asked to swim freestyle
the two different methods. for a distance of 100 yards at randomly selected times.
b. Determine a 95% confidence interval estimate for The swimmers were thoroughly rested between laps
(m1 " m2). Does your interval estimate substantiate and did not race against each other, so that each sam-
your conclusion in part a? Explain. ple of times was an independent random sample. The
times for each of 10 trials are shown for the two
10.30 Raisins The numbers of raisins in
swimmers.
EX1030 each of 14 miniboxes (1/2-ounce size) were
counted for a generic brand and for Sunmaid® brand Swimmer 1 Swimmer 2
raisins: 59.62 59.74 59.81 59.41
59.48 59.43 59.32 59.63
Generic Brand Sunmaid 59.65 59.72 59.76 59.50
25 26 25 28 25 29 24 24 59.50 59.63 59.64 59.83
26 28 28 27 28 24 28 22 60.01 59.68 59.86 59.51
26 27 24 25 25 28 30 27
26 26 28 24 Suppose that swimmer 2 was last year’s winner when
the two swimmers raced. Does it appear that the aver-
a. Although counts cannot have a normal distribu- age time for swimmer 2 is still faster than the average
tion, do these data have approximately normal time for swimmer 1 in the 100-yard freestyle? Find the
distributions? (HINT: Use a histogram or stem and approximate p-value for the test and interpret the
leaf plot.) results.
b. Are you willing to assume that the underlying pop- 10.33 Freestyle Swimmers, continued Refer to
ulation variances are equal? Why? Exercise 10.32. Construct a lower 95% one-sided con-
c. Use the p-value approach to determine whether fidence bound for the difference in the average times
there is a significant difference in the mean num- for the two swimmers. Does this interval confirm your
bers of raisins per minibox. What are the implica- conclusions in Exercise 10.32?
tions of your conclusion?
10.34 Comparing NFL Quarterbacks How
10.31 Dissolved O2 Content, continued Refer to EX1034 does Aaron Rodgers, quarterback for the 2011
Exercise 10.7, in which we measured the dissolved Super Bowl Champion Green Bay Packers, compare to
oxygen content in river water to determine whether a Drew Brees, quarterback for the 2010 Super Bowl
stream had sufficient oxygen to support aquatic life. winners, the New Orleans Saints? The table below
A pollution control inspector suspected that a river shows the number of completed passes for each athlete
community was releasing amounts of semitreated during the 2010 NFL football season.9 Use the Excel
sewage into a river. To check his theory, he drew five printout to answer the questions that follow.
randomly selected specimens of river water at a Aaron Rodgers Drew Brees
location above the town, and another five below. The
19 21 7 27 37 25
dissolved oxygen readings (in parts per million) are
19 15 25 28 34 29
as follows: 34 27 19 30 27 35
12 22 33 29 22
Above Town 4.8 5.2 5.0 4.9 5.1 27 26 24 23
Below Town 5.0 4.7 4.9 4.8 4.9 18 21 21 24
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386 ❍ CHAPTER 10 INFERENCE FROM SMALL SAMPLES

d. Use the information given in the printout to con-

struct a 95% confidence interval for the difference
in the average number of completed passes for the
two quarterbacks. Does the confidence interval con-
firm your conclusion in part b? Explain.
10.35 An Archeological Find An article in
EX1035 Archaeometry involved an analysis of 26 sam-
ples of Romano-British pottery, found at four different
kiln sites in the United Kingdom.10 The samples were
analyzed to determine their chemical composition and
the percentage of aluminum oxide in each of 10 sam-
ples at two sites is shown below.
Island Thorns Ashley Rails
18.3 17.7
15.8 18.3
a. The Excel analysis uses the pooled estimate of s2. Is 18.0 16.7
the assumption of equal variances reasonable? Why 18.0 14.8
or why not? 20.8 19.1
b. Do the data indicate that there is a difference in the Does the data provide sufficient information to indi-
average number of completed passes for the two cate that there is a difference in the average percentage
quarterbacks? Test using a ! .05. of aluminum oxide at the two sites? Test at the 5%
c. What is the p-value for the test? level of significance.

SMALL-SAMPLE INFERENCES
FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO
MEANS: A PAIRED-DIFFERENCE TEST
10.5
To compare the wearing qualities of two types of automobile tires, A and B, a tire of
type A and one of type B are randomly assigned and mounted on the rear wheels of
each of five automobiles. The automobiles are then operated for a specified number
of miles, and the amount of wear is recorded for each tire. These measurements
appear in Table 10.3. Do the data present sufficient evidence to indicate a difference
in the average wear for the two tire types?

TABLE 10.3
● Average Wear for Two Types of Tires
Automobile Tire A Tire B
1 10.6 10.2
2 9.8 9.4
3 12.3 11.8
4 9.7 9.1
5 8.8 8.3
!x1 ! 10.24 x!2 ! 9.76
s1 ! 1.316 s2 ! 1.328

Table 10.3 shows a difference of (x!1 " !x2 ) ! (10.24 " 9.76) ! .48 between the two
sample means, while the standard deviations of both samples are approximately 1.3.
Given the variability of the data and the small number of measurements, this is a rather