Chapter 1 : Introduction

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• Organic chemistry is defined as the study of carbon/hydrogen-
containing compounds and their derivatives.
• The Uniqueness of Carbon : >
enable it to form strong bonds with:
1- The structure of the carbon atom. 1- other carbon atoms
2- The position of carbon in the periodic table. 2- other elements (H, O, N, halogens,...).
• Each organic compound has its own characteristic set of physical and
chemical properties which depend on the structure of the molecule.

Atom
L W W Atom is electrically neutral
Protons (P) Neutrons (n) Electrons (e) Number of electrons = Number of protons
Positively Negatively
charged No charged charged

In nucleus Outside the nucleus • Atomic number = the number of protons

• Atomic weight ≈ P+n
• Electrons are distributed around the nucleus in
successive shells (principal energy levels)

The energy levels ·

• The maximum capacity of a shell = 2n² e
- n = number of the energy level
• designated by :
1- capital letters (K, L, M, N, ..)
2- whole numbers (n)

• Valence Electrons are those electrons located in

the outermost energy level (the valance shell)
Valence electrons 1 4 5 6 7 7
• Valence the number of bonds that an atom of the
element can form (usually equal to the number of
electrons needed to fill the valence shell)
• Lewis pointed out that (1916) :
The noble gases were stable elements and he described their lack of reactivity to

Electron-dot structures
their having their valence shells filled with electrons.
- 2 electrons in case of helium
- 8 electrons for the other noble gases
• The symbol of the element represents the core of the atom.
• The valance electrons are shown as dots around the symbol. ↓
• in interacting with one another atoms can achieve a greater degree of
stability by rearrangement of the valence electrons to acquire the outer-shell
structure of the closest noble gas in the periodic table.
 Chemical Bonding
A transfer
>1 8
.
: Ex

1- Ionic Bonds (metal+non-metal) • Electronegativity Measures The Ability -

*
L
F > O > Cl = N > Br > I = C
• The electrostatic force of attraction between of An Atom To Attract Electrons
oppositely charged ions
(metal)
• Cations: Elements at the left of the periodic table give
up their valance electrons and become +ve charged ions
(non-metal)
• Anions: Elements at the right of the periodic table
gain the electrons and become -ve charged ions
• The majority of ionic compounds are inorganic substances.

A share
Non Polar
2- Covalent Bonds (non-metal+non-metal)
L
Polar Covalent Bonds
• Shearing
Covalent Bonds
• Shearing
• The mutual sharing of one or more electron pairs between atoms electrons unequally electrons equally
0 .
5-1 .
: . . . 96
8 .
10 .
41. , 41 ·

• Elements that are close to each other in the periodic table attain the is . Will :j dinin -

stable noble gas configuration by sharing valence electrons between them. ! :: d , d

!
- q ·
-

b'Ng = o
---

• A shared electron pair between two atoms or single · :s -

is 31:0 & yeci e

covalent bond, will be represented by a dash (-).

- Coordinate Covalent Bonds
• There are molecules in which one atom supplies both
electrons to another atom in the formation of a covalent bond 1

• Lewis base : • Lewis acid :

that furnishes the electron pair to that accepts the electron pair to
form a coordinate covalent bond. complete its valance shell

• Covalence Number : The number of covalent bonds that

an atom can form with other atoms.
= the number of electrons needed to fill its valance shell.

Atomic Orbitals
• s orbital is spherically shaped
• represents a specific region in space in electron cloud with the atom’s nucleus
which an electron is most likely to be found. and its center.
S

• Atomic orbitals are designated in S,p • p orbital is a dumbbell-shaped

the order in which they are filled by S,p,d electron cloud with the nucleus
the letters s, p, d, and f.
S,p,d,f
between the two lobes.
 • When filling the atomic orbitals :
1- An atomic orbital contain no more 2 electrons.
2- Electrons fill orbitals of lower energy first.
3- No sub-orbital is filled by 2 electrons until all the sub-orbitals
of equal energy have at least one electron.

Molecular Orbitals
-

• A covalent bond consists of the overlap

between two atomic orbitals

1- sigma Bonds (σ) (end-on , Head-Head)

2- pi Bonds (π) (Side-Side)
• overlap of two s
• side-side overlap
• overlap of s+p of two p

• end-on overlap
of two p

·
Heat of formation (bond energy) : The amount of energy released when a bond is formed. • A molecule is more
stable than the isolated
Bond dissociation energy : The amount of energy that must be absorbed to break a bond. constituent atoms.

• Bond length: The distance between nuclei in the molecular structure.

Hybridization
Inductive Effect Alkane (single bond) Alkene (double bond) Alkyne (triple bond)
• The permanent displacement of electrons forming a Sp³ Sp² Sp
covalent bond (sigma σ bonds ) towards the more 109.5° 120° 180°
electronegative element or group.
Regular trigonal Linear
•is represented by the symbol, the arrow
pointing towards the more electronegative tetrahedron
element or group of elements.

Each Sp³ orbital has

the same energy
+I -I called sp³ hybrid
orbitals
effect if the substituent effect if the substituent
electron-donating electron-withdrawing
— CH₃ , — C₂H₅ — COOH , —COOR , CX₃ ,
— NH₂ , — OH , OR NO₂ , —CN , —X
—COR , —CHO , —SO₃H

-N ,
+ <R - - 4 -4
.
.
 Bond Polarity and Dipole Moment (µ)
~

is measured by its D
the amount of charge
dipole moment (μ). separation ( +δ and –δ )
multiplied by the bond length.
μ=0 μ>0
• Non polar bond • polar bond
• Shearing electrons • Shearing electrons
equally unequally
end' -

A covalent bond can be broken in either two ways :

> Homolytic cleavage
In non-polar bonds

< Heterolytic cleavage

In polar bonds

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