Allama Iqbal Open

University

M.COM
Course: Basics of Technical English
(8504)
Semester: Autumn, 2022
ASSIGNMENT No. 02
NAME OF STUDENT:
MUHAMMAD ABUDLLAH
Roll No 0000208029

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Q.1 How would you combine features to orchestrate the text for readers

to provide proper guidelines? How can you use text features to convey

meanings? Give proper examples. (20)

Some text features are very popular and can be found in most non-fiction texts

and even some fiction texts.

Most primary students have used the picture walk technique to preview text

(Stahl, 2004). By looking at and talking about the illustrations in a text,

students activate prior knowledge, make predictions, and set a purpose for

reading (Clay, 1991; Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). Effective primary teachers use

this instructional strategy when teaching students how to read (Taylor, 2002),

yet this supportive practice is not as common when students read expository

text and is often discarded as students move from reading picture books to

chapter books.

When students enter the intermediate grades, they are required to read more

textbooks and informational texts to learn, but reading textbooks and

informational texts can be difficult for students due to the higher level

vocabulary and concept-dense content. In addition to these complexities,

expository nonfiction also contains numerous text features that supplement and

present important content that the student must read in order to fully

comprehend. Interestingly though, students often ignore these essential text

features (Kelley & Clausen-Grace, 2008; Spencer, 2003), even though they have

been taught their importance.

After acknowledging that our intermediate students failed to read or gave little

importance to text features when reading, we developed the text feature walk

strategy. The text feature walk is a technique that follows a protocol similar to

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the primary picture walk. This article will describe how to employ a text feature

walk in your classroom and report on the benefits we have garnered from using

this technique, including results from a pilot study we conducted in the spring of

2007 to determine its effectiveness (Kelley & Clausen-Grace, 2008).

Rationale for the text feature walk

Whether you teach one subject or all subjects, ultimately your goal is the same:

student learning and achievement. To assist teaching and facilitate student

learning, we often teach students to employ a strategy. Strategies help learners

organize information, reflect on a topic, and learn. In addition to having various

strategies to assist with content learning, knowing how to navigate the text is

extremely important. Teachers must recognize factors within a text that can

enhance or impair comprehension. These factors fall into three categories: text

features, text organization, and text content.

Text features include all the components of a story or article that are not the

main body of text. These include the table of contents, index, glossary,

headings, bold words, sidebars, pictures and captions, and labeled diagrams.

These features can be helpful if they are concise, related to the content, and

clear, or they can be harmful if they are poorly organized, only loosely related

to the content, or too wordy. Text organization refers to the patterns and

structures used by the author(s) to write the text. A well-organized text

assists the reader through predictable placement of information. A poorly

organized text can impede the reader by being counterintuitive. The content of

a text is what we want students to learn. Content can be accessible if it is

reduced to manageable chunks, or it can be intimidating if it includes too much

specialized academic vocabulary and too many abstract concepts.

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The text feature walk is a structure that addresses each of these facets of

expository text. The success of the text feature walk is dependent on

knowledge of text features and the ability to self-scaffold through discussion.

We teach students to use this structure to help them predict what they will be

learning. In a text feature walk, students work in a small group, reading each

feature in the order that it appears and discussing what they think they will be

learning. As each feature is read, students must think about and discuss how

the information relates to the main idea of the text.

As students move through text features in a given section, they become

familiar with the text's organization and access important background

knowledge related to the content (Honig, Diamond, & Gutlohn, 2000).

Sometimes, if the content is unfamiliar and students are unable to make

connections, the text features actually frontload vocabulary and concepts that

will be important in the main body of the text. These discussions help students

create mental models and increase the likelihood that they will read and

remember (Recht & Leslie, 1988). As students make their predictions and

discuss various features, they anticipate what they will read and set a purpose

for their reading (Lubliner, 2001).

Text features are text that is not part of the main body of work. They are

typically found in nonfiction texts to provide supplemental information. They

exist independently of the main text and are intended to enhance a reader's

experience. This means that they are not required to understand the main body,

but they may provide help such as clarification, bibliographic reference, or even

help in finding specific pieces of information within the main body.

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Why are Text Features Important?

Text features help readers navigate information in a non-fiction text. They

allow a reader to easily access information that supplements the main text

without distracting from the content in the body. This information is sometimes

not necessary for the main body of the text and often serves as a backup or

clarification. In all cases, though, text features are designed to be easy to use

and navigate.

Types of Text Features

Different authors may use different text features depending on their goals and

the purpose of the writing. Not every non-fiction work uses all text features.

Directional Text Features

Directional text features guide readers to specific parts of a text. Especially

with longer texts, finding a key piece of information or a specific section can

prove challenging. Directional texts simplify the process by arranging

information into various types so readers can quickly find what they need

without reading through the entire main body of the text. Indexes and

headings, for example, help keep a work organized and allow readers to find

information by quickly referencing keywords. A table of contents at the

beginning of a text can show a reader the layout of the body and where specific

information can be found.

Supplementary text features are not required to understand the main text,

but they provide additional information that can help clarify or add additional,

though non-essential, information. These include footnotes and a glossary, which

provide reference information and definitions but may not be needed to

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understand the main body. An appendix provides additional expository material

or bibliographic information to help with references. Appendixes may be entire

short works on their own.

Eventually, the goal is to move the text feature walk structure from whole-

group to small-group use. To make this successful, you should cluster students,

so each group is heterogeneous with varied strengths and no one group has all

the quiet, reserved children. You might also think about which students have

background knowledge of the topic. Groups of four work very well. Tell students

they will take turns identifying and reading text features in the order they

appear in the text. After someone reads their feature, all members should

discuss the predictions, questions, or connections they have to the feature and

how they think it relates to their predicted main idea. This continues on until all

of the features have been discussed or time is called by the teacher.

After explaining and putting students in groups, give each group a copy of the

directions to help them remember what to do. Assign a short section of text (2-

4 pages), then walk around and listen in as they work. You will need to remind

groups of their goal and that they should be discussing how they think the

feature relates to the main body of text, not just taking turns reading the text

features. Once most groups are finished, have the students come back together

as a whole group to discuss what went well and what they learned from

discussions. They are now ready to read and more fully comprehend the text.

Visual Aid Text Features

Visual aid text features are images that help clarify or show information that

supplements the main text. Pictures, photographs, diagrams, and charts can help

provide a visual record or visual representation of the information in the main

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text, providing another way to understand it. Charts can help show mathematical

information in a way that is easier to visualize and understand than simply

reading numbers.

History books, for example, often use maps to show a visual representation of

national borders, the movement of troops in times of war, or the way borders

change through the years. Photographs can provide a more intimate portrayal of

historical events by showing the actual people and places involved in important

events. Seeing images of an event can be even more powerful than simply

reading dates and names.

In addition to the benefits already discussed, the text feature walk is an

engaging structure that builds students' interest in learning and enhances their

construction of meaning. This type of active learning is important for both

vocabulary acquisition (Kibby, 1995; Nagy & Scott, 2004; Rupley, Logan, &

Nichols, 1998) and content learning. Ruddell (2009) recommended that reading

strategies do three things: (1) provide students with the opportunity "to

interact and transact with the text" (p. 220), (2) purposefully guide the student

as they read in the content area, and (3) help students to integrate their

reading with content learning. The text feature walk accomplishes all three of

these goals.

Used correctly, the text feature walk is a very powerful tool (see chart below).

The key to proper usage is all in the preparation and training of students. You

should start by making sure they are familiar with text features. Have students

look at pages in a science or social studies book. Instruct them to run their

hands over the main body of text. Explain that everything else is considered a

text feature.

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Ask students why authors and designers include text features. It is helpful to

spend a few weeks having students simply identify and read various text

features prior to initiating a text feature walk. The text features in the table

below are quite common and among those you will want to directly teach to

students. Knowledge of text features is not the only prerequisite to a

successful text feature walk. In addition, you want to be sure students know

the difference between an interactive conversation about a text and just taking

turns talking about a text.

Common text features to explicitly teach students

Name of text
Purpose of text feature
feature

Quickly tells the reader what information they will

Title
learn about

Table of Shows students the different chapter or section

contents titles and where they are located

Directs students where to go in the text to find

Index
specific information on a topic, word, or person

Identifies important vocabulary words for students

Glossary
and gives their definitions

Headings or Help the reader identify the main idea for that

subtitles section of text

Are set apart from the main text, (usually located on

Sidebars
the side or bottom of the page) and elaborate on a

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 detail mentioned in the text

Pictures and
Show an important object or idea from the text
captions

Allow readers to see detailed depictions of an object

Labeled
from the text with labels that teach the important
diagrams
components

Charts and Represent and show data related to, or elaborate on,

graphs something in the main body of text

Help a reader locate a place in the world that is

Maps
related to text

Allow readers to see inside something by dissolving

Cutaways and
part of a wall or to see all the layers of an object by
cross sections
bisecting it for viewing

Can show either a faraway view of something or a

Inset photos
close-up shot of minute detail

Once students are familiar with text features and able to hold a focused

discussion about text, you can easily introduce the text feature walk structure

and teach them to use it. You will want to begin by explaining that a text

feature walk is like the picture walks they did when they were learning to read

picture books. As with any structure or strategy, you will need to explicitly

model how you as an expert reader use a text feature to make a prediction. This

is best done using a think-aloud in a whole-group setting (Kelley & Clausen-

Grace, 2007, 2008). Quickly bring students into the fold by having them read a

text feature and explain how the information in the text feature may

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 contribute to the main idea of the text. This guided practice under your

supervision is important so that you can revert back to modeling and direct

instruction if needed. The entire text feature walk should be done before

students actually read the main body of text. Then, have students read the

main body of the text and debrief with them on what they learned and how the

text feature walk assisted with comprehension.

Q.2 Go to computer graphics program, make three different graphs. In a

brief paragraph, explain the type of reader and the situation for which

each graph would be appropriate. (20)

The first way to present visual data is through the use of textual graphics,

which are the use of text to create a visual message mainly through the use of

tables. Tables are best suited for printed reports to reveal business details.

Tables consist of columns, rows and headings. Excel would be a prime example of

software that prepares textual graphics. Tables should be used in business to:

 Compare numbers

 Communicate precise information

 Offer a detailed summary of data

The marketing team at Crazi Toys has tried not to incorporate many tables as

part of their slideshow because they tend to communicate too much

information, which doesn't work well with a PowerPoint presentation. Detailed

tables can also be confusing or hard to read when viewed on a PowerPoint.

The team has decided to use just a few basic tables showing a summary of the

new products for their fall launch, and then offer the audience handouts that

they can view later. The tables included in the handout show accounting reports,

sales summaries by each product line and marketing volume reports.

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Visual Graphics

When individuals need to show a pattern or relationship of data, it is best to

use visual graphics, such as bar, pie and line charts. These charts help illustrate

specific relationships and communicate a pattern as part of a message.

The specific types of data that should be used for a chart are:

Nominal data, or data that does NOT have any order, such as gender or race.

For example, Crazi Toys will use a bar chart to show dispersal of ethnicity of

customers who purchase their Water Clown product. The company wanted to

understand the race breakdown as they were considering different ethnicities

of the Water Clown product.

Ordinal data, or data that does have a specific prescribed order, such as

results from a survey that say: not at all likely, somewhat likely, likely or very

likely. Crazi Toys marketing team used a bar chart to show the results of each

survey question regarding customers' interest in their new Fuzzy Bear product.

Interval data, or data that has a specific order and can be divided into equal

sections, such as months of a year or days of a week. A line chart was added to

the PowerPoint presentation that showed a monthly breakdown of sales for

Water Clown.

Importance of Charts and Graphs

Charts and graphs are visual representations of data. They are important and

useful because they are powerful tools that can be used for things like analyzing

data, emphasizing a point, or comparing multiple sets of data in a way that is

easy to understand and remember.

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Why Do We Use Graphs and Charts?

Comparing sets of complex data is sometimes very bulky and hard to

understand. Graphs and charts are utilized to show the data in a clear manner

that makes the data easier to analyze. Think about how much easier it is to

visually show a data trend to an audience. In the chart below, the line

represents a change in stock prices. This chart clearly shows the decrease in

price in a way that is easy to understand without ever even looking at the actual

numbers. One glance at the chart shows that the price has shown a significant

decrease over time.

Graphs and charts are sometimes used to

show data trends such as a crash in stock

prices.

Graphs and charts may be used in things like annual reports, sales presentations,

and team meetings so that information is relayed to the reader in a clear

manner that is easy to remember and understand.

Business Graphs and Charts

Business graphs are visual aids used to analyze data. They can make comparing

multiple sets of data much easier, as sometimes trends and relationships are

easily identified on the chart or graph. They also help to show the audience the

data in a way that is easy to understand and remember.

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Types of Graphs and Charts

Many different types of charts exist, including column charts, line graphs, pie

charts, and bar charts. When creating the chart or graph, keep in mind the type

of message that needs to be conveyed, the audience that will be reviewing the

chart, and the type of data being presented. Remember that a chart or graph

should make the data easier to analyze and compare, so select the type of graph

or chart accordingly.

When presenting, textual and visual graphics can help presenters make their

point effectively. Learn when to use visuals to present data, explore the

difference between textual and visual graphics, and review the types of graphs

available.

Visuals to Present Data

The correct visual presentation of your data helps communicate a business

message more effectively. It provides a quick summary of information for

individuals to skim and remember. Using visuals to present data can be

accomplished through both textual and visual graphics. Let's take a look at each

to see when it's best to choose one over the other.

Crazi Toys' national sales meeting is next month, and the marketing team is

creating a yearly summary of the toy industry. The team has been developing a

multimedia slide show to inform the entire sales force about the past year and

also highlight upcoming product launches.

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 Q.3 Select a website from your chosen field of study, that contains an

article related to that field. Evaluate that site and write a descriptive

abstract of that article for a nontechnical audience. (20)

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you

specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract.

Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So

in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for

and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The

body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more

fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that

you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—

will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are

summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is

implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association, which is widely used in the social sciences, gives

specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of

papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical

papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

1. the context or background information for your research; the general

topic under study; the specific topic of your research

2. the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses

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3. what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or

shown

4. the main reason(s), the exigency, the rationale, the goals for your research—

Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example,

examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap

in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing

ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .

5. your research and/or analytical methods

6. your main findings, results, or arguments

7. the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read

your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most

of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and

what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your

paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will

appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your

abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re

summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all

written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We

have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are

doing within their abstracts.

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 Academia deals with anything school-related. Anything connected to education,

from kindergarten students to professors at a university, refers to academia.

Reading this lesson is a form of participating in academia; learning this lesson is

a way to discover more about the world around you.

However, the term academia being used is most likely referring to the

professors and researchers at the college level. This lesson follows the

academia hierarchy and the steps necessary to move up in different academic

fields.

Academe vs. Academia

The term academe refers to the environment in which education and/or

research takes place. Academia focuses more on the academic environment at

the college level.

Academic Fields of Study

Once a person enters academia, they are considered an academic. An academic

usually stick to one specific field of study. Some of these fields include:

 Humanities include, but are not limited to: literature and writing, history,

sociology, theology, and philosophy.

 Math includes, but is not limited to: engineering, statistics, and computer

science.

 Science includes, but is not limited to: biology, chemistry, and medicine.

However, they can study almost anything one can imagine. In addition to these

common fields, an academic can choose to focus on any topic within these

categories. For example, if one chooses to go study the humanities, they may

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 focus on linguistics and spend their life researching one specific, extinct

language. Or, one could choose to study biology and research a single gene. A

main belief of academics is that education should not be restricted. This means

that there are almost no restrictions on what one can study. Broadly speaking,

the academic fields of study are limitless and an academic is free to pursue

essentially anything.

Professional Hierarchy

Academia follows a professional hierarchy and one must follow several steps to

move up in their field. This begins once enrolled in graduate study. This

hierarchy is used at most colleges and universities and is respectively in use;

however, it is important to note that not every single institution operates in the

same exact way, so there may be some differences in steps.

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research

paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-

written abstract serves multiple purposes:

 an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly,

in order to decide whether to read the full paper;

 an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and

arguments in your full paper;

 and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases

use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your

published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are

crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

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Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe

general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true,

including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That

abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the

arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study.

The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe

completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in

the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in

those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to

describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe

what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have

conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their

rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use

the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in

Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study

(In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Masters Student

Once an academic receives their bachelor's degree, they can continue their

education in a specialized area through a master's degree. The first step a

graduate student will take is pursuing a master's degree. A master's degree is

proof of completing a two-year program in a specialized field. In other words, a

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master's degree shows that one has mastered a subject. In these two years, a

master's student will focus on taking classes and performing scholarly research

in one specific area so that they can hone in on their understanding of their

field. A master's student usually assists as a teaching assistant in an

undergraduate classroom.

Doctorate Student

Once completing a master's degree, a doctorate student further pursues a

doctorate degree (commonly referred to as a Ph.D.). A doctorate degree is the

highest degree an academic can obtain and usually requires original research.

Completion of this degree ranges, and depending on the field of study, usually

takes 3-10 years. During this rigorous program, Ph.D. students usually teach

undergraduate classes while researching a specific area of their field.

In the simplest of terms, the research definition is a process of seeking out

knowledge. This knowledge can be new, or it can support an already known fact.

The purpose of research is to inform and is based on collected and analyzed

data. This exploration occurs systematically, where it is either tested or

investigated to add to a body of knowledge. Research is intended to support a

purpose and occurs across many disciplines such as psychological (mind and

behavior), scientific (chemical reactions), educational (human development),

medical (drugs and drug trials), animalistic (animal behavior), humanistic (social),

and technological (software/security).

Components of Research

Irrespective of the method or the purpose, research usually contains the same

main components. There will always be a research problem or question, which can

be a statement or inquiry of an issue or area of concern that describes why the

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research is to be conducted. This research problem or questions must be tested

or explored and should not be too broad or vague. This problem will help to form

the objectives of the research. It describes what the research intends to find

out or achieve. The research objectives essentially drive the direction of the

study. From these objectives, the researcher forms a hypothesis. The

hypothesis is the assumption or prediction that is tested by the research. The

rest of the research is conducted to either support or debunk the hypothesis.

Another main component of research includes research techniques. It deals with

how the information is gathered based on the research method (qualitative or

quantitative), and it involves experiments, surveys, observations, sets. They will

be explained in greater detail under the research methods discussion.

Variables may also be established during this point of the research process,

depending on the type of research that is being conducted. Variables are any

characteristics or items that can take on a value or be measured in some way.

Variables are either independent (can be changed), dependent (what is observed

to the response of the independent variable), or controlled (always stay the

same). Research sampling includes a representation of a larger group. The

sample includes people, items, or documents. The samples are crucial because

they are large and relevant enough to serve as a generalization for the group

that is being studied. Data analysis, conducted from the samples, finds the

meaning of it relative to the research objectives. It is here that a researcher

will look for the patterns, connections, or relationships, which are related to the

hypothesis. Lastly, the conclusion is formed that intends to show the outcome

of the data studied and why the research matters.

What is Psychological Research?

Psychological research refers to the studies that are conducted to help us

understand people. It is used to describe, explain, measure, and categorize

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mental processes and behaviors. If not for research in psychology, we would not

know and understand the patterns and behaviors of the general population,

subsets of society (schools, religion, family, etc.), or psychological disorders.

When conducting psychological research, three characteristics will remain the

same. Psychological research will always be grounded in a theoretical framework,

be objectively measured, and have an effective sample size.

Q.4 Throughout one’s career, one has to give oral reports to explain the

results of investigations, propose solutions to the problems, report on the

progress of projects, make changes to policy, create business plans, etc.

Which steps would you follow, while preparing an effective oral

presentation? (20)

Have you ever tried to follow a recipe and suddenly an ingredient is introduced

that you didn't plan on using? In that case, you know how frustrating it is not to

have everything spelled out at the top.

Finally, your results and conclusion come at the end. If you've ever tried to just

scribble a math answer on a test, chances are your teacher wrote in big letters

to 'show your work.' Data profiles are the scientific way of showing your work,

while the conclusion is the equivalent of circling your final answer. Now that we

know the proper order, let's look at what makes each part so important.

When to Write What

Just as you have a procedure and plan in place performing your experiment, it is

very helpful to know when and how you're going to write the report. First things

first, before anything else, you should write the purpose of your experiment.

Second, write what you think will happen, or the hypothesis.

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Now, stop and think about your experiment. If you're lucky, you will have

already thought out how you're going to test your hypothesis. In fact, if you're

doing this in a classroom lab, it may have already been provided to you. That is

just your procedure. Write your procedure before you do anything else. Just

before performing your experiment, make any relevant data tables so that you

can quickly enter information. You may want to print one to scribble on while you

get results and then type in the information once you are done.

Now, run your experiment. As your experiment plays out, write down the

important data from the procedure. Make a note of any errors that may have

occurred along the way as well. While you may not think that accidentally

dropping ten milliliters extra of an acid into a test tube was a big deal, it could

have changed your experiment's outcome. Once you have completed the

experiment, analyze the data you have received in order to figure out your

conclusion. Finally, write that down along with the data as your results.

Avoiding Pointlessness and Ensuring Repeatability

We've all read examples of times where great scientific discoveries were made

completely by accident. Teflon, for example, was produced on accident in trying

to come up with a good rubber replacement. However, before you blindly start

mixing chemicals together, you should remember the dangers involved in doing

that. Trust me, a face full of chlorine gas will ruin your day faster than just

about anything.

Instead, scientists should always have a hypothesis in mind. This is an educated

guess about what the experiment will prove. Don't worry; no one is going to

count you wrong if your hypothesis is completely proven false. The important

thing is to have an end goal in mind that gives your work some level of focus.

Without focus, you're just messing around, and that's not good science.

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Testing the Hypothesis

Testing the hypothesis consists of collecting data that scientists can use to

prove or disprove the hypothesis. Scientists can gather this data in a variety of

ways such as observations of the world, conducting an experiment, or developing

and running a scientific model. These methods of data collection can be used

independently, or in combination with one another. Either way, the methods of

data collection in the scientific investigation must be repeatable, so other

scientists can perform the same data collection and test the hypothesis. A

common way to test the hypothesis is by designing and performing an

experiment.

In an experiment, the important parts of the hypothesis will become

the variables. Typically, an experiment will have an independent variable, the

variable that is dictated by the experimental design; and a dependant variable,

what happens as a result of the independent variable. For example, the paper

airplane hypothesis: If the paper airplane is heavier, then it will fly shorter

distances. In this example, the weight of the paper airplane is the independent

variable that will change with the experimental design. The dependent variable

is the flight distance, which is a result of the weight.

It is important to keep all else in the experiment the same, as to not have

unforeseen effects on the dependent variable. In the paper airplane example, it

would be important to use the same paper and fold the airplane the same each

time, so the only thing that changes is the weight of the airplane. Each

experiment should also have a control, or the condition that others are

compared to. For the paper airplane example, the control would be the regular

paper airplane, with no additional weight, and how far it flew.

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Once you have defined the independent and dependent variables, and have your

control, you can design a process to test the hypothesis. For the paper airplane

example, this may look something like this:

Make a paper airplane, fly it, and measure the distance. This will be the control.

Using the same paper airplane, add a measurable amount of weight, and fly the

airplane again, measuring the distance it travels. Repeat this process with

varying weights, and measure the distance each time. Record the data each

time, the weight of the plane, and the distance flown.

An oral presentation is the process of delivering a speech on a specific topic.

Learn how to give an oral presentation on a scientific investigation. Review the

steps for setting up a presentation, understand what to avoid in the

presentation, and recognize why it is best to keep it simple.

A Scientific Oral Presentation

A scientific oral presentation is a presentation you give verbally to an audience

that presents the results of a scientific investigation. In this lesson, you'll learn

how you can give a scientific oral presentation that your listeners will enjoy and

understand and that will hopefully earn you an A+.

Believe it or not, it is possible to deliver a scientific talk that is fun and

exciting. It doesn't have to be dry and boring. The key is, in setting up your

presentation in keeping it simple. Let's take a look!

Setting Up Your Presentation

Here is Daniel; he is about to give his scientific oral presentation in front of his

classmates. He has worked on it for a whole week. He begins his presentation by

sharing a story about how he's always heard stories of people cooking eggs on

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the hoods of their cars and baking cookies inside their cars at work. He then

shows some pictures of cooked eggs and really yummy looking cookies that were

baked inside a car while the owner was at work. He then proceeds to explain the

method he used to find out how it's possible to cook with your car.

After listening to his introduction, don't you feel like you want to continue

listening to him? Your not bored but actually interested in what he has to say,

especially since he has pictures and videos to show. After Daniel finishes his

presentation, you ask him what tips he has to help you in preparing in giving your

scientific oral presentation.

Daniel tells you that he first separates his talk into four parts:

1. Introduction. This is where he introduces the problem in a way that his

listeners can relate to and also encourages them to want to know the answers as

well.

2. Method. This is where he explains how he went about trying to find the

answer.

3. Results. This is where he tells his results or what he found out.

4. Conclusion. This section basically summarizes what you've said. It's like giving

a condensed version of your talk. A very condensed version.

Daniel finished his talk in under 10 minutes, so if the intro and conclusion are

each one minute long, then his method and results can only be four minutes each.

That's not long at all!

Well-written reporting is crucial to representing scientific investigations by

expressing the goals and features of the study efficiently and accurately. Learn

about the different parts of written scientific reports, explore where to put

26
specific information, and understand the importance of conciseness to avoid

repetition.

Ultimate Goals of an Experiment

Countless sleepless nights and years of dedication in the laboratory have finally

paid off - it seems you've made your big discovery! Now, before you start

thinking about what to say at your Nobel Prize acceptance speech, you should

step back and make sure that what you've found can be shared. Shared? Yes,

shared. After all, while you can patent your invention and make a fortune, the

ability to recreate an experiment is one of the most important parts of the

written report about your experiment.

Yes, you have to write a report. However, it doesn't have to be long. One of the

most famous reports in scientific history, the paper in which Watson and Crick

explain DNA, is only a few pages long. However, when writing your paper, you

should be sure to focus on the ultimate goals of an experiment - namely your

hypothesis, your procedure, and your data.

The Parts of a Written Report

Before we get to explaining the importance of each of those parts, let's make

sure you've got the right order down for what to include in your report. Again,

this doesn't have to be very long, but it does all have to be there. First, you

should include your purpose and a hypothesis. Even mad scientists in the movies

had a purpose in what they were doing, and you should be no different. The

hypothesis helps to give an answer to whatever question your purpose suggests.

Following those sections should come your materials and your procedure.

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Analyze and Interpret Data

Once scientists have collected data through observations, experiments, and

scientific models, they must analyze and interpret the data. First, scientists will

organize the data into mediums that tell the story of the data collection:

graphs, charts, tables, etc. This way, the data is easy to compare to other

sources and the control. In the paper airplane example, the scientist may graph

the distances the paper airplanes traveled with the weight of the paper

airplanes, to show a visual of how the distance was affected by the weight. The

scientist could also use a table to show each paper airplane's weight, and the

corresponding distance the paper airplane flew.

Q.5 Many referencing methods are used by the researchers. Discuss APA

and MLA and its usage in detail. (20)

What is a Reference Page?

In APA, titles follow specific capitalization rules in the references: titles of

books and articles use sentence-style capitalization with only the first word,

words after colons and semicolons as well as ending punctuation, and proper

nouns capitalized. Article titles are not italicized, but book titles and journal

titles should be italicized (as well as journal volume numbers while the issue

number should be in parentheses).

There are also rules for formatting author names in all references. The last

name of an author should be listed first with a comma after it followed by the

first and middle initials of the author. If there is more than one author, a

comma is used after the initials to separate it from the next author, using the

same format. An ampersand is used before the final author in a list. While only

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 two authors should be listed in in-text citations, up to 20 authors. There are

several things not to do when listing authors in APA references:

 do not spell out first or middle names of authors;

 do not include titles or suffixes, like Ph.D. or Jr.;

 and do not list authors in alphabetical order within each reference--follow the

order the authors are listed in on the source.

Journal Citation

One of the most common types of sources used in APA papers is journals, which

are scholarly periodicals published in volumes with issues. The standard in-text

citation format is used for journal citations, but the reference page for a

journal reference includes specific information for the journal:

 author(s) of the article,

 year of publication,

 title of journal article,

 title of journal,

 volume number and issue number of journal,

 page range for journal article,

 and URL, if an online journal (in APA 7th edition, a DOI should be listed in URL

format).

A standard journal article reference would look like this:

Smith, J.W. (2021). Title of article: Continued title of American article. Title of

Journal, 4(10), 312-338. www.url.org

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 Magazines and newspapers follow the same format as journal articles, except

the month of the magazine or newspaper is usually included in the parentheses

after the year:

Jones, K.M. (2021, July). Title of article: Continued title. Title of

Magazine, 34(7), 13-20.

What is a reference page, and what are references in a paper? Before

answering these questions, we first need to understand what a reference is. In

the context of writing an essay, a reference, also called a citation or source,

identifies a source of information used by the essay's author. References are

essential for any piece of academic work because they allow readers to verify

the accuracy of the information in the essay by locating the information's

source. Textual works, data sets, audiovisual media, and online media may all be

used as references. Some examples include:

 journal articles and other periodicals

 chapters in books

 images, graphs, and charts

 tables and diagrams

 podcasts

 videos

 social media posts

 websites

Sources that should not be included in a reference page include personal

communication information (such as names of people interviewed for an essay),

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quotations from study research participants, and general mentions of websites,

software, or apps that are familiar to most readers.

A reference page organizes all of these types of references in one place. It is a

list of all sources cited and is the final page of an APA Style paper. A

consistent and organized reference page allows a reader to quickly identify the

source of a piece of information for follow-up research purposes. It allows the

author to remember and quickly reference the sources that they used in writing

their essay, whether to inform others or themselves.

APA Reference Page vs. Other Styles

There is a variety of choices of style when it comes to organizing essay

references. This lesson will focus on the APA Style. The American Psychological

Association, or APA, created the APA Style as a standardized set of guidelines

for references and grammar in academic works.

Other commonly-used citation styles include MLA, Chicago, and Turabian. In the

MLA, or Modern Language Association, formatting style, sources are listed in a

section called a Works Cited. The Chicago Style and Turabian Style require

sources to be listed in a bibliography. Similar to an APA Style reference page,

bibliographies and works cited lists are located at the end of an essay as well;

however, they each follow different formatting rules that dictate elements like

punctuation and word order of each reference citation.

Essay Reference Page vs. In-Text Citation

Each source that is listed in the reference page must also be cited in the essay,

whether in the text, table, footnote, or appendix. This is called an in-text

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citation. An in-text citation is different than a reference page, although both

are required in an APA Style paper. While a reference page is found at the end

of an essay, an in-text citation appears directly in the essay itself, near the

text that the source supports. It gives the reader the necessary information to

locate the same source in the reference page. An APA Style in-text-citation

includes the source author's last name as well as the year in which the source

was published.

An in-text citation can be parenthetical or narrative. The parenthetical in-text

citation includes both the author's last name and year of publication inside a set

of parentheses. The narrative citation includes only the year of publication

inside parentheses, while the author's name is written outside of the

parentheses. When the source has two authors, an ampersand (&) symbol

separates the names in a parenthetical citation, while in a narrative citation the

names can be separated with the word "and." For three or more authors, the

last name of the first author listed appears in the citation, followed by the

phrase "et al" in both parenthetical and narrative styles. The examples below

illustrate both types of in-text citation, including sources with one author, two

authors, and multiple authors.

Year of Parenthetical In- Narrative In-

Name(s) of author(s)
publication Text Citation Text Citation

Maya Angelou 1969 (Angelou, 1969) Angelou (1969)

Riley Sager, John (Sager & Grisham, Sager and

2021
Grisham 2021) Grisham (2021)

H.P. Lovecraft, Edgar (Lovecraft et al., Lovecraft et al.

1989
Allan Poe, Leo Tolstoy 1989) (1989)

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 What Does a Reference Page Look Like?

In order for all references in a research paper in APA Style to be clearly and

uniformly identified, a reference list must adhere to certain formatting rules,

such as:

What Is APA Format for References?

APA format is one of the most commonly used citation formats in professional

writing and college. APA format is an abbreviation for the American

Psychological Association, which issues the style guide, and is used to give

credit to sources used in a paper or presentation. APA format can be used in a

variety of fields, but it is most commonly found in medical fields, education

fields, and social sciences.

In all major citation formats (APA, MLA, and Chicago), the author is the first

part of each citation and reference. What is most unique about APA is that the

year is listed immediately after the author in in-text citations and in

references. Since APA is used in data-driven fields, it is important that the

year of the source be listed in citations. As such, APA usually follows the

general format of author, year, title, and publication information.

APA Format In-Text Citations

In-text citations, which are citations usually found in or partially in

parentheses to attribute information in the body of the paper, follow a

standard format in APA. The format is always:

 author(s),

 year,

 then page number.

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 If the author is mentioned in the body of a sentence, the year should be in

parentheses directly after the author with the page number in parentheses at

the end of the sentence. If the author is not mentioned in the body of a

sentence, all information should be in parentheses, separated by commas, at the

end of the sentence. Here is a standard APA citation format example of each:

 Smith (2021) writes, ''Every source should be cited'' (p. 12).

 ''Every source should be cited'' (Smith, 2021, p. 12).

There are a few scenarios that change the format of the author, year, and page

number in in-text citations, but they always follow the standard author, year,

page number format. Below are more APA citation examples that detail these

different scenarios:

APA Citation Examples

In any citation style including APA, there are two main components to a citation:

an in-text citation, which appears in the body of the paper to briefly let the

reader know where the information came from while they are reading, and

a reference, which appears on the reference page at the end of the paper with

detailed information about where the information came from. Each in-text

citation must have a corresponding reference and vice versa.

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