SECONDARY SCHOOL

CURRICULUM AND
INSTRUCTION

PGDT 413
 UNIT ONE:

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON THE

TERM CURRICULUM AND

RELATED ISSUES
 1.1: Definition of Curriculum
Curriculum
• Comes from a Latin term "currere", which means, "to
run" as in to run a race course.
 Implies the course / path that students have to run to
finish the "race".
 All the activities which students need to do if they
are to finish a program of study and achieve the
intended learning goals.
This implies It is a sequence of courses or learning
experiences children learn from KG to University.
Broad Definitions (definitions open to many
interpretations)

• Ralph Tyler (1949): All of the learning of students

which are planned and directed by the school to attain
its educational goals
• D. K. Wheeler (1967): the planned experiences
offered to the learner under the guidance of the
school
• Lewis (1981): a plan for providing sets of learning
opportunities for persons to be educated
• Learning opportunity implies a planned and
controlled relationship between pupils, teacher,
materials, equipment and the environment, in
which it is hoped that desired learning will take
place.

• Shilbeck (1984): The learning experiences of

students, they are expressed or anticipated in goals
and objectives, plans and designs for learning and the
implementation of these plans and designs in school
environments.
Specific Definitions

The specific definitions imply activities, which are

measurable and observable. Examples

 Curriculum is an outline of a course of study

(Print, 1987).
 Curriculum is a set of subjects (Marsh, 2001).
 Curriculum is a school timetable
 A plan for action, or written document
 Narrow/Specific Definitions:
Curriculum refers to:

which is
a school taught in
time table school. a set of
subjects.
a course of
study.
a content
Curriculum
a set of
performance
objectives.
a program
of studies.
a sequence of a set of
courses. materials.
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 Definitions Based on the Role Placed on Schools
Curriculum could be defined based on the roles of schools as
prescribed by society or educators.
Subject center
• Schools: Promoting students intellectual
capacity.
• The collection of subjects offered to
students to train the intellectual capacity.

Experience center
•A means to make students shape a new social
order and lead life in it (involves planning to
evaluation).
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Hence, curriculum is:

A document that elaborates the general educational

aims, contents, the learning experiences, educational
materials and the evaluation mechanisms to be
employed.

A discipline that studies about educational

development process (planning, implementing,
evaluating) including mechanisms of change and
improvements.

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 Layers of curriculum
1.The Intended (Formal) Curriculum:

– It is the written curriculum document in

the form of syllabus, curriculum guide
or teacher's guide, textbook or even
teacher's plan.
– It is a planned curriculum which
includes what to be taught, how it is
intended and under what intended
circumstances to be done.

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 Layers of curriculum

2. The Expressed (Informal) Curriculum:

– It is also called the enacted

(manifested) curriculum.
– It is said to be expressed curriculum,
because teachers express themselves
through the enactment of the
curriculum in their teaching.

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 Layers of curriculum
3. Hidden (Collateral/Covert) Curriculum:

– It might not be included in the planned

curriculum, but cannot be ignored during
curriculum implementation and
evaluation.
– It indicates the social requirements of
learning at school, which may have more
long-lasting and pervasive effects.
– involves the learning of attitudes, norms,
beliefs, values and assumptions often
expressed as rules, rituals and
regulations.
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Layers of curriculum

4. The Experienced (Actual/Enacted)

Curriculum:

– It is the sum total of the intended,

expressed and hidden curriculum. It is
the students' actual experience in and
outside of the classroom.
– what remains after everything else
has been forgotten.

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 The scope of Curriculum
Curriculum Scope denotes to the question
what learning content, learning experience,
methods, etc should be included to and
excluded from the curriculum

Curriculum is delimited to the knowledge

of domains
• curriculum development,
• curriculum planning
• curriculum design
• curriculum implementation and
• curriculum evaluation
• Curriculum Development:- concerned
with how
 curriculum evolved,
 implemented,
 evaluated and what various people,
process and procedures are involved
in the construction of the curriculum.
• Curriculum Planning: is a process
of making the curriculum materials
after identified
objectives,
selecting contents and
learning experiences,
instructional materials and
 developing evaluation mechanisms.
• Curriculum Design: - refers to the
way one conceptualizes a
curriculum arranges its major
components to provide direction
and guidance in developing the
curriculum.
• Curriculum implementation: is a
process of putting planned and
designed curriculum into practice.

• Curriculum evaluation: is the process

of checking the effectiveness and
efficiency of the curriculum
implementation.
 The Teacher & Curriculum Relationship

Curricular documents provides teachers

with information for:

– Planning lessons,
– Organizing students‟ and their
activities,
– Directing the instructional work and
– Employing different instruments to
measure the outcomes and
– Making sensible decisions.
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 Cont…
On the other hand, teachers are expected
to
– have knowledge of curriculum - know what they
teach
– Translate curriculum into practice.
– Investigate specific curricular weaknesses;
– Develop plans for particular curriculum purposes;
– Conduct curriculum research and experiments;
– Evaluate the existing instructional program;
– Play a vital role in the development of a new
curriculum or revising the existing one, etc.
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 Relationship Between Curriculum
& Instruction
Curriculum Instruction
 Which is taught  A means used to
teach which is taught

 Conceived as  Conceived as the

“what” „how”

 A program, plan,  Methods, the teaching

content learning act, implementation,
experience presentation

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 Curriculum & Instruction

In general:

– Curriculum and instruction are sub-system

of a larger system called schooling or
education.
– The relationships existing between
curriculum and instruction are revealed by
the following four models.

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 Curriculum-instruction relationship models

A. Dualistic: curriculum and instruction are

two independent entities with very minor
interaction
• There is great difference or gulf b/n two

Curriculum Instruction

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 Curriculum-instruction relationship models

B. Interlocking: entwined an interlocking r/n ship

• Have commonalities to be treated mutually & also
have different issues to be examined separately.

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C. Concentric: mutually interdependent
• One is the sub system of the other & vice versa

Curriculum Instruction

Instruction Curriculum

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D. Cyclical: one has a continuous impact on the
other & vice versa.
Separate entities with a continuing circular r/n ship.

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 Curriculum-instruction relationship models

 To sum up:

 Curriculum and instruction are related but

different
 Curriculum and instruction are inter locking and
inter dependent
 Curriculum and instruction may be studied and
analyzed as separate entities but cannot function
in mutual isolation.

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 1.2. Foundations of Curriculum
• Curriculum foundations may be defined as
those basic forces that influence and shape
the minds of curriculum developers and
hence the content and structure of the
subsequent curriculum.
• The literature in the area of curriculum
generally distinguishes five categories of
sources of curriculum foundations- namely

1. Philosophical foundation
2. Psychological Foundation,
3. Sociological foundation,
4. Science and Technology foundation, and
5. Historical foundation.
 Philosophical foundations of curriculum

• Etymologically it is Love of wisdom/ search for

truth or the search for knowledge.
• It refers to philosophies, values, ideas &
ideologies which represent points of view that
guide the development of the curriculum at a
particular time.
• Philosophy provides educators, teachers and
curriculum makers with framework for planning,
implementing and evaluating curriculum in
school.

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 Foundations…
• It helps in answering what schools are for, what
subjects are important, how students should learn,
and what materials and methods of teaching should
be used.
• Thus, the three main basic philosophical questions
include:
 What is real?  Metaphysic
 What is truth?  Epistemology
 What is of value?  Axiology

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Even though, There are different philosophies,
they all wants the same thing of education, they
wish:
– To improve the educational process
– To enhance learners’ achievement
– To produce better and more productive citizens, &
– To improve the life of the society.
Major /social philosophies influencing curriculum
development are
1. Idealism, 2. Pragmatism
3. Realism, and 4. Existentialism.
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1. Idealism:

• Is one of the oldest philosophy.

• Proponent: Plato, Kant, Hegel, Froebel, Butler,
etc.
• mind is central element of philosophy;
• Give primacy to idea.
• Reality is found in man's mind and God is the
source of knowledge.

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The idealist assumes that:
 Truth exist separate and apart from individual /society
he lives.
 Emphasizes moral and spiritual reality as chief
explanation of the world.
 Truth and values are seen as absolute, timeless and
universal.
 The world of idea and mind are permanent, regular and
orderly and it represents a perfect order.
 To know is to rethink the latent ideas that are already
present in the mind.
 Use rationalistic approach-deductive to problem solving.

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Education: in Idealism education
• Purpose to transmit cultural heritage.
• Eternal process of superior adjustment of the physical and
mental developed human being to God.

Curriculum:
• prefer the order and pattern of subject matter that relates
ideas and concepts to each other.
• Is hierarchal and it constitutes the cultural heritages of
humankind.
• At the top of hierarchy the most general and abstract
subjects like philosophy and theology.
• Based on learned disciplines (liberal arts)
• Revolves around ideas drawn from the past.
• The teacher‟s task is to bring the latent knowledge to
consciousness.
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 Foundations…
2. Realism:

• View the world in terms of objects and matter.

• Realism means objects exist in real world separate

and apart from the human mind and perception.

• Truth emanate from both science and art

• Proponents; Aristotle T.Aquinas, Pestalozzi, etc.

• People come to know the world through their sense

and their reason.
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 Foundations…
• Everything is derived from nature and is subject to its
law.

• Believe that „Universe is matter in motion‟.

• The real world is the physical world.

• Reality and truth emanate from both science and art.

• Use inductive method of gathering data.

• Emphasizes cause-effect relationships in the

physical world.

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 Foundations…

Realists Education:
• To induct the learner into culture.
• Society and its institutions must operate in ways that are
consistent to natural laws.
• School is social agency which transmits natural laws to
learners.

Curriculum:
• Consists primarily the physical and social sciences that
explain the natural phenomena.
• Acquiring of subject matter/facts encouraged.
• Consists of organized, separate subject matter, content and
knowledge that classify objects.
• View subject matter experts as a sources of authority.

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 Foundations…
3. Pragmatism:
• Based on change, process and relativism.
• Proponents: C. Darwin, J. Dewey, W. Kilpatrick, Bode, etc.
• truth is based on one‟s experiences; situational experiences
• Considers knowledge as a process in which reality is
constantly changing.
• Learning occurs as persons engage in problem solving.
• Knowledge is considered a transaction between learner and
environment. Basic to this interaction is the notion of
change.
• Both the learner and environment are constantly changing
as are the experiences/interaction.
• Hypothesis is used in seeking knowledge.
• Both deductive and inductive methods are used.
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Pragmatist Education:

• a process of experiencing on the part of the learner.

• A means for reacting, controlling and directing
experience.
• The goal of ed. is to aid the learner to solve his/her
problems.
• Not regarded as preparation for life, rather it is
considered to be an integral part of life.
• The role of the teacher is facilitator.
• Is reconstruction and reorganization of experience.
• Learning takes place in an active way as learners,
either individually or in groups solves problems.
Pragmatist Curriculum:

• Emphasizes the interest of the learner than subject matter

to organize curriculum.
• The method is more important than the subject matter.
• Teaching is more exploratory than explanatory.

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4. Existentialism:

• Stress individualism and personal self-fulfillment.

• Proponents: M.Greene, G.Kneller, Morris, etc.
• the world of existence, choice, and responsibility is
primary.
• Personal choice is central the decision lead to
personal self-definition.

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4. Existentialists Education:

• should stress individual responsibility and choice.

• is a process that originates within the self.
• The student is responsible for his/her own motivation
and learning.
• The teacher’s task is to provide learning experiences
that promotes autonomy, interaction, and choice.
• The learners would choose the knowledge they wish to
possess.

Curriculum :
• avoid systematic knowledge or structured disciplines.

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Educational Philosophies
• There are four major educational
philosophies, each related to one or
more

 Perennialism
 Essentialism
 Progressivism
 Reconstructionism/ Critical Theory
 i. Perennialism
• Oldest and conservative, rooted in realism.
• Proponent - R. Hutchins.
• Relies on past asserted by agreed-upon, universal
knowledge and cherished values of society.
• A view of the unchanging nature of the universe,
human nature, truth, knowledge, virtue, beauty, etc.
• The goal of education is to develop rational thought
and to create disciplined minds to think rigorously.
• The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to
seek enduring truths which are constant, not
changing,
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Perennialism Curriculum
– Classic subjects: Literature, language,
mathematics,
– Knowledge that focuses on past and permanent
studies. (Preserving the past knowledge
– Constant curriculum (Unchanged)
– Common curriculum for all (Little room for
electives and vocational)
– Students has no freedom to choose Liberal Arts
– The contents should come from the classical works
of western literature and arts
– Moral and religious principles to cultivate ethical behavior
Teaching methods:

 Activities that discipline the mind are most important

 Exercises in grammar, logic, and rhetoric are important,

 Rote memory and computation exercises

 Materials include original texts of great authors,

 Socratic method, through skillful oral question and

discussion sessions with students, lecture, and
explication

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 Perennialism
The teacher: is viewed as an authority in the field whose
knowledge and expertise are unquestionable.
Role of teacher:
 Helps students to think rationally
 Teacher is an authority in the field
(Unquestionable)
 Teaching method: Socratic method, oral exposition
(lecture), explicit teaching of traditional values

Student’s: must mastery knowledge of unchanging

principles
 ii. Essentialism
• Rooted in both Idealism and Realism
• William Bagley, Arthur Bestor, Stuart Mill

• “Essential” – basic and fundamental

• It was in reaction to Progressivism approaches
• The name comes from striving to instill students with
the essential academic knowledge and character
development.
• Essentialists believe that there is a common core of
knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students
in a systematic, disciplined way.
• Emphasizes on intellectual and moral standards that
schools should teach
Aim of Education

 Make students to function effectively as members of

civilized society through imparting higher order skills
and knowledge;
 Develop competent individual to perform justly,
skillfully and magnanimously.
 School serve as civilizing agency that emphasizes
continuity between the knowledge and values of the
past and the requirements of the present.
Essentialism Curriculum

• The core of the curriculum is essential

knowledge and skills and academic rigor.
• Essential skills (read, write, speak) Essential
subjects: English, Science, history, math,
foreign language
• Students should be taught hard work, respect for
authority, and discipline.
• Although this educational philosophy is similar in
some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the
idea that this core curriculum may change.
Teaching methods
• Deductive method, explanation by teacher,
observation and experimentation, drill method,
recitation, memorization

Teachers
• A mature, qualified, master of a particular
subject and a intellectual and moral role model
worthy of emulation
• Transmit essential skill, knowledge, and values
• Decides what is most important for the students
to learn
Student’s Role
• To listen, learn and hard work the content and
skills being taught,
• To demonstrate their mastery of them on
achievement tests,
• Expected to have excellent moral, disciplined
 iii. Progressivism
 Rooted in pragmatism and considered as contemporary.
 Proponents: Follette, Roosevelt, etc.
• Progressivists believe that education should focus on the
whole child, rather than on the content or the teacher.
• Mainly served the individual child.
• World is dynamic, changes, no ultimate knowledge,
truth, reality is changing. Thus, no need to focus on
fixed body of knowledge.
• Human experience is not limited to time and place,
varied among individuals
Progressivism

 Students should test ideas by active experimen.

 Education is life by itself, not a preparation for life
 Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise
through experiencing the world.
• Learning is active, not passive.
• The learners are a problem solvers and thinkers who
make meaning through their individual experience in the
physical and cultural context.
• Effective teachers provide experiences so that students
can learn by doing.
Progressivism………….

Aim of Progressives Education

• To provide the learner the necessary skills to be able to
interact with his ever changing environment
• To provide democratic, social living

Progressivism Curriculum
• Should be based on student’s interests,
• Interdisciplinary subject matter.
• Focus on activities and projects.
• Process is more important than content
• Relevant curriculum (to solve problem)
Instructional Methods : Cooperative learning, problem
solving method, field trip, reflective strategies
Teachers’ role
• Arousing interest, and impulses in the students by
 Providing experiences that lead students learn by
doing in active manner
 Motivate them to check and value
• Guide, facilitate and counseling

Student’s role
• Active constructor of knowledge, active group
performer, problem solver, self disciplined
 Foundations…
4. Reconstructionism:
– Rooted in pragmatism/Existentialism.
– Mainly served the individual child.
– Proponents: Fantini, Ferriere,
– Education for change and social reform.
– Emphasis on society centered education.
– Curriculum that emphasizes cultural pluralism,
– Focus on internationalism and futurizing education.
– Teacher serve as an agent of change and reform.
– Students are taught to appreciate life in a world of
many nations.
– Curriculum has to be changed with the society.
– Learning is active. 57
 iV. Social Reconstructionism
 Rooted in pragmatism/Existentialism.
 Proponents: Fantini, Theodore Brameld, Paulo Reglus
Freire, Ivan Ilich
 Emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a quest to
create a better society and worldwide democracy.
 Focuses on society centered education and promotes
education for change and social reform.
• Society is in need of constant reconstruction.
• Social change involves a reconstruction of education
and the use of education in reconstructing society.
Aim of education:
• Heighten the students’ awareness of different societal
problems, prepare to be agents of social reform /
reconstruction
Curriculum
 Should emphasize cultural pluralism,
 Like social sciences that help students identify and taking
social action on real problems
 Focus on present and future as well as local and global
economic, social and political issues
Methodology
• inquiry, dialogue, community-based projects, problem-
oriented method (research), Case study, involve students for
social responsibilities
• Social analysis, interpretation, and evaluation activities
Role of Teachers
• Lead the learners in designing programs for social,
educational, practical and economic change.
• Primary agent of social change.
• Facilitate

Students
• Live and learn in a democratic culture;
• Must select educational objectives and social
priorities, collaborate for social reforms
 Foundations…
2. Psychological Foundations of Curriculum
• are those knowledge and understandings related to the
nature of the learner and learning process.
• strongly influence the content and arrangements of the
experiences provided for learners.
Psychology and curriculum: Psychology
• Provides a basis for understanding the teaching and
learning process.
• Cements the relationship between teaching and learning.
• Provides the theories and principles that influence student-
teacher behavior within the context of curriculum.
• Used as a means for screening objectives.
Major Theories of Learning as Foundations of
Curriculum

A. Mental Discipline
B. Connectionism
C. Behaviorism,
D. Gestalt theory
E. Cognitive theory/ information processing
F. Social learning
 A. Mental Discipline

 also known as faculty psychology.

 The mind is made up of series of faculties, each of
which is related to a particular functions or ability
Learning: exercising of the various faculties (e.g.
memory, muscles, etc.)

Mental Discipline Curriculum:

• Content was often chosen on the basis of how well it
would discipline and exercise the mind rather than
its value in the life of the student.
 B. Connectionism

– Edward Thorndike is the first advocator

– A theory of learning based on the connection of the
various elements of the nervous system in causing
behavior
– Behavior is caused by connection formulated in the
neural passage. Hence learning is the process of
formulating new neural passage or connections.
– Learning means the establishment of proper relations
between stimulus and response.
Thorndike’s three laws of learning
a. The law of effect: Effect/result either strengthen or
weaken connection.
b. The law of readiness: The tendency of the
physiological neurons to operate in order for
connection to be made
c. The law of exercise: repeating or failing to repeat a
connection
Connectionism and the curriculum:
• Demands drill and repetition in it.
• Experiences are selected on the basis of their securing a
satisfying reaction from the learner.
 C. Behaviorism
Behaviorism
– dealt with and explained in terms of observable reactions.
– Learning is explained as a conditioned response.
– Much concern is for reinforcement, association & habit
formation.
– Learning occurs when a particular response is desired & a
stimulus is found to produce it.
Behaviorism & Curriculum
– Experiences selected in the curriculum are so as to produce
conditioned response & drill remains a prominent
method of teaching
 D. Gestalt Theory
• Learning is the organization of parts into meaningful
whole. A learning situation is taken as problem situation.
• In viewing the learning situation, the learner perceives a
likely solution and tries that solution. Through such
experiences the learner develops insight.
Curriculum:
 Offers the learner an opportunity to discover processes
and relationships.
 Emphasis is placed upon perceiving a whole in order to
understand the importance of a specific.
 Generalities and principles are emphasized in preference
to isolated facts and meaningless drill.
 E. Cognitive views of learning

 Cognitivists place their focus on the students and how they

gain and organize their knowledge
 Students do not merely receive information but actively
create a pattern of what it means to them.
 Learning is the result of our attempts to make senses of the
world by using all the mental tools at our disposal.
 The teacher’s role is one of facilitating the students own
discovery-known as inquiry training
 III. Historical Foundation of
Curriculum

• Historical foundation refers to a systematic analysis of

curriculum developments during a given period.
• They may be found in the form of a chronological
recording of educational incidents pertaining to
curriculum
• Tracing various educational movements during a
selected period.
• The curriculum is reflective of the political ideologies,
economic systems, religious convictions and conceptions
of knowledge at a particular point in time.
• Knowledge of history is essential to making
responsible curriculum decision.
• Knowing what happened in the past
 helps to make better judgments about what
might happen today or tomorrow under similar
circumstance.
 remind us to ask questions about what we might
have overlooked
 help not make unnecessary duplications and keep
the standard of education.
 IV. Sociological foundation of
curriculum
• encompasses the systematic study of groups &
institutions in the culture with reference to their
contribution to the process & growth of the
educational system as well as the established
practices in the school system.

• The curriculum designer actually deals with cultural

value, social needs & the learners’ background.
• The curriculum should be able to examine & clarify
obstacles prevalent in society, which make change.
• Knowledge of social foundations has the following
importance in developing the curriculum: It helps to

 consider the national and global cultural values.

 recognize the individual difference of the students and
accommodations.
 understand and use the available resources existing in
the society.
 identify the useful and harmful traditions that the
harmful ones would be replaced by scientific or
modern one
• The curriculum designer should also consider elements
of culture.
• The task of curriculum building will be principally that
of constructing the curriculum so that cultural
elements, both old & new will be mutually adjusted
& a new cultural synthesis achieved
These are
• universal culture (distributed among the adult
population),
• special culture (Distributed among only a portion of
the adult population) &
• alternative cultures (Elements that do not belong
neither in the universal or the especial culture.)
Unit Two:

Curriculum
Development
and the
Planning
Process
 2.1. Curriculum Development
 It describes the process of curriculum-making.
 Is the means by which new content and supporting
materials are added to the school.
 Thus, curriculum development is both a logical and a
creative way to add new learning experiences to the
lives of students.
Curriculum development process
 Is the actual arrangement of the parts of the
curriculum.
 Is a comprehensive process, which includes designing,
planning, implementation, and evaluation of curriculum.
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– It can also be articulated as a series of steps, such as:

 define educational purposes;

 selection of contents and learning experiences;
 organizing of contents and learning experiences;
 selection of construct activities/experiences that
can meet these purposes;
 organize activities/experiences and
 Evaluate whether the educational purposes have
been met or not.
2.2. Curriculum Development Models

1. The objective model (rational model)

2. The Process Model
3. The Situation Analysis Model
 1. The objective model
• is also known as rational, classical models.
• Its root is the behavioral psychology.
• Emphasize the fixed sequence of curriculum elements,
begins with objectives and following a sequential pattern
from objectives to content, method and finally evaluation
• Objectives serve as a basis for devising subsequent
elements, with evaluation indicating the degree of
achievement of those objectives.
• R. Tyler, H. Taba & H. Wheeler are principal
proponents.
 i. The Tyler Model (rational model)
• The identification and defining of objectives is crucially
important in developing an educational program for
learning
• Objective is given greater emphasis and should be made
the first area of concern for curriculum development
• Linear pattern/sequence
• Follow deductive approach: believes that
administration should design the curriculum and the
teachers implement it
Tyler set four questions which represent the major tasks and issues to
be dealt with in the process of curriculum development.

Setting What educational purposes should the

Objectives institution/school seek to attain?

Selecting learning What educational experiences can be provide

experiences & that are likely to attain these purposes?
contents

Organizing learning How can these educational experiences be

experiences effectively organized?

How can we determine whether these

Evaluation purposes are being attained?
 Tyler’s…
• Tyler Suggested 3 Sources and 2 screens of
objectives
 Three main sources of objectives are:
– The learner needs and interests.
– The society, its culture, problems and issues.
– Subject specialists

 Philosophy and psychology as screening devises

to state final statement of educational objectives
 Diagnosis of needs
ii. Taba’s Model
Formulation of educational
 Seven-step approach objectives or goals
 Grass-root approach
 Gives priority to the Selection of contents
need assessment
 She believed that Organization of contents
curriculum should be
designed by the Selection of learning experiences
teachers rather than
handed down by higher Organization of learning
authority or curriculum experiences or activities
specialists
Evaluation 83
Differences with Tyler model

 Taba included diagnosis of needs

 Treated contents and learning experiences separately
in terms of both the selection and organization.
 Taba capitalizes on the interdependence and inter-
relatedness of the various elements.
 Taba emphasized that no effective decision is made
about any element without consideration of other
elements.
ii. Wheeler’s
CurriculumModel
Development
Models Aims, Goals
and
objectives

Selection of
Evaluation Learning
Experiences

Organization &
Interpretation of
Learning Selection of
Experience Content

85
 ii. Wheeler’s Model
• This model has five basic stages

• Basically, Wheeler used the fundamental elements of

the curriculum processes as suggested by Tyler.

• But, Wheeler considered Tyler’s approach is linear

and argues that curriculum development is a
continuous process.

• Thus, the activities involved in the planning need to

be interrelated in a continuous and cyclical form.
Strengths of the objective model
– applied to any subject and to any level of teaching
– It provides a set of procedures which are necessary and
very easy to follow and which appear to be most logical
and rational.
Weaknesses of the objective model
• The separation of the curriculum development steps tends
to under estimate the interrelationship, which occur in any
curriculum planning activity.
• It gives more emphasis for the intended curriculum by not
valuing the unintended one
• There are no explicit guidelines about why certain
objectives are chosen over the others.
 2. The Process Model:
• Developed by Lawrence Stenhouse.
The root of this model is in philosophy
of education.
Gives autonomy for individual teachers.
• Stenhouse believes that it is possible to
design curricula rationally by specifying
content and principles of procedures
rather than by pre-specifying the
anticipated outcomes in terms of
objectives.
Stages in the Process Model

1. Selection of Content
2. Devising/ preparing teaching methods
and materials
3. Selection of Principles of procedures
(learning strategies)
4. Evaluation by criteria inherent in the
field of knowledge
 Process model…
Strong sides of the process model:
• It offers higher personal and professional development.
• It considers learning as a process, but not as an end.
• It gives high attention to both intended and unintended
learning.

Weaknesses of the process model

• It is vulnerable to subjectivity
• It assumes/gives autonomy for individual teachers
 3. The Situation Analysis Model
 It has its roots in cultural analysis as developed by
Shilbeck.
 Gives attention to the context in which the
teaching-learning occurs rather than focusing on
outcomes and processes.
 Emphasizes school-based curriculum dev’t
 Curriculum is made separately for each
institutional situation as these are assumed to
be unique.
 This model is flexible, adaptable and open to
interpretation in the light of changing circumstances.
Stages in the Situation Analysis Model

1. Situation analysis (External & Internal school

situations/factors)
2. Goal Formulation
3. Program building (selection & organization of subject
matter, learning experiences & materials)
4. Interpretation and Implementation
5. Monitoring, assessment feedback and
reconstruction
 Situation Analysis Model
• Curriculum development takes into account the
realities of the society, the needs of the
learners, and developments in science and
technology.
• Specifically, curriculum planning needs to be
based up on.
 The nature of knowledge or subject matter
 The social and physical environment
 The needs and interests of the learners
 The nature and processes of learning
 The availability of resources and facilities
both human as well as material
 4. The Saylor, Alexander and Lewis Model

• The define curriculum as "a plan for providing sets

of learning opportunities for persons to be
educated”

 Curriculum planning is having many components

(smaller plans) for particular portions of the
curriculum
 The Saylor, Alexander and Lewis Model
Specifying
educational goals and
objectives

Curriculum
Curriculum Design implementation Curriculum evaluation
(Instruction)
Decisions as to Decisions as to evaluative
design(s) made by the Decisions as to
procedures for determining
responsible curriculum instructional modes
learner progress made by the
planning groups for a made by the responsible
responsible teachers.
particular educational teacher. The curriculum
Decisions as to evaluate
center. plan includes alternative
procedures for evaluating the
Various prior decisions modes with suggestions as
curriculum plan are made by
made by political and to resources, media and
the responsible planning
social agencies may organization, thus
group. Evaluative data
limit the final design encouraging flexibility and
become bases for decision
more freedom for the
making in further planning.
teacher(s) and students
 Curriculum development process Based on
Objective Model

The common elements are

• Need assessment / diagnosis
• Formulation of educational aims, goals,
and objectives
• Selection of contents or subject matter
• Selection of learning experiences
• Curriculum evaluation

96
 Need Assessment / Diagnosis in Curriculum
Development

– Need is a gap between the present status of an

individual/society and the desirable objective.
– Need assessment is an activity of identifying and
validating needs and establishing priorities among
different needs.
– Involves the identification of the gaps that exist
between the current state of affairs and the desired
changes.
– This gap between the actual and the expected can be in
relation to the learners as well as the larger society.
97
 Need Assessment / Diagnosis in Curriculum Development

– Need can be understood, therefore, as deficiencies or the

missing behaviors, traits, or features which should be
fulfilled as a result of the implementation of the
curriculum.
– It is also a process of collecting information about
 The school system,
 Learners (socio-cultural Bg; language, ability, age etc.)
 Teachers (preparation, language, competency, interest)
 Community (values and attitudes, needs and goals)
 Parallel/alternative systems (training on health,
agriculture, human rights and others through the non-
formal education programs 98
 Need Assessment / Diagnosis in Curriculum Development

• Sources of information for needs assessment

Parents  Academic specialists
Students  Graduates
Teachers  Employers
Politically influential
individuals and pressure groups

Instruments of data collection

• Instruments used to gather data in the survey and other
types of research investigations such as questionnaire,
interview, observation, reading, public hearing and
analysis of social indicators, documents analysis, etc. 99
 Formulating Educational Aims, Goals, and Objectives

• They differ in scope (generality and specificity) and

time (immediacy and long lasting).
• Policy makers first determine the national aims of
education. Based on the national aims of education, the
goals and objectives of the curriculum will be selected.

General Specific
Philosop
Aims Goals objectiv objectiv
hy
es es

100
Aims:
 Are general and open statements formulated at
philosophical level
 Considered as vision and slogans to respond for the
question "why to educate?"
 Too general to guide particular instructional decisions
 Long term & generally applied to system rather than
individual school.

Example of aims:
 To cultivate personal talents and interests.
 To create sense of national identity.
 Development of democratic attitudes.
101
Goals:
Formulating Educational Aims, Goals, and
 Derived from various aims and provide the teachers and
Objectives
educators with broad statements of what they should
accomplish in terms of students learning as a result of a
particular subject or educational program.
 Relatively specific and show some reference to a particular
subject area of a curriculum.
 They are expected to be practiced at institutional level
(school, college, university, etc.)

Example
– Aim of education: economic efficiency
– Goals of education: students will gain appropriate career
education and knowledge of the world of work including an
understanding of the nature and place of work in the society
102
Objectives:
An intended outcome of a planned program of teaching or
a particular course or unit of study.
Educational objectives are divided into two:
A. General/course/unit objectives
• Stated at course or unit level.
• Are sources of lesson/ specific objective.
• Derived directly from educational goals and indirectly
from philosophy and aims of education.
• Written by the teacher/ syllabus writer
• Stated in terms of students’ behavior

Examples
At the end of this course/unit, students will be able to:
1. Demonstrate skills in manipulating the computer.
2. Understand the process of curriculum development 103
B. Specific objective/lesson/instructional
objectives/
– Use action verbs
– Written by the teacher
– Derived from general objectives
– Show students level of proficiency
– Are highly specific and easily measurable (SMART)
– Written in terms of students’ behavior
Example
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
• define the term curriculum.
• identify tools of data gathering tools for need assessment
104
Sources of objectives
– Three main sources of objectives are:
 The learner needs and interests.
 The society, its culture, problems and issues.
 Subject specialists
Screening devises
– Philosophy and psychology
 Selection of Contents and Learning Experiences
There are two important components which are considered
in selecting curriculum experiences.
1. Contents
2. Learning experiences
Contents:
Contents are elements of a subject matter, which help the
learner in the acquisition of knowledge, the development of
skills, habits, attitudes, values, and so on.
• concepts, facts principles, rules, etc. to be learned by the
students.
Contents are seen as vehicles for the all-round development
of the learners' intellectual abilities, physical abilities and skills
as well as value systems.
106
 Criteria of content selection
• Validity- accuracy and authenticity/truthfulness of the
content
• Significance- the importance or the degree to which it
contributes
• Appropriate balance of scope and depth: It focuses the
coverage of the school program, the subjects taught and the
units included. Scope refers to coverage or breadth while
depth is to the level of understanding.
• The durability of the subject matter:-Contents that have
acceptance and function at different times and conditions
without being obsolete are better selected

107
 Criteria of content selection

• Interest- content must be meaningful and engaging

for the learner.
• Utility- Usefulness; Must consider the current and
future world when determining utility.
• Learnability- “appropriateness for the intended
student audience”. It refers to students' levels of
achievement.
• Feasibility- consideration of resources available,
time, staffing, legislation, resources, politics, money.

108
 Selection of Contents and Learning
Experiences
Learning experiences:
– Are opportunities that are planned and guided by the
school including societal opportunities arranged by the
school or institution.
– Are the interaction of students with their
environment in which they are living in.
– They give answers to the question, how do students
acquire the desired changes in behavior?
Thus, it is the task of curriculum designers to select the
right kinds of learning experience for better learning
to take place.
109
Criteria for the selection of learning experiences
learning experiences should
• allow the practice of the behavior which the objectives have
suggested
• express what the learner believes that he/she is expected to
know.
• sometimes be of self-activating type.
• be as varied as the objectives they represent.
• be continuing and consistent.
• be based on socially accepted values of the current society.
• be effective and efficient.
• not be limited to classroom.
• involve the total behavioral development of the learning.
• be feasible in terms of time, staff expertise, facilities
available to be accomplished
 Curriculum Organization
• Is a systematic arrangement of objectives, contents,
learning experiences and materials in unified and
consolidated manner.
• Putting contents and learning experiences together to
form some kind of coherent program.
• Types of curriculum organizations are:
 Vertical: refers to the relationship of ideas contents
over time vertical organization,
• Sequence and continuity
 Horizontal: relationship of different subjects at the
same grade level
111
112
 Criteria for curriculum organization

1. Scope: latitude or breadth of the curriculum: the

coverage of the school program, the subjects taught
and the units included.
2. Integration: horizontal and vertical relationships
between different subject areas.
3. Continuity: the vertical recurrence or repetition of the
concepts, skill and values at different grade levels of
the same subject over period of time.

113
 Criteria for curriculum organization

4. Sequence: successive or progressive nature of

contents and learning experiences.
1. Logical sequence: putting curriculum elements
into some order of succession in answering the
question "What is to follow what?"
2. Psychological sequence: based on principles of
psychology by considering the learning activities in
relation to the learner's abilities, interests,
aspirations and background rather than the course
and content coverage.

114
 Approaches of Curriculum Organization
1. The subject based/linear approach: It is organizing
contents on the basis of direct subject lines.
 Subjects are organized mainly on the basis of their
logical structure without considering social problems and
interests of the learner. E.g. physics, history, geography,
civic.
2. The broad field /integrated approach: opposite of the
above approach.
 Organizing the curriculum by taking themes,
competence, correlation, common skill, areas, or nature
of different subjects. E.g. natural science (chemistry,
biology, physics, etc).
Approaches of Curriculum Organization

3. The core (unified approach): It is an arrangement of

subject matter around social problems.
 It includes all areas of subject- based and broad
field approaches.

4. Learner-centered approach: focuses on the learner's

interests in determining the curriculum organization.
 The reference point is students' experiences, needs,
interests, abilities, hopes, aspirations, feelings,
choices, etc.
 Preparation of Curriculum Materials

• The main curriculum materials are syllabus, textbooks,

and teacher's guide.

A. Syllabus: is an outline of definite subject for a specific

grade describing the objectives to be achieved, outlining
contents of a subject matter along with the time allotment,
the learning experiences (activities and method of
teaching) suggested and evaluation mechanisms
recommended.
 Common structural components of a syllabus

Syllabus of __________________________________ Grade_____________________

General Objectives: __________________________________________________________

Specific Method ofInstructional Evaluation

Contents Time allotted
objectives teaching material Procedures
 B. Student Textbooks
Student's text books: are written by subject experts. include
basic facts, ideas, concepts, principles, laws, theories, skills
and those contents that cultivate values that students are
going to learn. Some of the criteria considered in preparing
textbooks are:
1. Elements: relevance, coverage, adequacy, authenticity,
recent, continuity and balance, integration, and linkage with
life
2. Organization: division of contents into units, division of
units into sections (sub units), considering psychological
conditions of the learners, coherence, flexibility, etc.
3. Presentation: attractiveness and appropriateness of
titles, motivating presentation of contents, interesting and
creative matter, adequate terminology, adequate provision
for replication, provision for suitable suggestion for
teachers, etc.
4. Verbal communication (Language): appropriate
vocabulary, short and single sentences, correct spelling and
punctuation, grammatically correct language, proper use of
technical terms, etc.
5. Visual communication (illustration): clear illustration,
purposeful presentation of illustrations, adequate
illustration, supplementation of figures, variety of
illustrations, etc.
6. Assignment (exercises and projects): adequate
exercise, wide coverage, variety in exercise, scope for
projects (area of coverage of information), real projects,
challenging and graded exercises, etc.
7. Preliminary and back matters: appropriate title
page, suitable preface, effective introduction, core table
of contents, bibliography (if necessary), suitable glossary
(if important), index (if important), etc
8. Printing layout: suitable length, appropriate margin,
suitable text size, aesthetic outlook (decoration),
appropriate spacing, etc.
C. Teacher's guide:
are materials which help the teacher to get information
about what to teach, why to teach, how to teach, when to
teach, whom to teach, where to teach, how to assess
students' performance, how to give feedback for students,
etc.
 Curriculum Try Out (Pilot Test)

• A curriculum may not be effective and efficient if it is

implemented directly after its development.
• It needs to be checked before its formal implementation.
• Curriculums try out or pilot test means implementing a
curriculum at selected sample schools before the
curriculum is formally implemented at all schools.
• It is useful to identify strengths and/or weaknesses of
the curriculum and get feedback before it is formally
implemented.
 Unit Three

Curriculum
Implementation, Change
and Evaluation
 3.1 Meaning of Curriculum Implementation

Curriculum implementation
– is a process of putting newly planned or changed
curriculum into practice.
– Actual use of a curriculum, syllabus, textbooks,
teacher's guide and related curriculum materials.
– involves changing the status quo by accepting and
utilizing a newly created curriculum or part of a
curriculum.
– If the curriculum is accepted and utilized successfully,
we say that it has become institutionalized.
For the implementation process to be successful, it
needs to consider the following points
1. Planning: A deliberate strategy is developed to
implement the curriculum in the school.
2. Communication: frequent discussion about the new
program among teachers, principal and curriculum
workers is a key to successful curriculum
implementation.
3. Cooperation: cooperation between all persons who are
supposed to be involved with program implementation
is-essential for sound curriculum implementation.
4. Support: curriculum implementers need to be
provided the necessary supports such as money,
materials, and ideas, and so on.
 3.2. Curriculum Implementation Models
• Curriculum implementation can be done using
different models. The three common once are :

1. Fidelity Model:
– the model requires the curriculum to be
implemented without any modification as it
is, that is, as it is prescribed by the
curriculum experts.
– The teacher has no right to make any form
of change in all aspects of the curriculum.
 Curriculum Implementation Models
2. Mutual Adaptation Model:
– The curriculum designed and developed by the expert
can be implemented by the teacher with necessary
adjustments.
– Teachers are allowed to make some modification by
considering the reality of the context.

3. Enactment Model:
– the curriculum implementer participates in all
curriculum development process at all levels.
– Teachers are the most active participants in
curriculum creation.
– This model goes up to school based curriculum
development under the national framework.
 3.3 Factors Affecting Curriculum
Implementation
Factors Related with the Characteristics of the Change:
– Need and Relevance,
– Clarity,
– Complexity,
– Quality and Practicality of Program

Factors Related with the Characteristics of the School District

Level
– Previous History of Innovation Attempts,
– The Adoption Process,
– Staff development and Participation,
– Time-line and information systems/ evaluation/, and
– Board and Community Characteristics
Factors Affecting Curriculum Implementation

School Level Factors

– The Role of the Principal,
– Teacher-Teacher Relationship,
– Teacher characteristics and orientations,
External Environment Factors
– Government Agencies,
– External Assistance
 3.3. Factors Affecting Curriculum
Implementation
Factors Related with the Characteristics of the Change:

• Need and Relevance: the greater the recognized need

for change, the greater the degree of implementation.
• Clarity: refers to understanding of goals and means
of an innovation by users.
• Complexity: The greater the complexity in innovations
with differentiated components incrementally
introduced, the greater the degree of implementation.
• Quality and Practicality of Program: refers to the
quality and availability of materials.
 Factors Affecting …
Factors Related with the Characteristics of the
School District Level
• Previous History of Innovation Attempts: the
more positive the previous history with innovation,
the greater the degree of implementation.
• The Adoption Process: the higher the quality of
planning to meet problems, the greater the degree
of implementation.
• Administrative Support: the greater the “real”
administrative support, the greater the degree of
implementation.
 Factors Affecting …
• Staff development and Participation: The
greater the quality and quantity of sustained
interaction and staff development, the greater the
degree of implementation.
• Time-line and information systems/
evaluation/: the greater the extent to which
timing or events is guided by an understanding of
implementation, the greater the degree of
implementation.
• Board and Community Characteristics: the
greater the board and community interest and
support without controversy, the greater the
degree of implementation.
 Factors Affecting …

School Level Factors

• The Role of the Principal: the greater the

active support of the principal, the greater the
degree of implementation.
• Teacher-Teacher Relationship: the more
collegiality, trust, support, interaction and
open communication between teachers, the
greater the degree of implementation.
• Teacher characteristics and orientations: The
greater the sense of teacher efficacy, the greater
the degree of implementation.
 Factors Affecting …

External Environment Factors

• Government Agencies: The greater the congruence

between local needs and the reform and the greater
awareness of subjective realities, the greater the
degree of implementation.
• External Assistance: The greater the interaction
with local district, the greater the degree of
implementation
 Factors Affecting …
• As a whole, curriculum implementation can be
affected by the following variables:
– The nature of the curriculum itself
– The situation of the learners
– The professional competence of the teacher
– Availability of resources
– The school environment
– The out of school environment
– The school-community relationship
– The management practices in the school.
 3.4. Curriculum Evaluation

Evaluation
• a process that helps us to see the difference
between what is intended or expected and how
much is accomplished.
• In doing so it provides valid and reliable
information that could help to decide about the
failure or success of an educational program.
 Curriculum Evaluation
 It is a systematic collection and analysis of the
relevant data necessary to promote the
improvement of the curriculum and analyze its
effectiveness within the context of a particular
institution.
 It is a means to compare the actual outcome
against the expected results.

 Is a process that helps the planners or other

concerned authorities to see the difference between
what is intended or expected and how much is
accomplished. 138
 Functions of curriculum evaluation:

– To check the adequacy & relevance of the curriculum,

– To get feedback about the effectiveness of the
program;
– To improve the curriculum continuously;
– To identify factors which influence the teaching-
learning processes;
– To add different innovations to the existing program;
– To have continuous professional development and so
forth.
139
 Curriculum evaluation procedures:

1. Identifying the Objective: Specification, selection,

refinement, or modification of program goals and
evaluation objectives.
2. Planning of appropriate evaluation design.
3. Selection or developing data gathering instruments
or methods.
4. Collection of relevant data.
5. Processing and summary of data.
6. Contrasting the data (result) and the objectives of the
program.
7. Reporting results and setting feedback system. 140
 Forms/types of Curriculum Evaluation:

A. Formative evaluation: is undertaken to improve an

existing curriculum.
– It provides frequent, detailed, and specific
information to guide the program being developed.
– It goes hand-in-hand with curriculum planning,
design, and implementation.

B. Summative evaluation: is the process of evaluating

the overall program after it is in operation.

141
 Forms/types of Curriculum Evaluation:

C. Diagnostic Evaluation: is directed towards two

purposes,
 either for placement of students
 to discover the underlying cause of deficiencies
in student learning as instruction unfolds.

 It can be conducted before commencing/beginning a

unit of learning and during instruction when a student
reveals repeated inability to profit from the learning
experiences.
142
 Criteria for Curriculum Evaluation:

Establishing evaluation instruments should be based on

the following evaluation criteria.

Criterion 1- Curricular Structure:

– Is the curriculum sufficiently complete?
– What are the current education elements?
– What is missing?

Criterion 2 - Curricular Sequence:

– Is the sequential logic of the curriculum optimal?
– This involves the idea of learner readiness. 143
 Criteria for curriculum evaluation:

Criterion 3 - Curricular Element Proportionality:

– Does curricular content proportionally reflect the
objectives?
– How is the time allotted in the curriculum?

Criterion 4 - Curricular Integration:

• Is the curriculum sufficiently integrated /linked in
terms of educational elements so that optimal
learning is facilitated and curricular redundancy
minimized?

144
 Criteria for curriculum
evaluation:
Criterion 5 - Curricular Balance/Learner Outcomes:
• Is the curriculum and its evaluative components
(objectives) balanced in terms of learner outcomes?
• Is there an educationally sound balance between
knowledge, skill, and attitude development?
• To what level of competency are learners prepared?

145
146
147
 Criteria for curriculum evaluation:

Criterion 6 - General Preparation:

• Does the curriculum prepare all students broadly
enough?
• How well does the curriculum achieve a base of general
preparation compared to specialized preparation?
Criterion 7 - Curricular Evaluation
• Are evaluation mechanisms systematically in place in
order to identify intended learner outcomes (knowledge,
skill, attitude across the spectrum of expected
competencies)?
• This includes evaluation by learners, teachers and
'outside' resources.
148
 Criteria for curriculum evaluation:

Criterion 8 - Faculty Development:

• Is there sufficient recruitment, training, evaluation
and nurturing of faculty teachers in order to achieve
and maintain excellence in the accomplishments of
the intended educational process

149
 Curriculum Change
• Change is a phenomenon which we experience
continuously, is the process of transforming
phenomena in to something different.
• Curriculum change may be considered as a subset of
educational change

• Hence, curriculum change is any alteration of the

curriculum such as; educational philosophy, values,
objectives/learning outcomes, organizational
structures, teaching strategies, student experiences,
assessment mechanisms. educational materials, etc.
150
 Change Typologies in Curriculum

Warren Bennie has identified the following types of

changes:

1. Planned Change: is a change in which those involved

have equal power and function in a prescribed fashion.
 It follow precise procedures for dealing with the activity
at hand.
2. Coercion Change: one group determining the goals and
intentionally excluding others from participating
3. Interaction Change: have mutual goal setting and fairly
equal power distribution among groups take place
151
 Change typologies in Curriculum
John McNeil has identified five types of changes
according to their complexity described below.

1. Substitution: depicts alteration or replaced for

another.
 it is the easiest and most common type of change.

2. Alteration: introducing new content, items, materials,

or procedures into the existing materials and program

152
 Change typologies in Curriculum

3. Perturbations: changes could first disrupt a

program, but they can be adjusted purposefully
by the curriculum leader to the on-going
program within a short time span.
4. Restructuring: changes lead to modification of
the system itself
5. Value-Orientation Change: refers to the shifts
in the participants’ fundamental philosophies or
curriculum orientations.

153
 Resistance to Curriculum Change

People are the key to curriculum implementation effort

but not always are ready to accept curriculum change.
The people’s resistance to change can be attributed to
various factors:

I. Inertia: many people think it is easier to keep things

as they are/exist, change being suggested is unwise
and will thus be unproductive in meeting the
objectives of the school.

154
 Resistance to curriculum change

II. Insecurity: people feel instance about the uncertainty

of things to happen. Those who are comfortable with
the present are reluctant to change for a future which
they can’t comprehend or see clearly than preferring to
stay with certain.
III. Rapidity of change: refers to the factor which makes
people to resist change by anticipating another change
in curriculum soon.
IV. Lack of knowledge: Sometimes people resist
innovation and its implementation because they lack
knowledge.
155
 Resistance to curriculum change

V. Lack of Support: if financial or time support is not

given to the effort.
VI. Self Interest: People also resist to curriculum
change when they feel that the change may result
in a loss in their current position which is related to
their personal interest.
 Improving receptivity or accessibility
to curriculum change
Brue Joyce and his co-workers have identified
the following guidelines that help individuals to
increase their receptivity to curriculum innovations:

 Curriculum activity must be Cooperative

 Consider as some people do not like change
 Convincing that Innovations are subject to
change: Nothing should be viewed as
permanent.
 Proper timing: it is a key increase peoples‟
receptivity to an innovation.
157
 UNIT FIVE
THE TEACHING AND
LEARNING PROCESS
 The Concept of Teaching
 Gagne (1963a) “…any form of interpersonal influence
aimed at changing the ways in which other persons can
or will behave”
 Amidon & Hunter (1967) “…an interactive process,
primarily involving classroom talk, which takes place
between teacher and pupils and occurs during certain
definable activities”
 Klauer (1985) “… interpersonal activity directed toward
learning by one or more persons”
 Robertson (1987) … teaching “denotes action
undertaken with the intention of bringing about
learning in another
 Common attributes of the concept of teaching
1. Teaching is an activity/ action or process;
2. Teaching is an interpersonal activity or process.
Interpersonal means that teaching involves interactions
between a teacher and or more students.
 Most of these interactions are verbal.
 Bidirectional (teachers talk to and influence students
and talk to and influence teachers).

3. Teaching is intentional. There is some purpose or set of

purposes for which teaching occurs.
 Kluer (1985) “directed toward learning,”
 Gagne (1963a) “aimed at changing the ways in which
other persons can or will behave”
“Teaching is an interpersonal, interactive
activity, typically involving verbal
communication, which is undertaken for the
purpose of helping one or more students
learn or change the ways in which they can or
will behave.”
 Teaching
Art or Science?
• both an art and a science
• As an art,
 it is recognized as a process that calls for intuition,
creativity, improvisation and expressiveness.
• As a science, it contends that
 Most people can learn the skills of teaching, can
implement them in the classroom, and can be evaluated
based on how well they teach.
 It involves following clearly stated objectives and facts,
dealing directly with objectives and facts, seeking order
and relationships, and setting expectations for
performance based on objectives.
 Teaching as a Profession
Criteria of a profession

1. A profession involves a body of knowledge

and system of skills;
 This criterion is related to the issue of specific
subject area to be mastered and the special training
one has to undergo to master the ideas, concepts,
principles, laws and theories as well as skills.

2. A profession performs specific functions for

personal and social purposes;
3. A profession is Practicable;
• This relates to the freedom/autonomy that its
members enjoy to practice/ do their professional
career with out any restriction or interference.

4. Entry into a profession requires an extended

period of preparation.
5. A profession is organized.
6. A profession has a literature and language
unique to it;
 What do you think makes an
effective teacher?

Think about the most

effective teacher you’ve ever
had?

What were his/her

characteristics?

Why was this individual

so effective???
 Qualities of an Effective Teacher
 Effective teachers are those who helped their students learn
more than other teachers with similar students.

1. Effective Teachers Personal Attributes &

Characteristics
Enthusiasm
Warmth and humor
Credibility
High expectation for success
Encouraging & supportive
Businesslike
Adaptable/flexible
Knowledgeable
• The teacher is expected to have the following
qualities:
• Has excellent subject knowledge or mastery
– Provides work that is challenging for students
– Has smooth relations with students
– Manages the class well
– Plans his/her lessons well
– Adopts a variety of teaching methods and media
– Considers the needs of the different ability groups
within the class
– Makes good use of a variety of questioning
techniques
 Is friendly, with a sense of humor
 Gives feedback within an appropriate timescale.
• Is confident, open to suggestions, other
viewpoints.
• Remains a student all his/her life.
• Knows his/her world.
• Combines adaptability with courage, etc.
• Teachers' enthusiasm promotes learning by helping
to motivate students, by keeping them persistent at
tasks, and by helping them feel more satisfied with
the teaching.
• Enthusiastic teachers vary their voice, gestures, and
expressions; they move around the room, from front
to back as well as side to side; and they maintain a
quick lesson pace involving high levels of interaction
with students
• Warmth and humor seem mostly to influence
students' learning indirectly by promoting an
environment in which students feel free and are
motivated to participate.
• They should avoid using sarcasm or teasing students.
• However, warmth and humor, if overemphasized,
actually reduce classroom learning, and so they are
best used naturally and sparingly
• Credibility and trustworthiness: create a relaxed,
supportive environment where students trust the
teacher to help them be successful. They are
developed through open, honest teacher-student
interaction.

• Effective teachers are positive people, oriented

toward and optimistic about their own and their
students' success.
• Specifically, effective teachers have high
expectations for success and are encouraging and
supportive of students.
• Let the students know your objectives, why they
need to know it , and how they will use the learning.
Businesslike:
• Teachers focus on promoting learning in a variety
of ways. Classroom activities are directed toward
helping students reach the established goals and
objectives.
• When problems arise, teachers must "flex" or
adapt their instruction to more effectively reach
the established goals.
2. Professional Skills and Abilities of effective
teachers

• Focusing and Engaging students attention

– Establishing set
– Using variety
• Using instructional Time Effectively
• Conducting Interactive Instruction
– Using Questions
– Providing clear instruction
– monitoring students progress
• Providing feedback & Reinforcement
Establishing set: There are three major types of set.

• Orientation set is used to engage students in a new

instructional activity.
• Transition set is used to help students see the
relationship between past and present learning.
• Evaluative set is used to establish what students may
already know about a topic.
• Educators recommended that teachers should use
pre-questions as a way to introduce a new topic.
• Pre-questions (or pre-tests) help students identify
what material they do not yet know, and hence
need to study.
• In addition, responding to pre-questions
automatically activates any relevant prior
knowledge in the student’s mind. These processes
contribute to improved student learning.
Professional…

Using Variety:
• An effective teacher uses variety in nonverbal
behavior, instructional approaches, types of
assessment, and a host of other areas.
• Variability, which was found to be closely related to
students' learning, probably increases learning by
helping students remain more interested and
engaged

Instructional clarity:
• is achieved through logical organization, identifying
and reinforcing main points, using good examples to
elaborate, and monitoring and correcting.
• Teachers whom students find most enjoyable and
helpful provide instruction which leads to a clear
understanding of the material.
• Clear teachers elaborate on important ideas and
concepts using concrete, verbal, or written examples
and by explicitly showing how ideas, concepts, tasks,
etc., are similar to and different from one another.
• Clear teachers monitor and quickly correct students'
misunderstandings by using questions and application
exercises throughout the lesson to monitor
understanding and to allow students to clarify their own
misconceptions.
 Major Responsibilities of Teachers
• The teacher guides his students and learning
activities: the most important responsibilities of
teachers are to plan, organize and direct the
activities, which will result in learning and guiding
the students.
• The teacher participates in the construction of the
curriculum: the teacher participates in the
preparation of curriculum, syllabus, teachers guide
and textbooks and other instructional manuals.
Responsibilities of teachers …

• The teacher measures and evaluates the

students’ progress: Measurement and evaluation
are used to determine the effectiveness of
learning and teaching process.
• The teacher leads extra-curricular activities: the
teacher is expected to participate in different extra-
curricular activities such as clubs, committee,
department head, etc.
• The teacher gives guidance and counseling to
students concerning academic and personal
problems: