DNA replication is a fundamental process in all living organisms that allows the faithful duplication of the

genetic information stored in DNA. It occurs during the S phase (synthesis phase) of the cell cycle,
ensuring that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the genome. The process of DNA replication
can be divided into several key steps:

1. **Initiation:**

- DNA replication begins at specific sites on the DNA molecule called origins of replication. These
origins have specific DNA sequences recognized by initiator proteins.

- Initiator proteins bind to the origin and facilitate the unwinding of the double-stranded DNA, creating
a replication bubble. This exposes the two separated DNA strands, forming a replication fork at each end
of the bubble.

2. **Helicase Unwinding:**

- Enzymes called helicases unwind the DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the
complementary nucleotide bases. Helicase moves along the DNA strands in both directions from the
origin, further opening up the replication bubble.

3. **Single-Strand Binding Proteins (SSBs):**

- Single-strand binding proteins bind to the separated DNA strands, preventing them from rejoining
and stabilizing the single-stranded regions.

4. **Priming the DNA Strand:**

- For DNA synthesis to begin, RNA primers are required. An enzyme called primase synthesizes short
RNA primers complementary to the single-stranded DNA at the replication fork. These primers provide a
starting point for DNA polymerases.

5. **DNA Polymerase Binding:**

- DNA polymerases are enzymes responsible for synthesizing new DNA strands. In eukaryotes, DNA
polymerase alpha (Pol α) synthesizes the RNA primers, while DNA polymerases delta (Pol δ) and epsilon
(Pol ε) are primarily involved in DNA elongation.

6. **Leading Strand Synthesis:**

- The leading strand is the strand that is synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction, moving
toward the replication fork. DNA polymerase binds to the RNA primer and elongates the leading strand
by adding new complementary nucleotides to the 3' end, using the exposed DNA strand as a template.

7. **Lagging Strand Synthesis:**

- The lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously in short segments called Okazaki fragments. As the
replication fork opens, the lagging strand is looped so that its 3' to 5' direction faces the replication fork.
 - Primase creates RNA primers on the lagging strand, and DNA polymerase adds complementary
nucleotides to form the Okazaki fragments in the 5' to 3' direction, away from the replication fork.

8. **Removal of RNA Primers:**

- Once the Okazaki fragments are synthesized, the RNA primers need to be removed to join the
fragments together into a continuous DNA strand. An enzyme called DNA polymerase I (Pol I) in
prokaryotes and flap endonuclease (FEN1) in eukaryotes excise the RNA primers.

9. **DNA Repair and Ligation:**

- After the RNA primers are removed, DNA polymerase fills in the gaps with the appropriate DNA
nucleotides. DNA ligase then seals the remaining nicks, joining the Okazaki fragments on the lagging
strand and completing the DNA replication process.

10. **Proofreading and Error Correction:**

- Throughout the replication process, DNA polymerases possess proofreading activity, allowing them
to recognize and correct any errors made during DNA synthesis, thus ensuring high fidelity in DNA
replication.

The result of DNA replication is two identical DNA molecules, each containing one original strand and
one newly synthesized strand. These two daughter DNA molecules can then be distributed to the
daughter cells during cell division, ensuring the preservation of genetic information across generations.