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    Power System Analysis - / (2-2) ‘Symmetrical Fault Analysis jm 2.4 Introduction An operating mode of a power system, in steady state is a balanced three phase a.c. A fault is said to occur on a power system when the defect in electrical circuit of a power system deviates the current path from its intended path. When a fault occurs on a system, the voltages of the three phases become unbalanced. The fault currents are very large in magnitude which may damage the apparatus, The flow of power which is diverted towards the fault affects the supply to the neighbouring zone. Hence the analysis of such faults is an essential step in a power system analysis. The fault analysis means to find the voltage and current distribution throughout the system during the occurance of a fault. The faults cannot be eliminated from the system but their occurance can be minimized while their effects can be minimized by improving the system design, quality of the equipment used and maintenance. \m 2.2 Nature and Causes of Faults © Generally a fault occurs due to failure of insulation of conductor at one or more points or a conducting object comes in contact with the live part of the system. There are number of reasons for the occurance of a fault which includes mechanical failure, excessive internal and external stress, over voltages due to a switching surge or a lightning stroke, heavy winds, falling of trees on the lines, accidents of vehicles with towers or poles, perching of birds on the lines, accidental short circuiting by snakes, kite strings ete. ‘© Though a power system consists of generators, switchgear equipments, transformers, there is always possibility of occurance of a fault somewhere on the system. The maximum possibility of fault occurance is on transmission lines due to their greater lengths and exposure to the atmospheric conditions. * Most of these faults lead to short circuit condition due to which impedance of the short circuit path becomes very low and very large fault currents flow. Thus the evaluation of these fault currents under short circuit conditions is important from the point of view of design and selection of protective equipments and their arrangement in a system. It may be necessary to know the frequency of the fault occurance on various parts of the system which help in designing suitable protection circuit. Following table gives us an idea as to how the faults are distributed in the various parts of the system. Power System Analysis - 1 (2-3) Symmetrical Fault Analysis Sr.No. | Equipment _ | % of total faults 1.__| Overhead lines 50 2. _| Switchgear 15 3.__| Transformer 12 4. | Cables 10 3. __| Miscellaneous 8 6. | Control equipment 3 7._| CTsand PTs 2 Table 2.2.1 © It can be seen from the above table that maximum number of faults are occuring on overhead lines. Review Question 1. Discuss the nature and causes of faults in a power system. \™* 2.3 Types of Faults The faults are classified as, i) Symmetrical faults ii) Unsymmetrical faults ‘=> 2.3.1 Symmetrical Fault © The symmetrical fault is that fault which gives rise to symmetrical currents or equal fault currents in all the lines with displacement of 120° between them. © The symmetrical fault occurs when all the three conductors of a three phase supply system are brought together simultaneously into a short circuit. This is shown in the Fig. 2.3.1. The currents Ip , ly and Iy are equal in magnitude with 120° displacement between each other. Ik Short circuit RY 8 Fig. 2.3.1 : Symmetrical fault Power System Analysis - ! (2-4) ‘Symmetrical Fault Analysis Such a fault may occur if there is breakdown of insulation between all the three phases. It is also called line to line to line (L- of operating personnel. ‘L) fault which normally occurs due to carelessness Usually the phase lines are tied together with the help of a bare conductor so as to protect the lineman working on the lines agains inadvertent charging of the line. Sometimes after the work, if lineman forgets to remove the tie up between phase lines and if the circuit breaker is closed then three phase symmetrical fault occurs. © The symmetrical fault is most severe in nature and it forces very heavy duty on the circuit breaker. © The symmetrical fault rarely occurs in practice. As the nature of currents in all the phases is symmetrical only one phase is considered for the calculation purpose as similar conditions exist in other two phases. ‘= 2.3.2 Unsymmetrical Fault © The fault in a power system which gives unsymmetrical currents in the three lines i.e, unequal line currents with unequal displacements, is called unsymmetrical fault. © The unsymmetrical faults are classified as, i) Single line to ground fault (L-G) ii) Double line to ground fault (L-L-G) iii) Line to line fault (L-L) The breakdown of insulation between one of the phases and earth is line to ground fault. In line to line fault, there is insulation breakdown either of the two phases. While the insulation breakdown between two phases and earth forms double line to ground fault. © A large number of these faults are transitory in nature. The word transitory refers to the fault which remains for short duration of time. The fault current varies with time. For example if a twig falls across a line and across arm and burns itself out or just falls down then the fault is transient as it vanishes after few cycles. During first one to three cycles, the fault current is very high but later on decreases very rapidly. This zone in which the current is very high but decreases very rapidly is called ‘sub transient’ state. After these first few cycles, the rate of current decrease is slower. This zone is called ‘transient’ state, This state remains for several cycles. After the transient state is over, steady state is reached. During the steady state, the rms value of short circuit current remains constant. The circuit breaker operates during transient state. Power System Analysis - 1 (2-8) Symmetrical Fault Analysis © Most of the faults on power system are unsymmetrical in nature and most common type of fault is line to ground fault. The fault current produced by line to ground fault has considerable magnitude. So protective system must be properly designed so as to have reliable operation of relays under line to ground fault. ‘© The various possible faults on power system are summarized in the Table 2.3.1. Sr.No. Type of fault Representation | % occurance 1, | Line to Ground (L-G) 85 = 2. | Line to Line (L-L) —— 8 3. | Line to Line to Ground (L-L-G) | 5 4. | Line to Line to Line (L-L-L) | ———-———] _ 2or Less. Table 2.3.1 ‘> 2.3.3 Effects of Faults The various effects of faults in power system are, 1. The main effect of a fault is to set up very heavy fault current which is very large in magnitude which can damage the power system equipments. n . The heavy currents produce overheating and high mechanical stresses. . There is always danger of fire due to arcing caused by heavy currents. If the fault persists for longer time then fire may spread to other parts of the system. » The overheating causes weakening of insulation of the conductors which reduces the life of insulation. . The unbalanced currents and voltages can cause heating of rotating machines connected to the system. 6. The generators interconnected in a system must operate in synchronism. Due to unbalanced currents and voltages due to fault, generators may lose synchronism causing total shutdown of the system. Thus the fault affects the system stability. . There may be interruption in the supply to the consumers thus reducing the reliability of the system. Hence it is necessary to isolate the faulty part as quickly as possible from the healthy system using reliable protective devices. Power System Analysis - / (2-6) Symmetrical Fault Analysis power system. State the frequency of their Pare Crorr jul "— 2.4 Transients On a Transmission Line ( R- L Circuit) ai July-18, Ja 0 © For any fault analysis, it is important to know the initial value of the fault current when the fault takes place. The short circuit analysis of a generator becomes easy after studying the short circuit transient in R-L series circuit. © The simplifying assumptions for the study of short circuit in R-L series circuit are, 1. The circuit is fed from constant voltage source. 2. The circuit is on no load when short circuit takes place. * The Fig. 2.4.1 shows R-L series circuit to which a f sinusoidal voltage is suddenly applied by closing the switch § at t= 0. e=E,, sinjat +8) © Abplyinie KVIrto the ctrentt; Fig. 2.4.1 Series R-L circuit fsir = E,,sin (wt +6) wo (24.1) ‘© The equation is to be solved to get the expression for current i. © The solution of the equation (2.4.1) consists of two parts : Complementary solution and particular solution. i = igtip * Complementary solution : For this solution, equate right hand side of the equation (2.4.1) to zero. di R LgtiR =0 ie. -[at R Integrating, ni = -pt+K Let K = mA is constant of integration R, 2 ini = ne 7 ar, ie. i=Ae R Ry = Complementary solution v= (2.4.2) Power System Analysis - 1 (2-7) Symmetrical Fault Analysis Particular solution : For this, take a trial solution as, i = Ccos(wt+0)+D sin(wt +0) +: (2.43) = =Co sin(wt + 0) - Deo cos(wt + 0) TR +0L RR +0L Using these values in the equation (2.4.3), E,, oL, E,R i “eae cos(at + 0) + Peo sin(wt + 0) we (2.44) * The impedance triangle for the circuit is as shown in the Fig. 2.4.2. sing, = ates VR +oL R VR +L andVRo+@L™ = [2| cos VR +0? . . ow Ze RtXL = Rok =\R+0l 26 R Fig. 2.4.1 Using in the equation (2.4.4), En ind cos(oot +0) +777) 7 cos sin(t + 0) Tz] En i = [zj[sin(o + 0) cos — costo + 6) sino] i= Tisinon +00 =i, vo 24.5) Power System Analysis - / (2-8) Symmetrical Fault Analysis Hence the complete solution for i is, i= Ae E, +]zjsin(ot +0 -9) (2.4.6) To find A, use initial conditions that t= 0,i=0 E, En 0 = A+T7jsin(O-9) ie. A=-[7jsinO-9) (2.47) The first component is called symmetrical short circuit current while the second component is called d.c. offset current which decays exponentially. Consider two cases according to the instant of closing the switch S. Case 1 : Switch is closed when e = 0 Assuming R is very small compared to wL then -1ob |Z|=oL and =tan | = 90° When e = 0, i= 0 at t= 0 and using in equation (2.4.6), En 0 = A+ sin 90°) ws ALT= 0,e=0,0=0° E, ‘m A=— ... This is maximum value of A oL Thus the d.c. offset current is maximum when the switch is closed at zero voltage. Case 2 : Switch is closed whene=E,, Le. 0 = 90° and 6 = 90° Thus at t=0,i=0,e=E,, E, o= A+ Gp sin(90° — 90°) ie. A=0 ‘Thus if the switch is closed when e = E,,, then d.c. offset current is zero. Be During the initial period after switching, the terme ' does not decay rapidly and hence neglecting it with 0 = 0° and 6 = 90° we get, E, En i = [Zjsintot —90°)— [77 sin(— 90°) .- sin(-90°)== 1 Power System Analysis - J (2-9) Symmetrical Fault Analysis i= [zj°°s"*7z| Im (1 — cos wt) At wt = x, 1 — cos ot = 2 ie. i = 21,,. This current is called maximum momentary short circuit current. This current is denoted a8 ip, Thus current rises to 21,, quickly after the switch is closed. This is called doubling effect. ‘Symmetrical short circuit current D.C. offset current (Transient) ‘Subtransient SI Total short 7 circuit current Fig. 2.4.2 : Waveform of a short circuit current © The transient term makes the overall current asymmetrical. As soon as, transient dies out then the current becomes sinusoidal in its steady state. © The Fig. 2.4.3 shows the short circuit current waveforms in a series R-L circuit. * The analysis of three phase short circuit of an alternator is done by similar way as we have done for the series R-L circuit. The current flowing in the phases of an alternator during short circuit has similar waveform to that of R-L circuit, as shown in the Fig. 2.4.3. Power System Analysis - / (2-10) Symmetrical Fault Analysis CEES 1. Explain the analysis of transients on a transmission line. 2. Explain the doubling effect along with the necessary equations. Wa Ree ry 3. Obtain an expression for maximum momentary current when transients occur on transmission line. Pa RRr ey \* 2.5 Short Circuit Analysis of Synchronous Machine on No Load Under short circuit conditions, alternator has three different reactances which are, i) Synchronous reactance X, in steady state. ii) Subtransient reactance X during subtransient period. iii) Transient reactance X, during transient period. 111) Synchronous reactance (X,) : © The armature reaction in an alternator is mathematically quantified by defining a reactance called armature reaction reactance denoted as X,.. While the armature reactance existing due to leakage flux is called armature leakage reactance denoted as . The total reactance of an alternator under steady state short circuit condition is X,, + X; which is called synchronous reactance denoted as X,. It is the direct axis synchronous reactance in case of salient pole alternators. The circuit model of an alternator under steady state short circuit condition is shown in the Fig. 2.5.1 x Xer 800 ° Sa &©) Xs Fig. 2.5.1 : Steady state short circuit model li) Subtransient reactance (Xj) : * When a sudden short circuit takes place across the armature terminals, then the transient current flows through all the phases. This current settles down to its steady state value after some time. But practically circuit breaker interrupts such a transient current much earlier than it achieves its steady state. The d.c. offset current has different magnitude in each phase as the voltage level at which short circuit occurs is different for each phase. Power System Analysis - / (2-11) ‘Symmetrical Fault Analysis But the d.c. offset current is determined separately and hence in short circuit analysis only symmetrical short circuit current is considered. © When the sudden short circuit appears, there is sudden increase in the armature current which lags the voltage by 90°. This produces demagnetising armature reaction. This tries to reduce field flux. To counter this demagnetising effect, the currents are induced in the field winding and damper winding so as to increase the main field flux. Hence their leakage reactances appear in the short circuit analysis. © The leakage reactance of damper winding (Xy,,) is low compared to that of field winding (Xj. Hence induced currents decay quickly in damper winding compared to field winding, © Hence during initial part of short circuit i.e. subtransient period, both X,,, and X; appear to be in parallel with X,, as shown in the Fig. 2.5.2. Xa x _ Ow se ‘Subtransient Fig. 2.5.2 : Model during subtransient period © The total reactance which is the combination of X, + (Xj lI Xjl| Xq) is called direct axis subtransient reactance denoted as X‘ 7 iil) Transient reactance (X,,) : © Subtransient period remains for short time till induced currents in damper winding die out. Then field winding reactance appears to be in parallel with X,, as shown in the Fig. 2.5.3. This is nothing but the transient period of short circuit current. The total reactance then becomes X, + (X; || X,,) which is called direct axis transient reactance denoted as Xj. Once the induced currents in main field winding die out, steady state condition of short circuit condition is achieved. © Thus alternator reactance changes from X’; to Xj to Xy during short circuit conditions. Practically X’, 2.8.1 Base kVA From the equation (2.8.2), it can be observed that percentage reactance depends on the kVA rating of the device. As the various equipments used have different kVA ratings, it is necessary to obtain the percentage reactances on common kVA base. This base kVA should be equal to that of largest equipment or equal to the total capacity or any suitable arbitrary value. Base kVA. %X at base kVA = p. Rated kVA * (% X at rated kVA) Come EXIUTE Whatever may be the base kVA, short circuit current remains same. ‘=> 2.8.2 Short Circuit Current If X is the only reactance element in the circuit then short circuit current can be calculated The short circuit current is obtained by multiplying the full load current by (& %X Power System Analysis - 1 (2-18) ‘Symmetrical Fault Analysis ‘= 2.8.3 Short Circuit kVA The product of the normal system voltage and short circuit current at the point of fault expressed in kVA is called short circuit kVA. 3V I, sc 1001 _1 Short circuit kVA = 999° = 3VX 0% x *Too0 Short circuit kVA. VI As Lis full load current in amperes at base kVA, eae = Base kVA 100. Short circuit kVA = Base kVA Xoo ‘=> 2.8.4 Advantages of Per Unit System 1. It simplifies the calculations as quantities expressed as per unit do not change when they are referred from one side to other side of the transformer. It absorbs large difference in absolute values of impedances into base values. 3. The per unit calculations can be easily checked for the gross errors because the various devices have similar per unit values regardless of their absolute sizes. 4. Use of the constant -/3_ gets reduced in the three phase calculations. 5. It improves the numerical stability of automatic calculation methods. 6. Very effective in analyzing large network involving number of apparatus and different voltage levels. Cerne 1. Define percentage reactance and base kVA. Derive the expressions for short circuit current and short circuit kVA interms of base kVA and % reactance \™* 2.9 Steps for Symmetrical Fault Calculations As the currents in all the lines are equal in magnitude and displaced from each other by 120°, for symmetrical faults, only one phase is considered for such calculations. The steps involved in obtaining solution of such faults are, + Step 1: The single line diagram of complete network is drawn with the rating of each equipment. The voltages and reactances of each element are indicated in the diagram. + Step 2 : Convert all the % reactances to the selected base kVA. The value of base kVA should be numerically convenient. Power System Analysis - I (2-19) Symmetrical Fault Analysis + Step 3 : Draw the reactance diagram, corresponding to the single line diagram, showing one phase and neutral. The % reactances converted to base kVA are indicated in this diagram. The transformers should be represented by corresponding reactances in series. The resistances of generators and transformers are neglected. + Step 4 : Find the total percentage reactance upto the fault point, denoted as % X. This may involve series-parallel combinations and star-delta / delta-star conversion of reactances. + Step 5 : The full load current corresponding to the base kVA chosen is obtained alongwith normal system voltage at fault point, denoted as I. + Step 6 : The short circuit calculations then can be obtained as, Shor circuit current Igo = 1x gee _ 100 Short circuit kVA = Base KVAxaX If the reactances in ohms are given then, Vv Shor cireuit eurent Iso = [5 eacance 8 RMS) a TgoX VXV3 Short circuit kVA = Where V is the line voltage in volts, ‘Example 2.9.1 : A single line diagram of a three phase system is shown in the Fig. 2.9.1. The percentage reactance of each generator is based on its own rating. Find the short circuit current upto a point of 3 phase short circuit fault. ‘ya «@— wot 7 11kV Fig. 2.9.4 © Solution : Choose the base KVA as 30000 kVA %X, at basekVA = Becky x (% X at rated KVA) 30000 = ——4x 20 = 60% 10x 10 Power System Analysis - / (2-20) Symmetrical Fault Analysis » 30000 49 = 809 % Xpat base KVA = Tsqq9 X40 = 80% The reactance diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.9.2. Neutral x, = 60% A Xp = 80% Fig. 2.9.2 ‘The fall load current at point of fault according to base kVA chosen is, 3 — Base kVA _ 30000 x 10 = 15745016 A V3V, ~ J3xnxi0® Total reactance from neutral to point of fault is, > 60x 80 %X = XgllXp = Eye gg = 34-2857 % 100 _ 1574.5916 x 100 Igo = IX X = 34.2857 = 4592.5588 A Example 2.9.2 : A synchronous generator and motor are rated 30 MVA, 13.2 kV both have ‘subtransient reactance of 20%. The line connecting them has a reactance of 10 % on the base of machine rating. The motor is drawing 20 MW at 0.8 pfilead). The terminal voltage of motor is 12.8 kV, when a symmetrical fault occurs at motor terminals, find subtransient current in generator, motor and at the point of fault 7 Pa ea ed) & Solution : The equivalent circuit in the subtransient period for obtaining per fault voltage is shown in the Fig. 2.9.3. Choose base MVA = 30 Base kV = 13.2 kV Vor 12.8kV Using p.u. values, joa Fig. 2.9.3 CHAPTER-3 SYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS 1 TYPES OF FAULT A fault in a cireuitis any failure which interferes with the normal flow of current. The faults occur in power system due to insulation failure of equipments, lash over of lines initiated by a lightning stroke, ddue to permanent damage to conductors and towers or due to accidental faulty operations, The faults can be broadly classified into shunt faults (short circuits) and series faults (open conductors), ‘The shunt type of faults involves short circuit between conductor and ground or short circuit between two or more conductors. The shunt faults are characterized by increase in current and fall in voltage and frequency. The shunt faults can be classified as shown below. 1. Line-to-ground fault 2. Line-to-tine fault 3. Double line-to-ground fault 4, Three phase fault ‘The series fault may occur with one or two broken conductors which creates open circuits. It also happens in circuits controlled by fuses or breakers which do not open all the three phases, ie., one or two phases of the circuit may open and the other phases may be closed. The series faults are characterized by increase in voltage and frequency and fallin current in the faulted phase. The series faults may be classified as one open conductor fault and two open conductor fault. In the faults mentioned above the 3-phase fault is a symmetrical fault and all other faults are unsymmetrical faults. The symmetrical fault conditions are analyzed on per phase basis using thevenin’s theorem or using bus impedance matrix. The unsymmetrical faults are analyzed using symmetrical components, From the experience in the operation of power system it can be shown that 70 to 80% of the faults are single line-to-ground faults, and 5% of the faults are three phase faults. The relative frequency of occurrence of various types of faults in the power systems in the order of decreasing severity as follows, 3-phase faults + % Double line-to-geound faults = 10% Line-to-line fault = 15% Single line-to-ground fault. = 70% aa) Power System Analysis 3.2 FAULT CALCULATIONS. ‘When fault occur in a part of power system, heavy current flows in that part of circuit which may ‘cause permanent damage to the equipments. Hence the faulty part should be isolated from the healthy part immediately on the occurrence of a fault. This can be achieved by providing protective relays and circuit breakers, The protective relays sense the faulty conditions and send signals to circuit breakers to open the circuit under faulty condition ‘The current which flows in different parts of a power system immediately after the occurrence of a fault differs from the current flowing after few cycles (after a small time) from the occurrence of the fault ‘The selection of circuit breakers depends on the current flowing immediately after the fault occurs and ‘the current which the breakers must interrupt, (The interrupting current is the current flowing after few cycles). The estimation of these currents for various types of faults at various locations in the system are called fault calculations. The data obtained from fault calculations are also used to determine the settings ‘of the relay which control the circuit breakers, 3.3 TRANSIENTS DUE TO SHORT CIRCUITS Most of the components of the power system have inductive property which give rise to transients when there isa sudden change in current, Faults on the power system are accompanied by sudden change in current which give rise to transient conditions in power system, The transient states of transmission line ‘and synchronous generator are discussed in this section, nts due to a short circuit in transmi ‘An unloaded transmission line can be represented by an R-L circuit excited by a sinusoidal source as shown in fig 3.1. (In fig 3.1, the capacitance of the transmission line is neglected). Tran: ion line R L Lie VEY, site) (© “ 0 Fig 3.1 : Representation of an unloaded transmission line under short circuit Let i(t) = Current in transmission line under short circuit condition Z_ = Impedance ofthe transmission line Here Z = Re jol=/R'+0'L Zion! =|Z\20 -10L. R ‘The fault condition can be simulated by closing the switch at t= 0. When the switch is closed at {= 0, fault current (shor circuit current lows inthe circuit. The differential equation governing the circuit can be obtained using kirchof’s voltage law as shown in equation (3.1). Ris LO va sinvor-+a) Gu) where (Z| =/R+o'L? and @ = tan Chapter 3 - Symmetrical Fault Analysis 3.3 ‘The equ(3.1) can be solved using any technique available in circuit theory to find i(). On solving the ‘equation (3.1), the short circuit current i(t is given by the equation (3.2). i= Yesineorra-o +e in(0- aye! eee Ae on [oa Sa ‘The plot of (tj, .j, and v with respect to tare shown in fig 3.2 From equ(3.2) it is observed that the short circuit current has two components and they are sinusoidal steady state component and unidirectional transient component. The steady state current is called symmetrical short circuit current and the transient component is called DC off-set current. Maximum ‘momentary cement Filg 3.2 : Waveform of current ina tranmission line under short circuit condition In the short circuit current i(t) the value corresponding to the first peak is called the maximum momentary short circuit current (,,) In equ(3.2) the first peak value is obtained when sin(ct + a~ 0) = 1 Bs art eine wn3.3) Ifthe decay of transient current in the interval between t= 0 and time at which first peak occurs is neglected then equ(3.5) can be written as shown below (ie,, e-{!=e"=1). aoe iam = — + — sin (0 - a) woo3.4) \z| |2| : In transmission lines the resistance is very low when compared to reactance and so 090° (ie, tan" (WL/R) * tan oo = 90°), 3.4 Power System Analysis Hence by taking 0 as 90°, the equ(3.4) can be written as, = sin (90-0) [Z| wecose (3.3) From equ(3.5), we can say tha, i, has maximum possible value when a = 0. This implies that the effect of short circuit will be severe if the fault occurs when the voltage wave is going through zero, ‘When a= 0, the equ(3.5) can be written as inminspati = VE. 4 VO 2 [Z| |zt 12) From equ(3.2) we get the maximum value of symmetrical short circuit current as V,/i2|, From equ(3.6) we can observe that the maximum possible value of maximum momentary short circuit is double the value of maximum symmetrical short circuit current, If such a condition exists in a transmission line then this effect is called doubling effect. (3.6) A safer choice of momentary current rating of circuit breaker can be maximum possible value of maximum momentary short circuit current. The interrupting current rating of the circuit breaker can be ‘obtained by multiplying the symmetrical short circuit current by a suitable factor. The multiplication by a ‘constant is neccessary to account for the DC-off set current atthe time of interruption. ‘Transients due toa short circuit in 3-phase alternator Consider a three phase alternator running on no-load. Ifa 3-phase fault occurs at the terminals of the alternator then a heavy short circuit current flows in the armature circuit, The oscillogram of the short circuit current after removing the DC-off set current is shown in fig 3.3 At the time of a short circuit in a 3-phase machine, the voltage wave of the three phases will have different phases, Therefore the DC-offset current will be different in each phase of a 3-phase machine and ‘0 itis accounted separately on an empirical basis, The ac component of the short circuit current is called symmetrical short circuit current, whose waveform is shown in fig 3.3. Subsransient period Steady sate Tine Symmetrical short cicuit cement + envelope of steady sate envelope Fig 3.3 : Symmetrical short cireuit armature current in an alternator Chapter 3 - Symmetrical Fault Analysis 35 ‘The symmetrical short circuit current shown in fig 3.3. can be divided into three regions called subtransient, transient and steady state region. (In a practical situation the circuit breaker will open the ‘generator circuit before the steady state fault condition is established). ‘Under steady state short circuit conditions the armature reaction of a synchronous generator produces a demagnetizing flux. This effect is represented as a reactance called armature reaction reactance X,. The sum of leakage reactance, X, and X, is called synchronous reactance, X,. In case of salient pole machines the synchronous reactance is called direct axis reactance and denoted by X,. On neglecting the armature resistance the steady state short circuit model of an alternator will be as shown in fig 3.4(a) At the instant of short circuit the DC-ofF set current appears in all the three phases of stator. This ] 035 ij ann Fig 3.2.5 Fig3.28 In fig 3.25, using KVL we get, Vy2I01 + Vy, ‘Thevenin’s voltage, V5 = Vy ~ 0:11, =0.9 20*~(0,1 290" «1236.9") 19 20*~(0.1 2126.9") = 0.9~ (-0.06 + 9.08) = 0.96 - 0.08 = 0.9633 2-4.8" pu ‘hevein equivalent impedance, 2n = f025*0:1035. 2456p ‘The thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit with respect to fault point is shown in fig 3.2.7. Now shor circuiting the terminals ofthe thevenin's equivalent circuit as shown in fig 3.2.8. is equivalent to fault condition. The current flowing through the short isthe fault current. a % F wit BIR set osac-ae wry] Se ° Fig 3.2.7 : Prefault thevenins Fig 3.2.8: Thevenin’s equivalent ‘equivalent at fault point ‘under fault condition Ya. 0osa2an° o96ia249° ; Curent inthetat; = Yo = 9AM" O68 AE" 5en6 4p ‘To find the change in current due to fault ‘The change in current due to fault can be calculated by connecting the thevenin's generator with reversed polarity atthe fault point as shown in fig 3.2.9. (Here all other sources are replaced by zero value sources, ie, the voltage sources are replaced by short circu) Chapter 3 - Symmetrical Fault Analysis 3.19 Ve. 1.96334 = 4. Now = pty = OM6BBEE AE" «05522 -940" iors 035 = My = 2.96392 = 4.8" «75031 -94.0° f & heqads"™ oscar” 278716- 868 o ‘To find the subtransient fault current in motor and generator Fig 3.2.9 ‘The subtransient fault currents of motor and generator are given by the sum of prefault current and change in current due to fault (current delivered by thevenins generator), Here the prefault current isthe load cutent, I. Ay 1, +h, 3.8532 £9968" + 1 236.9" = ~0:3228 ~}3.6397 + 0.7997 + 0.6008 = 04773 ~)3.2393 =3.274 2-618" pu l= 2.7523 2-B4.8~ 1 236.9 = 0.2303 ~ 2.7426 ~ (0.7997 +.6008) == 103 )8.343 = 3.498 2-107.1" pu. [Note it can be observed thatthe currenta calculated by both the methods are same! RESULT ‘Subtransient fault curent in generator, I = 3.2742 -61.6°p.u. ‘Subtansient fault curent in motor, [3 =3.4982-107.1°p.u. ‘Subtransient current in faut, If = 6.6062 ~94.8° pu EXAMPLE 3.3 ‘A 3.phase, 5 MVA, 6.6 KV alternator with a reactance of 8% is connected to a feeder of series impedance of 0.12 + 40.48 ohms/phase per km. The transformer is rated at 3 MVA, 6.6 KV/33 kV and has a reactance of 5%. Determine the fault current supplied by the generator operating under no-load with a voltage of 6.9kV, when a 3-phase ‘symmetrical fault occurs ata point 15 km along the feeder, SOLUTION ‘The single line diagram ofthe power system and the prefault reactance diagram are shown in fig 3.3.1 and fig 3.3.2 respectively. Let the point F be the point where the fault occurs. Let us choose generator rating as base values. MVA, = 5 MVA and kV, = 6.62V o1nsp. A ag 0] iota O-3 isk > SeSMVA 3 MVA GORY, 8% OO3BRY, 5% Fig 3.3.1 : Single line diagram Fig 3.3.2 : Prefault reactance diagram Tofind E, and V,, Hore the generator isnot delivering any loa current and othe induced emf of the generator will be sane 1s operating voltage. ‘Actual value of induced emf, E, = 8 kV val ofieided emt, y= Atal AWE. 62. o4ssp, 3.20 Power System Analysis ‘Te petal voltage, Vat the fault point F ean be obtained using the transformer aio a shown below. ‘Actual value of petal voage, Vy = 89x 33. =345 kV ‘The base kV referred to HT side of transformei oxgh hshst « | o” Fig 3.6.4 2a=—— = ponisp: Baw PIP ‘The prefaut thevenin’ equivalent ofthe system is shown in fig 3.6.5. ‘The fault ie represented by short as ‘shown in ig 3.656, ‘The pi. value of fut curent, j= Yh = P.906L = 21,6969 pu. =21.69694-90" pa joon9 jou9 oF OF fs Figh6s 0 Fights 0 EVAL, 1%1000_03532,168=1.3122KA, VBR, V3 x046 ‘Actual value of fault current, I, = px. value of fault current x Base current Base current, I |= 21,6969 — 90° «1.3122= 28.4707 -90° kA. RESULT Fault current = 21,69692-90"pu. of 28.47072~-90° kA. EXAMPLE 3.7 ‘A generators connected through acrcult breaker toa transformer. The ratings ofthe generator are 100 MVA, 16V, 1X," =19%,X,'=26%and X,= 130%. The transformer ratings are 100 MVA,240/1 Bk, Yo, X-10% with 18kV on 4 side. Ifa ‘phase short circuit occurs on the high tension side of a transformer at rated voltage and no load, find (a) initial ‘symmetrical rme current in the transformer winding on the high tension side. (b) The initial symmetrial rms current ‘in the line on the low tension side. SOLUTION ‘The single line diagram and the prefault reactance diagram of the given power system are shown in fig 3.7.1 and 3.7.2 respectively. oN Symmetrical Fault Analysis 5.1 INTRODUCTION Short circuit study which is otherwise known as fault analysis is one of the basic power system analysis problems. In power systems, the faults occur due to the following reasons. 1, Due to insulation failure in the electric machines and equipment, 2, Due to flashover of transmission lines initiated by lightning stroke. 3. Due to mechanical damage to conductors and towers. 4, Due to accidental faulty operation of electric machines and protective devices. When a fault occurs in a power system, large current flows in the network elements. This may damage the costly equipment such as electric machines and transformers of large power ratings. Hence, the faulty section should be isolated quickly from the rest of the network. This can be achieved by providing relays and circuit breakers. The results of short circuit study are used to determine the proper relay settings and to arrive at circuit breaker capacity, For a power system, the selection of a circuit breaker not only depends upon the current that the breaker has to carry under normal operating conditions but also it depends upon the maxi~ mum current it may have to carry momentarily and the current it may have to interrupt and the voltage of the line in which it is placed. The network in the faulted condition can be considered as a linear one. Therefore, currents in the faulted system are the addition of currents due to the fault and the pre-fault load currents. Since the currents due to the fault are very large as compared to the normal load currents, the normal load currents are neglected in the fault study and the power system is assumed to be in the unloaded condition prior to the fault. Faults can be symmetrical or unsymmetrical, Three-phase fault is a symmetrical fault and hence it can be analysed on per phase basis, Single-line-to-ground fault, line-to-line fault and double- line-to-ground fault are unsymmetrical faults. The relative frequency of occurrence of various faults in the power systems are listed below, in the order of their severity. + Three-phase fault 5% * Double-line-to-ground fault 10% * Line-to-line fault 15% + Single-line-to-ground fault 70% d Modern Power System Analysis with MATLAB Applications This chapter deals with the analysis of symmetrical fault, while the analysis of unsymmetrical fault will be covered in the next chapter, In the fault study, the power system network can be taken as a balanced network. As three-phase fault is a balanced fault, with three-phase faule the power system network remains a balanced one. Hence, the single-phase representation can be adopted in symmetrical fault analysis. 5.2 EFFECT OF SYMMETRICAL SHORT CIRCUIT ON SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE Synchronous machine is the only rotating element in the power system network, Since it is a rotating machine, the armature reaction effect plays a prominent role in the performance of syn- chronous machine during transient period. Therefore, it requires a special attention. In order to approach the problem of calculating the initial large current, we need to study the behaviour of a synchronous generator when it is short circuited, Let us consider a synchronous generator operating at no load condition. In the synchronous generator, generally the reduction of the air gap flux is caused by the mmf due to the armature cur~ rent, which is known as, ‘Armature Reaction Effect’.At the instant prior to short circuit, because of absence of armature current and hence the armature reaction, there exist maximum air gap flux. When a short circuit occurs, there is a sudden increase in the armature current, However, the air gap flux cannot change instantaneously due to the eddy currents flowing in the rotor winding and in the damper circuits, which oppose the change in flux. Since, the stator mmf is unable to establish any armature reaction, the reactance due to armature reaction is negligible. Due to this, the initial machine's reactance, which is the sum of armature leakage reactance and the reactance due to armature reaction effect, is almost equal to the armature leakage reactance. This results in a very large initial current. A good way to analyse the effect of a three-phase short circuit at the terminals of a previously unloaded generator is to take an oscillogram of the current in one phase upon the occurrence of such fault Since the voltages generated in the phases of a three-phase machine are displaced by 120 elec trical degrees from each other, the short circuit occurs at different points on the voltage wave of each phase, Due to this reason, the unidirectional or DC transient component of current will be different in each phase. If the DC component of current is eliminated from the current in each phase, then, the waveform of the short circuit current will be as shown in Fig. 5.1 The first few cycles in the oscillogram correspond to the sub-transient period, Due to the absence of armature reaction effect, the machine's sub-transient reactance becomes minimum and it almost equal to the armature leakage reactance ie., X/ = Xp. The corresponding sub-transient rms cur~ rent |1”| is given by, |1”| = |Ey| /X7 where, | E,| is the rms phase voltage at no load. ‘After a few cycles, the eddy current in the damper circuit decays to some extent and the arma- ture reaction effect is partially established. This period is referred as the transient period. The transient reactance, X/, = X;, + Fraction of X,,. Here, X,, is the reactance due to the armature reaction effect. Now, the machine is said to function in the transient period. Corresponding tran sient rms current, |J’| = | Eg| /X4. In the oscillogram, the maximum value of wansient current can be obtained by projecting the current envelope to the vertical axis after discarding the first few cycles. Symmetrical Fault Analysis g Sub-transient Steady state period + ‘Transient period —+— ae CUA Wy Vv Figure 5.1. Waveform of the short circuit current of synchronous generator |~— ‘After another few cycles, the eddy current in the damper circuit decays completely and the armature reaction effect is fully established. This period is referred as, the steady state period. The steady state reactance is given by, Xj = Xy + Xj. The corresponding steady state rms current, [ML = [el 7 Xp The rms currents and the reactances that were discussed above are defined by the following equations. 1» - Oe _ [Eel rls (5.1 Wis ee 6.1) Here, Xf =X; E, ir) = % = El 62) aA Here, X4 = X; + Fraction of X,, I= 6.3) Here, X= X;+ X,, It is to be noted that, UW" | > |’) > [and Xy> X4 > X7 C10) ‘Modern Power System Analysis with MATLAB Applications Equations (5.1) to (5.3) indicate the method of determining fault current in a generator, when its reactances are known, If the generator is unloaded when the fault occurs, the machine is represented by Ky in series with the proper reactance ie., (X/f or X/, or X;). If greater accuracy is desired, then the resistance is also taken into account. If there is some impedance external to the generator between its terminals and the short circuit point, then, that external impedance must also be included in the circuit, 5.3 SUB-TRANSIENT, TRANSIENT AND STEADY STATE CURRENT CALCULATIONS The following example illustrates the computation of sub-transient, transient and steady state cur~ rents in a simple faulted network. ‘Two synchronous generators are connected in parallel at the low voltage side of a three-phase A-Y transformer, as shown in Fig, 5.2. Machine 1 is rated 50 MVA, 13.8 kV, Machine 2 is rated 25 MVA, 13.8 kV. Each generator has sub-transient reactance, transient reactance and direct axis synchronous reactance of 25%, 40% and 100%, respectively. The transformer is rated for 75 MVA, 13.8 A/69Y kV with a reactance of 10%. Before the fault occurs, the voltage on high voltage side of the transformer is 66 kV. The transformer is unloaded and there i no circulating current between the generators 24, 75 MVA, 13.8 A/69Y kV, X = 10% G IG 50 MVA, 13.8 kV 25 MVA, 13.8 kV 25%, 40%, 100% 25%, 40%, 100% Figure 8.2 One-line diagram for Example 5.1 (a) Find the current supplied by the generators before the occurrence of fault. (b) A three-phase short circuit occurs at P, Determine the sub-transient, transient and steady state short circuit current in each generator. (©) A three-phase short circuit occurs at Q. Determine the sub-transient, transient and steady state short circuit current in each generator. Select a base of 75 MVA and 69 kV in the high tension circuit. Summarise the results in a tabular form. Symmetrical Fault Analysis ti3) Solution AY 13.8 kV pe P 69 kV 75 MVA, 13.8 A/69Y kV 10% G, G 50 MVA, 13.8kV 25 MVA, 13.8 kV 25%, 40%, 100% — 25%, 40%, 100% Figure 5.3 One-line diagram for Example 5.1 with base values marked On the selected base Generator 1: Xf = 0.25 xB = 0.375 per-unit . 75 , Xj = 04x =06 per-unit d 50 Ps 75 X,= 1.0 X— = 1.5 per-unit a 30 Pe Generator 2: Xf = 0.25 xe = 0.75 per-unit x} =04 2 = 1.2 per-unit 75 Xj= 1.0x2> = 3.0 per-unit Transformer, X= 0.1 per-unit (a) Prior to the occurrence of fault, transformer is unloaded. Therefore, Jy, (b) Fault occurs at point P. Pre-fault voltage: At the HT side = 66 kV At the LV side = Be X 66 = 13.2 kV Pre-fault generator voltages: Eyy = Be = 0.9565 per-unit Ep rt = 0.9565 per-unit £20) Modern Power System Analysis with MATLAB Applications Per-unit sub-transient reactance diagram for pre-fault condition is shown in Fig. 5.4. Q 01 P Figure 5.4 Per-unit sub-transient reactance diagram Fault is simulated by closing the switch. Using Thévenin’s equivalent of the two machines, the above reactance diagram for the faulted condition can be reduced as shown in Fig. 5.5. OSTE% O75. 96: pereunit 0.375 + 0.75 Q 0.1 P —+I" 0.25 g A 0.9565 CY) Figure 5.5 Reduced per-unit sub-transient reactance diagram 0.9565 Sub-transient current, 1” = ==} 2.7329 per-unit j0.35 12.7329 Qg JOl p Figure 5.6 Circuit with fault at P in sub-transient state Symmetrical Fault Analysis } By referring to Fig. 5.6, we get, Voltage at Q=j 0.1 x (-j 2.7329) = 0.27329 per-unit 0.9565 ~ 0.27329 0.375 108 V3 x13.8 Sub-transient current in machine 1, | //’| = 5716.7 A Current supplied by generator 1 = 7 1.8219 per-unit =3137.77 A Base current at the LV side (j0.75 j 0.9109 per-unit Current supplied by generator 2 Sub-transient current in machine 2, | 13 | = 2858.3 A Per-unit transient reactance diagram and its Thévenin’s equivalent are shown in Fig. 5.7. Q ol P Q jot Pp 0.6 + 0.9565 () Figure 8.7 Per-unit transient reactance diagram and its Thévenin’s equivalent 0.9565 05 Voltage at Q=j 0.1 x (j 1.913) = 0.1913 per-unit Transient current, I” = 1,913 per-unit By referring to Fig. 5.7, we get, 913 Current supplied by generator 1 = = 1.275 per-unit Transient current in machine 1, | Ij | = 4001.7 A 0.9565 - 0.1913 = -j 0.6377 per-unit j Current supplied by generator 2= ‘Transient current in machine 2, | 15 | = 2000.9 A. & Modern Power System Analysis with MATLAB Applications Per-unit direct axis reactance diagram and its equivalent are shown in Fig. 5.8. on A j0.t Fz 2 VOTO 2 WOOT - —+1 15 3.0 wate ap Ms @)o.9565 0.9565 0.9565 pA Figure 5.8 Per-unit direct axis reactance diagram and its Thévenin’s equivalent 0.9565, jl Voltage at Q= j 0.1 X (-j 0.8695) = 0.08695 per-unit Steady state short circuit current, [= =j 0.8695 per-unit By referring to Fig. 5.8, we get, 0.9565 = 0.08695 jt Steady state short circuit current in machine 1, |, | = 1,819 A 0.9565 = 0.08695, 3.0 Steady state short circuit current in machine 2, |p| = 909.48 A Current supplied by generator 1 = j 0.5797 per-unit Current supplied by generator 2= 0.2899 per-unit (b) Fault occurs at point Q Per-unit sub-transient reactance diagram and its equivalent are shown in Fig. 5.9. Q Figure 5.9 Per-unit sub-transient reactance diagram and its Thévenin’s equivalent 0.9565 Sub-transient current, 1” Faas, 77826 perunit 0.9565 -0 j0.375 Current supplied by generator 1 j 2.5507 per-unit Symmetrical Fault Analysis } Sub-transient current in machine 1, 8003.4. A Current supplied by generator 2 = ee =j 1.2753 per-unit j Sub-transient current in machine 2, 4001.7 A Per-unit transient reactance diagram and its equivalent are shown in Fig. 5.10. Figure 5.10 Per-unit transient reactance diagram and its Thévenin’s equivalent 0.9565 Transient current, 1” = § 2.3913 per-unit 0.4 0.9565 -0. Current supplied by generator 1 = nee ~j 1.5942 per-unit i Transient current in machine 1, | If | = 5002.2 A 0.9565-0 _ jl2 Current supplied by generator 2 0.7971 per-unit ‘Transient current in machine 2, | 15 | = 2501.1 A Per-unit direct axis transient reactance diagram and its equivalent are shown in Fig. 5.11. Figure 5.11 Per-unit direct axis transient reactance diagram and its Thévenin’s equivalent C24) Modern Power System Analysis with MATLAB Applications Direct axis steady state short circuit current, [= 0.9565 per-unit Current supplied by generator 1 = -j 0.6377 per-unit Steady state short circuit current in machine 1, || = 2000.9 A 0.9565-0 Current supplied by generator 2 = 3.0 0.3188 per-unit Steady state short circuit current in machine 2, |p| = 1000.4 A Summary of results In the pre-fault condition, since the transformer is not loaded, Jay = Jy = 0 Fault occurs at the HV side of the transformer ‘Sub-transient ‘Transient Steady State in| \e] il In] WHI {hl 5.717 | 2,858A | 4002A | 2,001A] 18194 | 909A Fault occurs at the LV side of the transformer i.e., at the generator terminals Sub-transient ‘Transient Steady State Waly |e] iI [4] ih Il 8,003 | 4,002A | 5,002A | 2,501} 2,001A | 1,000 The following observations are made from the above results. 1. When a fault occurs, sub-transient currents in the network elements are very large and they reduce in the transient state and they reduce further in the steady state, 2. When fault occurs closer to the generator, the fault currents are much larger as compared to the case of fault point being away from the generator. 3. When two or more generators are operating in parallel, the one with the smallest reactance will contribute the largest current. It is to be noted that, large and small are relative terms. During fault, the currents in the network elements are much larger than the normal load currents. Therefore, loads are often neglected in the fault study. Symmetrical Fault Analysis } Thévenin’s impedance can be calculated when the network is small and radial. Power system networks are large and complex. If short circuit study is carried out using Thévenin’s imped- ance, a complicated network reduction is to be carried out. Consider the network shown in Fig. 5.12 30 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA 40 MVA X,! = 6% X/" = 8% X/" = 8% X/=™% Xj" = 5% Xj" = 6% ° F

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