2021-ME-51 (HMT Lab Report)

Department of Mechanical
Engineering
LAB Sessions
Of
Heat & Mass transfer
Submitted by: Muhammad Muneeb Mohsin

Submitted to: Sir Syed Saqib
Reg. # 2021-ME-51
Section: B
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Heat & Mass Transfer – Lab
Table of Contents
1 Thermal Conductivity of a Simple Bar................................................................................ 13
1.1 Objective................................................................................................................................................. 13
1.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 13
1.2.1 Modes of Heat Transfer .................................................................................................................. 13
1.2.2 Conduction ...................................................................................................................................... 13
1.2.3 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction ................................................................................................. 14
1.2.4 Assumptions of Fourier Equation ................................................................................................... 15
1.2.5 Thermal Conductivity...................................................................................................................... 15
1.3 Literature Review ................................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.1 Analytical Method ........................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.2 Experimental Method (Thermal Imaging Technique)..................................................................... 16
1.3.3 Simulation Method .......................................................................................................................... 17
1.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 19
1.4.1 Experimental Setup ......................................................................................................................... 19
1.4.2 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 20
1.5 Observations and Calculations .............................................................................................................. 20
1.5.1 Heat Flow Rate @ 5.2 W ................................................................................................................ 21
1.5.2 Heat Flow Rate @ 10.2 W .............................................................................................................. 22
1.5.3 Heat Flow Rate @ 14.8 W .............................................................................................................. 23
1.5.4 Heat Flow Rate @ 20.1 W .............................................................................................................. 24
1.6 Results and Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 25
1.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 25
1.8 Precautions............................................................................................................................................. 26
1.9 References .............................................................................................................................................. 26
2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Composite Bar ...................................................... 27
2.1 Objective................................................................................................................................................. 27
2.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 27
2.2.4 Thermal Resistance for Conduction................................................................................................ 28
2.2.5 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .................................................................................................. 28
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2.3.2 Experimental Method (Transient Plane Source) ............................................................................ 29
2.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 32
2.4.2 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 33
2.5.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient @ Q = 5W................................................................................ 34
2.5.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient @ Q = 10W.............................................................................. 35
2.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 40
2.8 References .............................................................................................................................................. 40
3 Thermal Resistances in a Reduced Bar .............................................................................. 41
3.1 Objective................................................................................................................................................. 41
3.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 41
3.2.4 Thermal Resistance for Conduction................................................................................................ 42
3.3.2 Experimental Method (Transient Hot-Wire) ................................................................................... 43
3.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 46
3.4.2 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 47
3.5.1 Temperature Profile @ Q = 5W ..................................................................................................... 48
3.5.2 Temperature Profile @ Q = 10W ................................................................................................... 49
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3.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 53
3.8 References .............................................................................................................................................. 53
4 Temperature Profile in a Radial Disk ................................................................................. 54
4.1 Objective................................................................................................................................................. 54
4.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 54
4.2.4 Conduction through Cylindrical Wall ............................................................................................ 55
4.3.2 Experimental Method (Transient Thermal Response Element) ...................................................... 57
4.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 59
4.4.2 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 60
4.5.1 Heat Flow Rate @ 10W .................................................................................................................. 61
4.5.2 Heat Flow Rate @ 15W .................................................................................................................. 62
4.5.3 Heat Flow Rate @ 20W .................................................................................................................. 63
4.5.4 Heat Flow Rate @ 25W .................................................................................................................. 64
4.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 65
4.8 References .............................................................................................................................................. 65
5 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Flat Plate under Free Convection .......... 66
5.1 Objective................................................................................................................................................. 66
5.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 66
5.2.1 Convection ...................................................................................................................................... 66
5.2.2 Classifications ................................................................................................................................. 66
5.2.3 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient ............................................................................................. 67
5.2.4 Convection through Flat Plate........................................................................................................ 67
5.3.2 Experimental Method (Nusselt Number Method) ........................................................................... 68
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5.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 71
5.4.2 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 72
5.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 73
5.8 References .............................................................................................................................................. 73
6 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Flat Plate under Forced Convection ...... 74
6.1 Objective................................................................................................................................................. 74
6.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 74
6.2.1 Convection ...................................................................................................................................... 74
6.2.4 Fins ................................................................................................................................................. 75
6.2.5 Convection through Flat Plate........................................................................................................ 76
6.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 78
6.4.2 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 79
6.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 81
6.8 References .............................................................................................................................................. 81
7 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Finned Plate under Free & Forced Convection82
7.1 Objective................................................................................................................................................. 82
7.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 82
7.2.1 Convection ...................................................................................................................................... 82
7.2.4 Fins ................................................................................................................................................. 83
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7.2.5 Convection through Finned Plate ................................................................................................... 84

7.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 88
7.4.1 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 88
7.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 91
7.8 References .............................................................................................................................................. 91
8 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Pinned Plate under Free & Forced Convection92
8.1 Objective................................................................................................................................................. 92
8.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 92
8.2.1 Convection ...................................................................................................................................... 92
8.2.4 Fins ................................................................................................................................................. 93
8.2.5 Convection through Pinned Plate ................................................................................................... 94
8.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 98
8.4.1 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 99
8.6 Results and Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 101
8.7 Conclusion............................................................................................................................................ 101
8.8 Comparison of Flat, Finned, & Pinned Plate ...................................................................................... 102
8.9 References ............................................................................................................................................ 102
9 Parallel Flow Type Heat Exchanger ................................................................................. 103
9.1 Objective............................................................................................................................................... 103
9.2 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 103
9.2.1 Heat Exchanger ............................................................................................................................ 103
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9.2.2 Nomenclature ................................................................................................................................ 103

9.2.3 Classification of Heat Exchanger ................................................................................................. 105
9.2.4 Function of Heat Exchangers ....................................................................................................... 109
9.2.5 Corrosion in Heat Exchanger ....................................................................................................... 110
9.3 Literature Review ................................................................................................................................. 111
9.3.1 Analytical Method ......................................................................................................................... 111
9.3.2 Experimental Method .................................................................................................................... 111
9.4 Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 112
9.4.1 Experimental Setup ....................................................................................................................... 112
9.4.2 Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 112
9.5 Observations and Calculations ............................................................................................................ 113
9.6 Specimen Calculations ......................................................................................................................... 113
9.7 Results and Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 114
9.8 Conclusion............................................................................................................................................ 114
9.9 References ............................................................................................................................................ 114
10 Counter Flow Type Heat Exchanger ................................................................................ 115
10.1 Objective ........................................................................................................................................... 115
10.2 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 115
10.2.1 Heat Exchanger ............................................................................................................................ 115
10.2.2 Nomenclature ................................................................................................................................ 115
10.2.3 Classification of Heat Exchanger ................................................................................................. 117
10.2.4 Function of Heat Exchangers ....................................................................................................... 121
10.2.5 Corrosion in Heat Exchanger ....................................................................................................... 123
10.3 Literature Review ............................................................................................................................. 123
10.4 Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 124
10.4.2 Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 124
10.5 Observations and Calculations ........................................................................................................ 125
10.6 Specimen Calculations ..................................................................................................................... 125
10.7 Results and Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 126
10.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 126
10.9 References ......................................................................................................................................... 126
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11 Visualization of Free Convection ...................................................................................... 127

11.1 Objective ........................................................................................................................................... 127
11.2 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 127
11.2.1 Boiling ........................................................................................................................................... 127
11.2.2 Modes of Pool Boiling .................................................................................................................. 127
11.2.3 Important Features of each Regime .............................................................................................. 128
11.2.4 Bubble Shape and Size Consideration .......................................................................................... 129
11.3 Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 129
11.3.2 Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 130
11.4 Comments ......................................................................................................................................... 130
11.5 References ......................................................................................................................................... 130
12 Heat Flux and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient in Boiling Water ............................... 131
12.1 Objective ........................................................................................................................................... 131
12.2 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 131
12.2.1 Boiling ........................................................................................................................................... 131
12.2.2 Modes of Pool Boiling .................................................................................................................. 131
12.2.3 Important Features of each Regime .............................................................................................. 132
12.2.4 Bubble Shape and Size Consideration .......................................................................................... 133
12.3 Literature Review ............................................................................................................................. 133
12.4 Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 134
12.4.2 Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 135
12.5 Observations and Calculations ........................................................................................................ 135
12.6 Specimen Calculations ..................................................................................................................... 136
12.7 Results and Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 137
12.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 137
12.9 References ......................................................................................................................................... 137
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List of Figures
Figure 1 Modes of Heat Transfer | Conduction, Convection & Radiation .......................................................... 13
Figure 2 Conduction in Solids | Lattice Vibrations .............................................................................................. 14
Figure 3 Conduction in Fluids | Molecule Collisions .......................................................................................... 14
Figure 4 Heat Transfer through a Simple Bar having same Cross-sectional area | Temperature Distribution .. 15
Figure 5 Schematic illustration of Thermal Imaging (TI) Technique................................................................... 17
Figure 6 Model of Simple Bar in Solid works....................................................................................................... 18
Figure 7 Thermal Analysis @ Q = 5.2W .............................................................................................................. 18
Figure 8 Thermal Analysis @ Q = 10.2W ............................................................................................................ 18
Figure 9 Thermal Analysis @ Q = 14.8W ............................................................................................................ 19
Figure 10 Thermal Analysis @ Q = 20.1W .......................................................................................................... 19
Figure 11 Experimental Setup | P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus | Verify Fourier’s Law of Conduction................. 19
Figure 12 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 5.2 W ............................................................................................... 21
Figure 13 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 10.2 W ............................................................................................. 22
Figure 16 Graph between T and x | @ Various ‘Q’ values .................................................................................. 25
Figure 17 Heat Transfer through a Composite Bar having same Cross-sectional area | Temperature Distribution
| Equivalent Thermal Circuit ................................................................................................................................ 29
Figure 18 Schematic illustration of Transient Plane Source (TPS) Method ........................................................ 30
Figure 19 Model of Composite Bar in Solid works .............................................................................................. 30
Figure 20 Thermal Analysis of a Composite Bar @ Q = 5W ............................................................................... 31
Figure 21 Thermal Analysis of a Composite Bar @ Q = 10W ............................................................................. 31
Figure 24 Experimental Setup | P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus | Calculating Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 32
Figure 25 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 5W ................................................................................................... 34
Figure 26 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 10W ................................................................................................. 35
Figure 29 Heat Transfer through a Simple Bar having different Cross-sectional area | Temperature Distribution
............................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 30 Schematic illustration of Transient Hot-Wire (HTW) Method............................................................. 44
Figure 31 Model of a Reduced Bar in Solid works ............................................................................................... 44
Figure 32 Thermal Analysis of a Reduced Bar @ Q = 5W .................................................................................. 45
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Figure 33 Thermal Analysis of a Reduced Bar @ Q = 10W ................................................................................ 45

Figure 36 Experimental Setup | P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus | Analyzing the temperature profiles in different
cross-sectional area .............................................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 37 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 5W ................................................................................................... 48
Figure 41 Differential Control Volume (𝑑𝑟. 𝑟 𝑑∅. 𝑑𝑧) for Conduction Analysis in Cylindrical Coordinates (𝑟, ∅,
𝑧) ........................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 42 Transient Heat Conduction Setup ........................................................................................................ 57
Figure 43 Model of a Radial Disk in Solid works ................................................................................................ 58
Figure 44 Thermal Analysis of a Radial Disk @ q = 10W ................................................................................... 58
Figure 48 Experimental Setup | P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus | Analyzing the temperature profiles in a Radial
Disk ....................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 49 Graph between the temperature and the ratio of radii @ q = 10W .................................................... 61
Figure 53 Convection Phenomenon...................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 54 Free Convection ................................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 55 Forced Convection ............................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 56 Flat Plate Collector | Convection Process in Solar Panels (Flat Plate) ............................................. 67
Figure 57 Thermal Convection across a Flat Plate ............................................................................................. 68
Figure 58 Nusselt Number Formula and its significance ..................................................................................... 69
Figure 59 Model of Flat Plate in Solid works ...................................................................................................... 69
Figure 60 General Settings for Free Convection ................................................................................................. 70
Figure 61 Free Convection Analysis of Flat Plate @ Q = 5 W............................................................................ 70
Figure 62 Free Convection Analysis of Flat Plate @ Q = 10 W.......................................................................... 70
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Figure 65 Experimental Setup | Forced and Free Convection Apparatus | Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
of a Flat plate under Free Convection .................................................................................................................. 72
Figure 66 Graph between Input Power and Temperature difference................................................................... 73
Figure 70 Flat Plate Collector | Convection Process in Solar Panels (Flat Plate) ............................................. 76
Figure 71 Thermal Convection across a Flat Plate ............................................................................................. 76
Figure 73 Model of Flat Plate in Solid works ...................................................................................................... 78
Figure 74 General Settings for Forced Convection of Flat Plate (v = 0.5 ms-1) ................................................. 78
of a Flat plate under Forced Convection .............................................................................................................. 79
Figure 76 Graph between Power Input and Temperature difference (Flat Plate) ............................................... 80
Figure 80 Convection Process in Transformer (Finned Plate) ............................................................................ 84
Figure 82 Model of Finned Plate in Solid works .................................................................................................. 86
Figure 83 General Settings for Free Convection of Finned Plate........................................................................ 86
Figure 84 Free Convection Analysis of Finned Plate @ Q = 5 W ....................................................................... 86
Figure 85 Free Convection Analysis of Finned Plate @ Q = 10 W ..................................................................... 87
Figure 88 General Settings for Forced Convection of Finned Plate (v = 0.5 ms-1) ............................................. 88
of a Finned Plate under Free & Forced Convection ............................................................................................ 88
Figure 90 Graph between Power Input and Temperature difference (Finned Plate) .......................................... 90
Figure 94 Convection Process in Air Craft (Pinned Plate) .................................................................................. 94
Figure 96 Model of Pinned Plate in Solid works .................................................................................................. 96
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Figure 97 General Settings for Free Convection of Pinned Plate........................................................................ 96

Figure 98 Free Convection Analysis of Pinned Plate @ Q = 40 W ..................................................................... 96
Figure 99 Free Convection Analysis of Pinned Plate @ Q = 44 W ..................................................................... 97
Figure 100 Free Convection Analysis of Pinned Plate @ Q = 47 W ................................................................... 97
Figure 103 General Settings for Forced Convection of Pinned Plate (v = 0.5 ms-1) ........................................... 98
of a Pinned Plate under Free & Forced Convection ............................................................................................ 99
Figure 105 Graph between Power Input and Temperature difference (Pinned Plate) ...................................... 101
Figure 106 Different Categories of Heat Exchanger ......................................................................................... 103
Figure 107 Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger Elements Nomenclature .................................................................. 105
Figure 108 Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger (Parallel Flow Type) ................................................................. 112
Figure 109 Different Categories of Heat Exchanger ......................................................................................... 115
Figure 110 Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger Elements Nomenclature .................................................................. 117
Figure 111 Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger (Counter Flow Type) ................................................................. 124
Figure 112 Boiling Curve for Water ................................................................................................................... 128
Figure 113 Typical Shapes of Steam Bubbles..................................................................................................... 129
Figure 114 H654 Boiling Heat Transfer Unit .................................................................................................... 130
Figure 115 Boiling Curve for Water ................................................................................................................... 132
Figure 116 Typical Shapes of Steam Bubbles..................................................................................................... 133
Figure 117 Schematic diagram of the experimental facility ............................................................................... 134
Figure 118 H654 Boiling Heat Transfer Unit .................................................................................................... 135
Figure 119 Graph between Heat Flux and Excess Temperature ....................................................................... 136
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List of Tables
Table 1 Determining the Exp. Thermal Conductivity | Compare with Actual value ............................................ 20
Table 2 Determining the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient | Compare the Uexp & Uth ...................................... 33
Table 3 Analyzing the Temperature Profiles in different cross-sectional areas .................................................. 47
Table 4 Temperature Profile in Radial Disk......................................................................................................... 60
Table 5 Analyze the error between the experimental heat transfer rate and the theoretical value (i.e., 10W) .... 61
Table 9 Determination of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Flat Plate under Free Convection ... 72
Table 10 Determination of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Flat Plate under Free & Forced
Convection ............................................................................................................................................................ 79
Table 11 Determination of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Finned Plate under Free & Forced
Convection ............................................................................................................................................................ 90
Table 12 Determination of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Pinned Plate under Free & Forced
Convection .......................................................................................................................................................... 100
Table 13 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to design features ......................................................... 106
Table 14 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to flow methods ............................................................ 107
Table 15 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to flow configuration .................................................... 107
Table 16 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to number of fluids involved ......................................... 108
Table 17 Cold Fluid Data for Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger ........................................................................... 113
Table 18 Hot Fluid Data for Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger ............................................................................. 113
Table 19 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to design features ......................................................... 118
Table 20 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to flow methods ............................................................ 119
Table 21 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to flow configuration .................................................... 119
Table 22 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to number of fluids involved ......................................... 120
Table 23 Cold Fluid Data for Counter Flow Heat Exchanger ........................................................................... 125
Table 24 Hot Fluid Data for Counter Flow Heat Exchanger ............................................................................. 125
Table 25 Determining the Heat Flux and Heat Transfer Coefficient of boiling water....................................... 135
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Heat & Mass Transfer – Lab Lab Session # 1
1 Thermal Conductivity of a Simple Bar

1.1 Objective
To investigate Fourier’s law for heat conduction along a simple bar and determine its thermal conductivity.
1.2 Introduction
1.2.1 Modes of Heat Transfer
There are three main modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation 1. Here's a simple explanation
of each mode:
1) Conduction
o Heat transfer through direct physical contact between materials.
o Occurs when molecules in a material vibrate and pass kinetic energy to neighboring molecules.
o Common in solids but less effective in gases and liquids.
o Examples include heating one end of a metal rod, and the other end getting hot.
2) Convection
o Heat transfer through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases).
o Occurs when warm fluid rises, displacing cooler fluid, creating a cycle.
o Commonly observed in heating systems and natural phenomena like ocean currents and wind.
o Examples include boiling water in a pot or warm air rising in a room.
3) Radiation
o Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves (infrared radiation).
o Does not require a medium (can occur in a vacuum).
o All objects emit and absorb radiation based on their temperature and emissivity.
o Examples include the heat from the sun reaching Earth or the heat emitted by a hot stove.
These three modes of heat transfer are fundamental in understanding how heat moves from one place to another,
and they can often occur simultaneously in various real-world scenarios.
Figure 1 Modes of Heat Transfer | Conduction, Convection & Radiation
1.2.2 Conduction
An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the mechanism of intermolecular
interactions. Conduction needs matter and does not require any bulk motion of matter. Conduction is at transfer
through solids or stationery fluids. When you touch a hot object, the heat you feel is transferred through your skin
by conduction. Two mechanisms explain how heat is transferred by conduction: lattice vibration and particle
Page | 13
collision. Conduction through solids occurs by a combination of the two mechanisms; heat is conducted through
stationery fluids primarily by molecular collisions.
o Solids: In solids, atoms are bound to each other by a series of bonds, analogous to springs. When there is
a temperature difference in the solid, the hot side of the solid experiences more vigorous atomic
movements. The vibrations are transmitted through the springs to the cooler side of the solid. Eventually
they reach equilibrium, where all the atoms are vibrating with the same energy. Solids, especially metals,
have free electrons, which are not bound to any particular atom and can freely move about the solid. The
electrons in the hot side of the solid move faster than those on the cooler side. This scenario is shown in
fig. 2. As the electrons undergo a series of collisions, the faster electrons give off some of their energy to
the slower electrons. Eventually, through a series of random collisions, equilibrium is reached, where the
electrons are moving at the same average velocity. Conduction through electron collision is more effective
than through lattice vibration; this is why metals generally are better heat conductors than ceramic
materials, which do not have many free electrons 2.
Figure 2 Conduction in Solids | Lattice Vibrations
o Fluids: In fluids, conduction occurs through collisions between freely moving molecules. The mechanism
is identical to the electron collisions in metals. The effectiveness by which heat is transferred through a
material is measured by the thermal conductivity, k.
Figure 3 Conduction in Fluids | Molecule Collisions
1.2.3 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

o The law of heat conduction is also known as Fourier’s law. Fourier’s law states that,
“The time rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the
temperature and to the area.”
o The mathematical form is given below:
𝒅𝑻
𝑸 = −𝒌𝑨( )
𝒅𝒙
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Where, Q is the heat flow rate by conduction (W), k is the thermal conductivity of body material
(W·m−1·°C−1), A is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow (m2), dT/dx is the temperature
gradient (°C ·m−1).
o Negative sign in Fourier’s equation indicates that the heat flow is in the direction of negative gradient
temperature and that serves to make heat flow positive.
o Thermal conductivity ‘k’ provides an indication of the rate at which heat energy is transferred through a
medium by conduction process 3.
1.2.4 Assumptions of Fourier Equation

o Steady state heat conduction.
o One directional heat flow.
o Bounding surfaces are isothermal in character that is constant and uniform temperatures are maintained at
the two faces.
o Isotropic and homogeneous material and thermal conductivity ‘k’ is constant.
o Constant temperature gradient and linear temperature profile.
o No internal heat generation.
1.2.5 Thermal Conductivity

o Thermal Conductivity is a fundamental property of materials that quantifies their ability to conduct heat.
It plays a crucial role in determining how efficiently a material can transfer thermal energy from one point
to another 4.
o Thermal conductivity (often denoted as "k") is a material property that measures the rate at which heat is
conducted through a substance when there is a temperature gradient (difference in temperature) within the
material.
o It is expressed in units of watts per meter-Celsius (W/m. °C).
o The mathematical formula for calculating the thermal conductivity:
𝑸 𝒅𝒙
𝒌= ×( )
𝑨 𝒅𝑻
1.3 Literature Review

1.3.1 Analytical Method
The derivation of Fourier’s law was explained with the help of an experiment which explained the rate of heat
transfer through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature gradient across the layer and heat transfer area.
Figure 4 Heat Transfer through a Simple Bar having same Cross-sectional area | Temperature Distribution
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From fig. 4, we have:

𝑄 ∝ 𝑑𝑇
𝑄∝𝐴
1
𝑄∝
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 ∝ 𝐴( )
𝑑𝑥
𝒅𝑻
⇒ 𝑸 = −𝒌𝑨 ( ) − − − 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠𝐿𝑎𝑤
𝒅𝒙
Or
𝑄 𝑑𝑇
⇒ = −𝑘 ( ) − − − 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝐴 𝑑𝑥
Or
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴 × 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = ( )
𝑑𝑥
The negative sign in Fourier’s equation indicates that the heat flow is in the direction of negative gradient
1.3.2 Experimental Method (Thermal Imaging Technique)

The Thermal Imaging Technique 5 is a sophisticated method used to visualize and analyze thermal patterns on
various objects and surfaces. To begin the process, researchers ensure that the thermal camera is properly
calibrated, ensuring accurate temperature readings. Once calibrated, the camera is directed towards the object or
area of interest. The camera detects the infrared radiation emitted by the object, which is directly proportional to
its temperature. This information is then translated into a visual representation, where different colors represent
different temperature levels. Hotter areas are displayed in warm colors like red, orange, or yellow, while cooler
areas appear in cool colors such as blue or green.
During the experiment, it is crucial to maintain a consistent distance between the thermal camera and the object
being studied. Any variations in distance could affect the accuracy of temperature measurements. Additionally,
researchers need to consider the surrounding environment, as factors like drafts or direct sunlight can influence
the thermal readings. Careful attention is paid to ensuring a stable environment to obtain reliable and precise
thermal images.
Once the thermal images are captured, they are carefully analyzed. Researchers look for abnormal temperature
patterns, identifying areas that might indicate issues such as heat leakage, electrical malfunctions, or thermal
inefficiencies. These observations are crucial for diagnosing problems in buildings, electronic devices, industrial
machinery, and even in medical applications where abnormal body temperatures might indicate health concerns.
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Figure 5 Schematic illustration of Thermal Imaging (TI) Technique
The Thermal Imaging Technique 5 involves the use of specialized cameras that can detect and visualize infrared
radiation emitted by objects. This technique provides a visual representation of temperature variations across
surfaces. By capturing thermal images, it enables scientists and engineers to observe temperature patterns in real-
time. This method is non-contact and non-destructive, allowing for the study of objects without altering their
conditions. It is particularly useful for diagnosing issues such as insulation gaps in buildings, identifying
overheating components in electronic devices, and assessing the thermal behavior of machinery. The thermal
images obtained through this technique offer valuable qualitative insights into temperature distribution.
On the other hand, the P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus Method determines heat transfer rates by utilizing a heated
plate, or hot plate, in contact with the material under study. The method measures the temperature changes within
the material to calculate its heat transfer characteristics. This approach provides quantitative data on heat transfer
rates and thermal conductivity. It is a direct-contact method, suitable for studying a variety of materials, including
solids, liquids, and gases. The P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus Method is often employed when precise numerical
values for heat transfer properties are required, making it valuable for scientific research and engineering
applications.
In summary, the Thermal Imaging Technique offers qualitative insights into temperature patterns across surfaces
and is ideal for visual analysis. In contrast, the P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus Method provides quantitative data on
heat transfer rates, making it suitable for precise numerical measurements. The choice between these methods
depends on the specific research objectives, with the Thermal Imaging Technique providing a visual
understanding, while the H940 Apparatus Method offering detailed numerical data for rigorous scientific analysis.
1.3.3 Simulation Method

To validate Fourier's law of heat conduction through a simple brass bar, a simulation method is employed. In this
method, Solid works is used to model the heat transfer process in the bar. The software calculates how heat flows
through the brass material over time. By comparing the simulated results with the predictions of Fourier's law,
which states that heat transfer is proportional to both the temperature difference and the cross-sectional area,
scientists and engineers can confirm if the law holds true for the given material. This simulation approach helps
in understanding and validating the fundamental principles of heat conduction in different materials.
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Figure 6 Model of Simple Bar in Solid works
Figure 7 Thermal Analysis @ Q = 5.2W
Page | 18
1.4 Methodology
1.4.1 Experimental Setup
The equipment comprises two heat conducting specimens, a multi-section bar for the examination of linear
conduction and a metal disc for radial conduction. An electrical console provides electrical power for heaters in
the specimens and digital readout of the temperature at any of the selected points along the heat-conducting paths.
A small flow of cooling water provides a heat sink at the end of the conducting path in each specimen.
Figure 11 Experimental Setup | P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus | Verify Fourier’s Law of Conduction
Page | 19
The apparatus consists of three separable sections. The center section is removable. The left end section contains
a brass rod, and an electrical heater. The heat input to the heater can be controlled and measured. The right end
section is also made of brass, and contains a hollowed-out cavity with water tubes attached. Thus, heat flows
through from the heater through the left end section, then through the center section, and finally through the right
end section to the water. The entire apparatus is insulated so that one-dimensional heat conduction is well
approximated. The end sections contain instrumentation for measuring temperature. The rods in the end sections
have a diameter of 25 mm while the distance between adjacent temperature measurements is 10 mm. The center
section is 90 mm long.
1.4.2 Procedure
o Measure the diameter and length of the bar.
o Turn on the power supply of the heat conduction apparatus and apply a specific power value to the bar.
Ensure the entire bar is made of the same material (Brass).
o Wait for 10-15 minutes for the bar to heat up and reach approximate steady conditions.
o After 10-15 minutes, use a thermocouple to record the temperature values at various locations along the
bar.
o Tabulate the recorded temperature values.
o Plot a graph with temperature (T) on the vertical axis and distance (x) on the horizontal axis.
o From the graph, determine the temperature gradient, which will be used to calculate the thermal
conductivity (k) of the material.
1.5 Observations and Calculations

Material of Test Section: Brass
Total number of temperature sensors = 09
Distance between each temperature sensors = x = 10 mm = 0.01 m
Diameter of Test section bar = d = 25 mm = 0.025 m
𝜋𝑑2
Area of Test section bar = A = = 0.00049 m2
4
Table 1 Determining the Exp. Thermal Conductivity | Compare with Actual value
Heat
Slope
Flow
Temperature of Thermistors (°C) Value kexp kact Error
Test # Rate
‘T/x’
‘Q’
(W) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 (°C/m) (Wm-1°C-1) (Wm-1°C-1) (%)
1 5.2 40 39 36 35 34 33 33 32 31 108.3 98 11.2
2 10.2 52 50 46 45 44 43 37 36 35 216.6 96 13.4
109
3 14.8 62 57 53 52 47 45 39 38 37 320.0 94 15.5
4 20.1 73 70 65 63 61 56 42 41 40 453.3 90 20.4
Page | 20
1.5.1 Heat Flow Rate @ 5.2 W

Now plot the graph between temperature (T) on y-axis and distance (x) on x-axis for heat supplied rate @ 5.2W.
Figure 12 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 5.2 W
From the graph we see that:

o Slope of the graph represents the temperature gradient (T/x) i.e.,
𝑇
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = = −𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟑 ℃/𝑚
𝑥
The negative sign indicates that the heat flow is in the direction of negative gradient temperature. So, we
can neglect it during calculations.
o Experimental thermal conductivity (kexp) is determined by using the given formula:
𝑄
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
𝐴 × 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
5.2
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
0.00049 × 108.3
⇒ 𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟗𝟖 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
o Since, the material of the testing section bar is known i.e., Brass. So, the actual (googled) value for thermal
conductivity of brass is:
𝑘𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1

o Hence, the percentage error in the experimental value from the actual value is calculated as:
𝑘𝑎𝑐𝑡. − 𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝
109 − 97.98
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
97.98
⇒ 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟒%
Page | 21

In the same manner, plot the same parameters graph for heat supplied rate @ 10.2W.

𝑇
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = = −𝟐𝟏𝟔. 𝟔 ℃/𝑚
𝑥
𝑄
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
10.2
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
0.00049 × 216.6
⇒ 𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟏𝟎 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝑘𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝
109 − 96.10
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
96.10
⇒ 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟐%
Page | 22

Plot the graph between temperature (T) on y-axis and distance (x) on x-axis for heat supplied rate @ 14.8W.

𝑇
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = = −𝟑𝟐𝟎. 𝟎 ℃/𝑚
𝑥
𝑄
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
14.8
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
0.00049 × 320
⇒ 𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟑𝟗 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝑘𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝
109 − 94.39
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
94.39
⇒ 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟒𝟕%
Page | 23

Plot the graph between temperature (T) on y-axis and distance (x) on x-axis for heat supplied rate @ 20.1W.

𝑇
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = = −𝟒𝟓𝟑. 𝟑 ℃/𝑚
𝑥
𝑄
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
20.1
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
0.00049 × 453.3
⇒ 𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝟗𝟎. 𝟒𝟗 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝑘𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝
109 − 90.49
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
90.49
⇒ 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟒𝟓%
Page | 24
Now combine the graphs in a single plot for better visualization of temperature gradient with the heat supplied
rate.
Figure 16 Graph between T and x | @ Various ‘Q’ values
1.6 Results and Discussion

From the above calculations, we observe that the trend between the temperature and the distance is linearly
decreasing, which is why the temperature gradient gives negative values. The negative sign indicates that the heat
flow is in the direction of a negative gradient temperature.
In all cases, the experimental thermal conductivity is lower than the actual one because some of the heat is lost in
the surroundings due to convection. Also, the kexp for the heat supplied rate @ 5.2W is greater than the kexp for
heat supplied rate @ 20.1W because for 5.2W readings the staying time is longer so that the steady state is
achieved, which results in less error in the thermal conductivity value. On the other side, by increasing the heat
supply rate, the staying time is reduced which results in more errors in the thermal conductivity values. For
example, the error in the experimental value for 5.2W is 11.2 %, whereas for 20.1W it is 20.4%.
Also, the temperature gradient increases with the increase in the heat supply rate, so the thermal conductivity
remains the same. The thermal conductivity of a material does not change with an increase or decrease in the heat
supplied rate (in Watts). Thermal conductivity is an intrinsic property of a material, and it remains relatively
constant for a given material at a given temperature.
1.7 Conclusion
o The relationship between temperature and distance is linearly decreasing, leading to negative temperature
gradients. A negative temperature gradient indicates heat flow in the direction of decreasing temperature.
o The experimental thermal conductivity values are often lower than actual values due to heat loss to the
surroundings via convection.
o At a lower heat supply rate (5.2W), the system may reach steady-state more easily, resulting in less error
in experimental thermal conductivity measurements.
o The temperature gradient increases with an increase in the heat supply rate.
o The thermal conductivity of a material does not change with changes in the heat supply rate, emphasizing
the intrinsic nature of thermal conductivity.
Page | 25
1.8 Precautions
o To avoid burns, do not touch any metal or plastic surfaces on the hot end of the sample or test unit.
o Avoid using a high cooling water flow to prevent disconnection of the hose from the test unit.
o Do not allow the temperature to go above 100°C at any of the thermocouple locations.
o Avoid using too much conductive paste, as it has the potential to cause overheating or damage to the unit.
1.9 References
1. Thomas, L. C. (1980). Fundamentals of heat transfer.
2. Aziz, S. B., & Abidin, Z. H. Z. (2013). Electrical conduction mechanism in solid polymer electrolytes: new concepts
to arrhenius equation. Journal of soft matter, 2013.
3. Liu, I. S. (1990). On Fourier's law of heat conduction. Continuum mechanics and Thermodynamics, 2, 301-305.
4. Toberer, E. S., Baranowski, L. L., & Dames, C. (2012). Advances in thermal conductivity. Annual Review of
Materials Research, 42, 179-209.
5. ElMasry, G., ElGamal, R., Mandour, N., Gou, P., Al-Rejaie, S., Belin, E., & Rousseau, D. (2020). Emerging thermal
imaging techniques for seed quality evaluation: Principles and applications. Food Research International, 131,
109025.
Page | 26
2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Composite Bar

2.1 Objective
To investigate Fourier’s law for heat conduction along a composite bar having same cross-sectional area and
calculate overall heat transfer coefficient.
2.2 Introduction
𝒅𝑻
𝑸 = −𝒌𝑨( )
𝒅𝒙
medium by conduction process.

the two faces.

to another.
material.
𝑸 𝒅𝒙
𝒌= ×( )
𝑨 𝒅𝑻
Page | 27
2.2.4 Thermal Resistance for Conduction

Thermal resistance is a heat property and a temperature difference measurement by which an object or material
resists a heat flow 1.
o The thermal resistance for conduction in a plane wall is defined as:
𝐿
𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. =
𝑘𝐴
o The thermal resistance for convection is defined as:
1
𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣. =
ℎ𝑐 𝐴
o The thermal resistance for radiation is defined as:
1
𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝑟𝑎𝑑. =
ℎ𝑟 𝐴
Thermal resistances in parallel and series are determined by using the equivalent resistance formula as:
1 1 1
= + − − − (𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 − − − (𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
2.2.5 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

o The overall heat transfer coefficient 2, often denoted as U, is a measure of the overall ability of a material
or a system to conduct heat.
o In simple terms, it represents how well a material or a system can transfer heat from one side to another.
o It is expressed in watts per square meter per degree Celsius (W/m²°C) or in British thermal units per hour
per square foot per degree Fahrenheit (Btu/h·ft²·°F).
o The formula for calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient in a system is analogous to Newtons Law
of Cooling:
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇∞1 − 𝑇∞2 )

Applying the Fourier’s Law for heat conduction in x-direction only:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑘𝐴
𝑞𝑥 = (𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
𝐿 1
𝐿 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
= = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑘𝐴 𝑞
In case of composite bars, the equivalent conductance resistance is represented as:
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 − − − (𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Page | 28
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑅𝑡ℎ = + +
𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘2 𝐴 𝑘3 𝐴
Now overall heat transfer coefficient is determined as:
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑞
= 𝑈𝐴
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
∴ = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑞
1
𝑈𝐴 =
𝑅𝑡ℎ
1
𝑈𝐴 =
𝐿1 𝐿 𝐿
+ 2 + 3
𝟏
𝑼𝒆𝒙𝒑 =
𝑳𝟏 𝑳 𝟐 𝑳𝟑
+ +
𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟑
The theoretical heat transfer coefficient is determined by using the given formula:
𝒒
𝑼𝒕𝒉 =
𝑨(𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑻𝒎𝒊𝒏 )
Figure 17 Heat Transfer through a Composite Bar having same Cross-sectional area | Temperature Distribution |
Equivalent Thermal Circuit
2.3.2 Experimental Method (Transient Plane Source)

In the Transient Plane Source Method 3, understanding how a material conducts heat is like solving a mystery.
Imagine you have a special sensor, a flat disk, which you place between two layers of your material, the composite
bar in this case. Now, you apply a quick, controlled burst of heat to one side of this sensor. As the heat starts to
travel through the material, the sensor closely monitors how the temperature changes over time. It's akin to
observing the spread of warmth in a cozy blanket when you snuggle under it on a chilly day.
Now, the interesting part is that different materials conduct heat in unique ways. Some materials, like metals, are
excellent conductors, passing on heat swiftly like a hot potato. Others, like insulating materials, tend to hold onto
Page | 29
heat, acting more like a warm hug that lasts. By closely observing how the temperature changes across the sensor
and the material layers, scientists can uncover the secrets of these materials' heat conductivity.
This method is incredibly useful for materials that are challenging to study using traditional techniques. The TPS
method is like having a detective tool that can work with various materials, including complex composites like
the brass and steel bar. Scientists and engineers can use the data gathered through the TPS Method to design better
insulating materials for homes, enhance the efficiency of electronic devices, or optimize the performance of
industrial equipment. It’s a powerful technique, almost like having X-ray vision into the thermal behavior of
materials, helping researchers make our world more efficient and comfortable.
Figure 18 Schematic illustration of Transient Plane Source (TPS) Method
The Transient Plane Source (TPS) Method and the P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus Method are both techniques
used for determining the heat transfer rate of materials, but they differ in their principles and applications. The
TPS Method operates by applying a short heat pulse through a flat sensor placed between two material layers. It
observes and analyzes the material's response to this pulse, allowing for rapid and precise measurement of thermal
conductivity. This method is versatile and non-destructive, making it suitable for a wide range of materials,
including composites and polymers. It also provides real-time data, enabling immediate analysis and adjustments.
On the other hand, the P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus Method involves a heated plate, or hot plate, onto which the
material sample is placed. The apparatus measures the temperature changes in the sample to determine its heat
transfer characteristics. This method is simpler in operation and can handle various substances, including solids,
liquids, and gases. However, it is typically limited to steady-state heat transfer analysis and may require longer
testing durations for certain materials.

In simulating the determination of the overall heat transfer coefficient through a composite bar made of brass and
steel, Solid works is used to model the heat transfer process. The simulation considers factors like the materials'
thermal properties, dimensions, and the temperature difference between the ends of the bar. By analyzing how
heat flows through the composite structure in the simulation, scientists and engineers can calculate the overall
heat transfer coefficient. This coefficient represents the material's ability to conduct heat and is crucial for various
engineering applications. The simulation method provides a virtual environment to understand how different
materials interact thermally, aiding in the design and optimization of heat transfer systems.
Figure 19 Model of Composite Bar in Solid works

Page | 30
Figure 20 Thermal Analysis of a Composite Bar @ Q = 5W
Page | 31
2.4 Methodology
Figure 24 Experimental Setup | P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus | Calculating Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Page | 32
2.4.2 Procedure
o First of all, measure the diameter and length of the composite bar.
o Turn on the power supply of heat conduction apparatus and apply specific value of power to the composite
bar.
o Wait for 10-15 minutes to allow the composite bar to be heated properly and approximate steady
conditions to be achieved.
o After 10-15 minutes, by turning the knob note the values of temperature at various locations along the bar
digitally.
o Tabulate the values of temperatures.
o Plot the graph between temperature (T) and distance (x) and from the graph determine the value of
temperature gradient which will help in evaluating thermal conductivity (k) of different materials of bar.

Length of each section = L = 30mm = 0.03m
Material of Test Section: Steel
𝜋𝑑2
Area of Test section bar = A = = 0.00049 m2
4
Table 2 Determining the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient | Compare the Uexp & Uth
Heat
Flow
Temperature of Thermistors (°C)
Test # Rate
‘Q’
(W) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
1 5 41.9 41.1 40.1 38.6 36.6 34.5 33.1 32.1 31.2
2 10 57.0 55.1 53.2 50.3 46.2 42.1 39.1 37.2 35.4
3 15 72.0 69.2 66.4 61.9 55.8 49.6 45.2 42.4 39.6
4 20 86.9 83.2 79.5 73.5 65.3 57.2 51.2 47.5 43.8
k1 k2 k3 Rth Uexp Uth Error

Test #
(Wm-1°C-1) (Wm-1°C-1) (Wm-1°C-1) (°C/W) (Wm-2°C-1) (Wm-2°C-1) (%)
1 113.18 50.18 109.53 2.32 879.62 951.07 8.12
2 109.23 49.33 108.36 2.36 862.31 943.58 9.43
3 108.75 48.43 107.98 2.39 852.38 943.44 10.68
4 104.20 48.45 103.15 2.44 834.75 943.37 13.01
Page | 33
2.5.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient @ Q = 5W

Now plot the graph between temperature (T) on y-axis and distance (x) on x-axis for heat supplied rate @ 5W.
Figure 25 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 5W

𝑇
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ =
𝑥
o The thermal conductivity of three sections is determined by using the formula:
𝑄
𝑘=
Now,
𝑄 5
𝑘1 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟑. 𝟏𝟖 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆1 0.00049 × 90
𝑄 5
𝑘2 = = = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆2 0.00049 × 203
𝑄 5
𝑘3 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟓𝟑 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆3 0.00049 × 93
o Thermal resistance is calculated as:
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑅𝑡ℎ = + +
Since, L1=L2=L3 = 0.03m so,
𝐿 1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = ( + + )
𝐴 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
Page | 34
0.03 1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = ( + + )
0.00049 113.18 50.18 109.53
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟐 ℃/𝑊
o Experimental overall heat transfer coefficient is determined as:
1
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
𝐴𝑅𝑡ℎ
1
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
0.00049 × 2.32
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝟖𝟕𝟗. 𝟔𝟐 𝑊𝑚−2 ℃−1
o Theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient is calculated as:

𝑄
𝑈𝑡ℎ =
𝐴 × (𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
5
𝑈𝑡ℎ =
0.00049 × (41.9 − 31.2)
𝑈𝑡ℎ = 𝟗𝟓𝟏. 𝟎𝟕 𝑊𝑚−2 ℃−1
o Hence, the percentage error in the experimental value from the theoretical value is calculated as:
𝑈𝑡ℎ − 𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝
951.07 − 879.62
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
879.62
⇒ 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝟖. 𝟏%


Page | 35

𝑄
𝑘=
Now,
𝑄 10
𝑘1 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟐𝟑 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆1 0.00049 × 186.5
𝑄 10
𝑘2 = = = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟑𝟑 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆2 0.00049 × 413
𝑄 10
𝑘3 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟑𝟔 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆3 0.00049 × 188
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑅𝑡ℎ = + +
𝐿 1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = ( + + )
0.03 1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = ( + + )
0.00049 109.23 49.33 108.36
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟔 ℃/𝑊
1
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
𝐴𝑅𝑡ℎ
1
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
0.00049 × 2.36
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝟖𝟔𝟐. 𝟑𝟏 𝑊𝑚−2 ℃−1

𝑄
𝑈𝑡ℎ =
10
𝑈𝑡ℎ =
0.00049 × (57 − 35.4)
𝑈𝑡ℎ = 𝟗𝟒𝟑. 𝟓𝟖 𝑊𝑚−2 ℃−1
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝
943.58 − 862.31
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
862.31
Page | 36
⇒ 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝟗. 𝟒%


𝑄
𝑘=
Now,
𝑄 15
𝑘1 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆1 0.00049 × 281
𝑄 15
𝑘2 = = = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟒𝟑 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆2 0.00049 × 631
𝑄 15
𝑘3 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟗𝟖 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆3 0.00049 × 283
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑅𝑡ℎ = + +
𝐿 1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = ( + + )
0.03 1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = ( + + )
0.00049 108.75 48.43 107.98
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟗 ℃/𝑊
Page | 37

1
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
𝐴𝑅𝑡ℎ
1
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
0.00049 × 2.39
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝟖𝟓𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 𝑊𝑚−2 ℃−1

𝑄
𝑈𝑡ℎ =
15
𝑈𝑡ℎ =
0.00049 × (72 − 39.6)
𝑈𝑡ℎ = 𝟗𝟒𝟑. 𝟒𝟒 𝑊𝑚−2 ℃−1
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝
943.44 − 852.38
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
852.38
⇒ 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕%


Page | 38
𝑄
𝑘=
Now,
𝑄 20
𝑘1 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟒. 𝟐 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆1 0.00049 × 391
𝑄 20
𝑘2 = = = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟒𝟓 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆2 0.00049 × 841
𝑄 20
𝑘3 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴 × 𝑆3 0.00049 × 395
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑅𝑡ℎ = + +
𝐿 1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = ( + + )
0.03 1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = ( + + )
0.00049 104.2 48.45 103.15
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟒 ℃/𝑊
1
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
𝐴𝑅𝑡ℎ
1
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
0.00049 × 2.44
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝟖𝟑𝟒. 𝟕𝟓 𝑊𝑚−2 ℃−1

𝑄
𝑈𝑡ℎ =
20
𝑈𝑡ℎ =
0.00049 × (86.9 − 43.8)
𝑈𝑡ℎ = 𝟗𝟒𝟑. 𝟑𝟕 𝑊𝑚−2 ℃−1
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝
951.07 − 834.75
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
834.75
⇒ 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝟖. 𝟏%
Page | 39

From the above calculations, we observe that the trend between the temperature and the distance is linearly
decreasing, which is why the temperature gradient gives negative values. The negative sign indicates that the heat
flow is in the direction of a negative gradient temperature.
In all cases, the experimental overall heat transfer coefficient is lower than the actual one because some of the
heat is lost in the surroundings due to convection. Also, the Uexp for the heat supplied rate @ 5W is greater than
the Uexp for heat supplied rate @ 20W because for 5W readings the staying time is longer so that the steady state
is achieved, which results in less error in the overall heat transfer coefficient value. On the other side, by increasing
the heat supply rate, the staying time is reduced which results in more errors in the overall heat transfer coefficient
values. For example, the error in the experimental value for 5W is 8.1%, whereas for 20W it is 13.0%.
Also, the temperature gradient increases with the increase in the heat supply rate, so the thermal conductivity
remains the same. The thermal conductivity of a material does not change with an increase or decrease in the heat
supplied rate (in Watts). Thermal conductivity is an intrinsic property of a material, and it remains relatively
constant for a given material at a given temperature.
2.7 Conclusion
o The experimental overall heat transfer coefficient values are often lower than the theoretical values due to
heat loss to the surroundings via convection.
o At a lower heat supply rate (5W), the system may reach steady-state more easily, resulting in less error in
experimental measurements.
2.8 References
1. Swartz, E. T., & Pohl, R. O. (1987). Thermal resistance at interfaces. Applied Physics Letters, 51(26), 2200-2202.
2. Sparrow, E., Gorman, J., & Abraham, J. (2013). Quantitative assessment of the overall heat transfer coefficient
U. Journal of heat transfer, 135(6), 061102.
3. Solórzano, E., Reglero, J. A., Rodríguez-Pérez, M. A., Lehmhus, D., Wichmann, M., & De Saja, J. A. (2008). An
experimental study on the thermal conductivity of aluminium foams by using the transient plane source
method. International journal of heat and mass transfer, 51(25-26), 6259-6267.
Page | 40
3 Thermal Resistances in a Reduced Bar

3.1 Objective
To investigate the effect of change in cross-sectional area on temperature profile along a thermal conductor.
3.2 Introduction
𝒅𝑻
𝑸 = −𝒌𝑨( )
𝒅𝒙

the two faces.

to another.
material.
𝑸 𝒅𝒙
𝒌= ×( )
𝑨 𝒅𝑻
Page | 41
3.2.4 Thermal Resistance for Conduction

Thermal resistance is a heat property and a temperature difference measurement by which an object or material
resists a heat flow.
o The thermal resistance for conduction in a plane wall is defined as:
𝐿
𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. =
𝑘𝐴
o The thermal resistance for convection is defined as:
1
𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣. =
ℎ𝑐 𝐴
o The thermal resistance for radiation is defined as:
1
𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝑟𝑎𝑑. =
ℎ𝑟 𝐴
Thermal resistances in parallel and series are determined by using the equivalent resistance formula as:
1 1 1
= + − − − (𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 − − − (𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

The derivation of Fourier’s law was explained with the help of an experiment which explained the rate of heat
transfer through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature gradient across the layer and heat transfer area.
Figure 29 Heat Transfer through a Simple Bar having different Cross-sectional area | Temperature Distribution
From fig. 29, we have:

𝑄 ∝ 𝑑𝑇
𝑄∝𝐴
1
𝑄∝
𝑑𝑥
Page | 42
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 ∝ 𝐴( )
𝑑𝑥
𝒅𝑻
⇒ 𝑸 = −𝒌𝑨 ( ) − − − 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠𝐿𝑎𝑤
𝒅𝒙
Or
𝑄 𝑑𝑇
⇒ = −𝑘 ( ) − − − 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝐴 𝑑𝑥
Or
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴 × 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = ( )
𝑑𝑥
The negative sign in Fourier’s equation indicates that the heat flow is in the direction of negative gradient
Since, the Fourier’s Law for heat conduction in x-direction only:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑘𝐴
𝑞𝑥 = (𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
𝐿 1
𝐿 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
= = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑘𝐴 𝑞
In case of reduced bars, the equivalent conductance resistance is represented as:
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 − − − (𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑅𝑡ℎ = + +
𝑘1 𝐴1 𝑘2 𝐴2 𝑘3 𝐴3
3.3.2 Experimental Method (Transient Hot-Wire)

The Transient Hot-Wire Technique1 is a method employed in scientific research to determine the thermal
conductivity of materials. This technique provides valuable insights into how heat travels through different
substances. The experimental procedure involves several meticulous steps.
Firstly, a thin wire, often made of a material with a known and consistent electrical resistance, is carefully inserted
into the material being studied, in this case, the reduced bar made of brass. The wire acts as both a heater and a
temperature sensor. When an electric current passes through the wire, it heats up, and this heat transfers to the
surrounding material.
Next, the researchers measure the temperature changes in the wire as it heats up the brass. This is a crucial part
of the experiment. By precisely monitoring how the temperature of the wire changes over time, scientists can
calculate the thermal conductivity of the brass. This process is akin to studying how warmth spreads from a hot
wire to the surrounding material, revealing the material's ability to conduct heat.
The experiment is typically conducted under controlled conditions to ensure accuracy. Factors such as the initial
temperature of the material, the length and thickness of the wire, and the duration of the experiment are all
carefully controlled and recorded. This meticulous approach ensures reliable and reproducible results, allowing
scientists to compare different materials' thermal conductivities effectively.
Page | 43
Figure 30 Schematic illustration of Transient Hot-Wire (HTW) Method
The Transient Hot-Wire Technique involves inserting a thin wire, often made of a material with a known
electrical resistance, into the material being studied. When an electric current passes through the wire, it heats up,
and this heat is transferred to the surrounding material. By measuring how the wire's temperature changes over
time, scientists can calculate the material's thermal conductivity. This method provides a direct measurement of
thermal conductivity by studying the material's response to the heat generated by the wire. It is particularly useful
for materials with low thermal conductivity and is suitable for both solids and liquids.
Whereas, the P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus Method determines heat transfer rates by using a heated plate, or hot
plate, which is in direct contact with the material under study. The apparatus measures the temperature changes
within the material to calculate its heat transfer characteristics. This method provides quantitative data on heat
transfer rates and thermal conductivity. It is ideal for studying a wide range of materials, including solids, liquids,
and gases, and is especially useful for materials with high thermal conductivity. The P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus
Method offers precise numerical values for heat transfer properties, making it valuable for scientific research and
engineering applications.

In the simulation method for determining the temperature gradient through the reduced bar made of brass, Solid
works is used to create a virtual model of the bar. Scientists input factors like the material properties of brass, the
bar's dimensions, and the applied heat. The software then calculates how heat flows within the bar, showing the
temperature differences across its length. By studying this virtual model, researchers can understand how
temperature changes along the brass bar, helping them analyze heat distribution and make informed decisions
about its design and efficiency. It's like using a computer game to understand how heat moves in real objects,
providing valuable insights without physically altering the bar.
Figure 31 Model of a Reduced Bar in Solid works
Page | 44
Figure 32 Thermal Analysis of a Reduced Bar @ Q = 5W
Page | 45
3.4 Methodology
Figure 36 Experimental Setup | P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus | Analyzing the temperature profiles in different cross-
sectional area
Page | 46
3.4.2 Procedure
o First of all, measure the diameter and length of the bar.
o Turn on the power supply of heat conduction apparatus and apply specific value of power to the reduced
bar.
o Before starting just make sure that the entire length of bar carries the same material.
o Wait for 10-15 minutes to allow the reduced bar to be heated properly and approximate steady conditions
to be achieved.
o After 10-15 minutes, by turning the knob note the values of temperature at various locations along the bar
digitally.
o Plot the graph between temperature (T) and distance (x) and from the graph determine the value of
temperature gradient which will help in evaluating thermal conductivity (k) of different cross-sectionals
of bar.

Length of each section = L = 30mm = 0.03m
Material of Test Section: Brass
𝜋𝑑2
Area of Test section bar = At = = 0.000134 m2
4
Diameter of End section bars = D = 25 mm = 0.025 m

𝜋𝐷 2
Area of End section bar = Ae = = 0.00049 m2
4
Table 3 Analyzing the Temperature Profiles in different cross-sectional areas
Heat
Flow
Temperature of Thermistors (°C) k1 k2 k3 Rth
Rate
‘Q’
Test
(Wm-1°C-1)
(Wm-1°C-1)
(Wm-1°C-1)
#
(°C/W)
(W) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
1 5 47.3 46.4 45.6 42.7 39.3 35.8 33.0 32.1 31.2 114.45 109.37 113.81 3.14
2 10 67.7 65.8 64.1 58.4 51.5 45.7 38.9 37.2 35.4 114.45 118.39 114.13 2.98
3 15 88.0 85.2 82.7 75.5 63.8 53.5 45.1 42.3 39.6 114.66 102.71 110.92 3.29
4 20 108.4 104.7 101.3 91.6 76.1 62.3 50.9 47.5 43.8 114.61 102.70 114.13 3.27
Page | 47
3.5.1 Temperature Profile @ Q = 5W


𝑇
𝑥
As, we see that:
𝑆1 = 89°𝐶/𝑚
𝑆2 = 344.5°𝐶/𝑚
𝑆3 = 89.5°𝐶/𝑚
Second slope value has greater value as compared to the other two slope values. The reason is that the
temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. It means that for smaller area,
the slope value will be maximum and vice versa by keeping the material remain same (k=constant).
𝑄
𝑘=
Now,
𝑄 5
𝑘1 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟒𝟓 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑒 × 𝑆1 0.00049 × 89
𝑄 5
𝑘2 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟑𝟕 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑡 × 𝑆2 0.000134 × 344.5
Page | 48
𝑄 5
𝑘3 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟑. 𝟖𝟏 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑒 × 𝑆3 0.00049 × 89.5
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑅𝑡ℎ = + +
𝑘1 𝐴𝑒 𝑘2 𝐴𝑡 𝑘3 𝐴𝑒
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝐿 × ( + + )
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 0.03 × ( + + )
114.45 × 0.00049 109.37 × 0.000134 113.81 × 0.00049
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 ℃/𝑊


𝑇
𝑥
As, we see that:
𝑆1 = 178°𝐶/𝑚
𝑆2 = 636.5°𝐶/𝑚
𝑆3 = 178.5°𝐶/𝑚
Page | 49
𝑄
𝑘=
Now,
𝑄 10
𝑘1 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟒𝟓 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑒 × 𝑆1 0.00049 × 178
𝑄 10
𝑘2 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟖. 𝟑𝟗 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑡 × 𝑆2 0.000134 × 636.5
𝑄 10
𝑘3 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟑 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑒 × 𝑆3 0.00049 × 178.5
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑅𝑡ℎ = + +
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝐿 × ( + + )
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 0.03 × ( + + )
114.45 × 0.00049 118.39 × 0.000134 114.13 × 0.00049
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟖 ℃/𝑊

Page | 50

𝑇
𝑥
As, we see that:
𝑆1 = 266.5°𝐶/𝑚
𝑆2 = 1100.5°𝐶/𝑚
𝑆3 = 275.5°𝐶/𝑚
𝑄
𝑘=
Now,
𝑄 15
𝑘1 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟔𝟔 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑒 × 𝑆1 0.00049 × 266.5
𝑄 15
𝑘2 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟐. 𝟕𝟏 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑡 × 𝑆2 0.000134 × 1100.5
𝑄 15
𝑘3 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟐 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑒 × 𝑆3 0.00049 × 275.5
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑅𝑡ℎ = + +
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝐿 × ( + + )
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 0.03 × ( + + )
114.66 × 0.00049 102.71 × 0.000134 110.92 × 0.00049
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟗 ℃/𝑊

Page | 51

𝑇
𝑥
As, we see that:
𝑆1 = 355.5°𝐶/𝑚
𝑆2 = 1467.5°𝐶/𝑚
𝑆3 = 357°𝐶/𝑚
𝑄
𝑘=
Now,
𝑄 20
𝑘1 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟔𝟏 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑒 × 𝑆1 0.00049 × 355.5
𝑄 20
𝑘2 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟐. 𝟕𝟎 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑡 × 𝑆2 0.000134 × 1467.5
𝑄 20
𝑘3 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟑 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1
𝐴𝑒 × 𝑆3 0.00049 × 357
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑅𝑡ℎ = + +
Page | 52

1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝐿 × ( + + )
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 0.03 × ( + + )
114.61 × 0.00049 102.70 × 0.000134 114.13 × 0.00049
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟕 ℃/𝑊

In the conducted experiment, we observed a consistent and linear decrease in temperature concerning distance.
This linear relationship showcased negative temperature gradients, indicating that heat naturally flowed in the
direction of decreasing temperature. This finding aligns with fundamental thermodynamic principles,
emphasizing the predictability and reliability of heat transfer behaviors within the material.
Furthermore, we discovered a vital relationship between the temperature gradient and the cross-sectional area of
the material. As expected, the temperature gradient exhibited an inverse proportionality concerning the cross-
sectional area. This relationship signifies that in larger cross-sectional areas, the temperature gradient is relatively
low, indicating a slower rate of temperature change across the material. Conversely, smaller cross-sectional areas
resulted in higher temperature gradients, denoting rapid temperature changes over shorter distances. Notably, our
experimental setup, with its intentionally reduced cross-sectional area, accentuated this phenomenon. This
resulted in a maximum slope value, indicating the highest rate of temperature change in all cases studied.
3.7 Conclusion
o The temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. This means that the
temperature gradient value is low for a large cross-sectional area and high for a small cross-sectional area.
Since the testing cross-sectional area is small, its slope value is maximum in all cases.
3.8 References
1. Assael, M. J., Antoniadis, K. D., & Wakeham, W. A. (2010). Historical evolution of the transient hot-wire
technique. International journal of thermophysics, 31, 1051-1072.
Page | 53
4 Temperature Profile in a Radial Disk

4.1 Objective
To examine the temperature profile and determine the rate of heat transfer resulting from radial steady conduction
through wall of cylinder.
4.2 Introduction
𝒅𝑻
𝒒 = −𝒌𝑨( )
𝒅𝒙
Where, q is the heat flow rate by conduction (W), k is the thermal conductivity of body material

the two faces.

to another.
material.
𝒒 𝒅𝒙
𝒌= ×( )
𝑨 𝒅𝑻
Page | 54
4.2.4 Conduction through Cylindrical Wall

Conduction through a cylindrical wall is a process where heat travels from one side of the cylinder to the other
due to a temperature difference. In simpler terms, if one side of the cylinder is hot and the other side is cold, heat
will naturally move from the hot side to the cold side, warming it up. This happens because the heat energy
transfers through the material of the cylinder. The rate at which this happens depends on the material's properties,
like its thermal conductivity, and the temperature difference between the two sides of the cylinder. Understanding
conduction in cylindrical walls is essential for designing effective insulation and heat exchange systems, ensuring
that heat is either retained or transferred efficiently based on specific needs.
The rate of heat transfer through the cylindrical wall is determined by using the given formula:
(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )
𝒒 = 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝑳 𝒓
𝐥𝐧 (𝒓𝟐 )
𝟏

Consider a cylinder having an element of dimensions dr, ds, and dz as shown in figure below:
Figure 41 Differential Control Volume (𝑑𝑟. 𝑟 𝑑∅. 𝑑𝑧) for Conduction Analysis in Cylindrical Coordinates (𝑟, ∅, 𝑧)
The general form of the heat flux vector, and hence of Fourier's law, is
Applying an energy balance to the differential control volume of Figure 41 the following general form of the heat
equation is obtained:
Page | 55
Assumptions:
o One-dimensional flow
o Steady State
o Homogeneous Material
o No Heat generation
Hence, the final form of the equation will be:
Integrating on both sides, we get;
B.C1: at
B.C2: at
Subtracting both equations, we get;
C2 is calculated by substituting the C1 value into anyone of the two equations:
Page | 56
Now, substituting C1 and C2 values into the main equation
4.3.2 Experimental Method (Transient Thermal Response Element)

Transient Thermal Response Analysis1 is a sophisticated experimental procedure used to understand how a
material responds to sudden changes in temperature over time. In this method, researchers introduce a rapid
temperature change, often by heating or cooling one end of the cylinder, and then carefully monitor how this
temperature alteration propagates through the material. This process is crucial for comprehending the transient
behavior of heat conduction, especially in scenarios where quick temperature fluctuations occur, such as during
start-up or shutdown of industrial processes or in emergency situations.
To conduct this analysis, the experiment typically begins by establishing a stable initial temperature throughout
the cylinder. Then, a sudden heat pulse or cooling is applied to one end of the cylinder. Advanced sensors, like
thermocouples or thermal imaging cameras, are strategically placed at different locations within the cylinder to
capture the temperature changes. These sensors record data at regular intervals, allowing researchers to observe
the gradual temperature adjustments as they propagate through the material.
Analyzing the collected data involves intricate calculations and modeling techniques. Scientists use mathematical
equations based on heat conduction principles to predict the expected temperature response. By comparing these
theoretical predictions with the actual experimental data, researchers can validate their models and gain a deeper
understanding of the material's thermal properties. The speed at which the temperature change travels through the
material, along with the rate at which it stabilizes, provides crucial information about the material's thermal
conductivity and diffusivity.
Figure 42 Transient Heat Conduction Setup

Page | 57
This experimental procedure yields insights into how quickly a material can transfer and distribute heat under
transient conditions, offering valuable knowledge for various applications. Engineers often use this data to
optimize the design of heat exchange systems, predict the behavior of materials in rapid temperature variations,
and ensure the safety and efficiency of processes in diverse industries, including aerospace, manufacturing, and
energy.

In my simulation study, I utilized SolidWorks, a powerful computer-aided design (CAD) software, to
comprehensively analyze the conduction heat transfer rate through the walls of a cylinder. Leveraging
SolidWorks' simulation capabilities, I created a precise 3D model of the cylinder, defining its geometry, material
properties, and thermal boundary conditions with accuracy. Through this virtual experiment, SolidWorks
simulated how heat propagated within the cylinder walls, allowing me to observe the intricate details of the
conduction process. The software provided detailed temperature profiles, enabling a thorough analysis of heat
flow patterns. By employing SolidWorks for simulation, I was able to make data-driven decisions, optimizing
designs and understanding the thermal behavior of materials for diverse engineering applications.
Figure 43 Model of a Radial Disk in Solid works
Figure 44 Thermal Analysis of a Radial Disk @ q = 10W
Page | 58
4.4 Methodology
The radial conduction module comprises a brass disc 110mm diameter and 3mm thick, heated in the center by an
electrical heater and cooled by cold water in a circumferential copper tube. Thermistor temperature sensors are
fitted to the center of the disc at 10mm intervals along a radius, there being six in all. Again, heat losses are
Page | 59
minimized by preserving an air gap around the disc with a heat-resistant casing. As in the linear module, the
thermistor connections are brought out to plugs in the casing to which six sensor leads fitted with appropriate
sockets may be connected to obtain individual temperature readings.
Figure 48 Experimental Setup | P.A. Hilton H940 Apparatus | Analyzing the temperature profiles in a Radial Disk
4.4.2 Procedure
o Make sure that the main switch is initially off.
o Then take a cylindrical bar of brass with r1 = 4 mm, r2 = 55mm.
o Switch on the power supply and main switch.
o Adjust the knob of power supply and make it 10W.
o Note down the readings of all 6 temperatures by inserting the thermocouple probe into the holes on the
side of bar.
o Change the power supplied (10W, 15W,20W,25W) and repeat the procedure.
o Plot the graph of temperature variation vs distance for all power values.
o Generate a curve using Temperature (°C) on y-axis and distance (mm) on the x-axis.

Material = Brass
Thermal Conductivity of Brass = k = −110 W/m.°C
Thickness of Cylindrical Disk = L = 3mm = 0.003m
Inner Radius = r1 = 4mm = 0.004m
Outer Radius = r2 = 55mm = 0.055m
Table 4 Temperature Profile in Radial Disk
Heat Flow
Rate Temperature of Thermistors (°C)
Test # ‘qth’
(W) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
1 10 37 34 33 32 31 30
2 15 40 36 34 32 31 30
3 20 44 39 36 33 32 31
4 25 47 42 38 34 32 31
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4.5.1 Heat Flow Rate @ 10W

Table 5 Analyze the error between the experimental heat transfer rate and the theoretical value (i.e., 10W)
Slope Value
qth Temperature Values qexp
ln(r2/r1) ‘dT/dln(r2/r1)’ Error
(W) (°C) (°C) (W)
1.25 37
1.79 34
2.14 33
10 −4.51 9.35 6.9 %
2.40 32
2.60 31
2.69 30
Now plot the graph between the temperature values (T) on y-axis and the ln(r2/r1) on the x-axis. Also, insert the
best fit line to get the better results.
Figure 49 Graph between the temperature and the ratio of radii @ q = 10W
Experimental heat transfer rate is determined by using the formula:

𝑞𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 × 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑟 = −4.51
𝑑 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑟2 )]
1
𝑞𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 2 × 3.14 × (−110) × 0.003 × (−4.51)
𝒒𝒆𝒙𝒑 = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟓𝑾
Error between the experimental heat transfer rate and theoretical value is calculated as:
𝑞𝑡ℎ − 𝑞𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑞𝑡ℎ
10 − 9.35
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
9.35
𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟔. 𝟗 %
Page | 61

Slope Value
(W) (°C) (°C) (W)
1.25 40
1.79 36
2.14 34
15 −6.78 14.05 6.8 %
2.40 32
2.60 31
2.69 30

𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑟 = −6.78
𝑑 [𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )]
𝑟1
𝑞𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 2 × 3.14 × (−110) × 0.003 × (−6.78)
𝒒𝒆𝒙𝒑 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟎𝟓𝑾
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑞𝑡ℎ
15 − 14.05
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
14.05
𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟔. 𝟖 %
Page | 62

Slope Value
(W) (°C) (°C) (W)
1.25 44
1.79 39
2.14 36
20 −9.05 18.76 6.6 %
2.40 33
2.60 32
2.69 31

𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑟 = −9.05
𝑑 [𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )]
𝑟1
𝑞𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 2 × 3.14 × (−110) × 0.003 × (−9.05)
𝒒𝒆𝒙𝒑 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟔𝑾
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑞𝑡ℎ
20 − 18.76
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
18.76
𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟔. 𝟔 %
Page | 63

Slope Value
(W) (°C) (°C) (W)
1.25 47
1.79 42
2.14 38
25 −11.40 23.63 5.8 %
2.40 34
2.60 32
2.69 31

𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑟 = −11.40
𝑑 [𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )]
𝑟1
𝑞𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 2 × 3.14 × (−110) × 0.003 × (−11.40)
𝒒𝒆𝒙𝒑 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟔𝟑𝑾
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑞𝑡ℎ
25 − 23.63
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
23.63
𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝟓. 𝟖 %
Page | 64

In our experiment, our primary focus was to understand how heat travels through the walls of a cylinder in steady
conditions. To achieve this, we meticulously measured the temperature at six distinct radial points, ranging from
4 mm to 54 mm from the center of the cylinder. This broad range allowed us to observe heat transfer behaviors
at various distances from the center.
By measuring the temperatures at these specific points and different power inputs, we created a detailed
temperature profile. Essentially, we mapped out how the temperature changes across the radial distance from the
center of the cylinder. What we found was intriguing: as the radial distance increased from 4 mm to 54 mm, the
temperature exhibited a non-linear decreasing pattern. This means that closer to the center of the cylinder, where
the radial distance is minimal, we recorded the maximum temperature. However, as the distance from the center
increased, the temperature decreased in a non-linear manner.
Additionally, we noticed something noteworthy in our observations. As we increased the power input (denoted
as 'q'), the temperature profile displayed less deviation from the expected path. In other words, when we supplied
more power, the temperature followed a more predictable, decreasing logarithmic curve. This phenomenon
highlighted a crucial relationship between the heat input and the resulting temperature pattern. It indicated that
higher power inputs had a stabilizing effect on the temperature distribution, leading to a more consistent and
understandable pattern.
4.7 Conclusion
o The relationship between temperature and distance is decreasing, leading to negative temperature
o Higher power inputs resulted in a more predictable, decreasing logarithmic curve, stabilizing temperature
distribution.
4.8 References
1. Al-Sanea, S. A., & Zedan, M. F. (2001). Effect of insulation location on initial transient thermal response of building
walls. Journal of Thermal Envelope and Building Science, 24(4), 275-300.
Page | 65
5 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Flat Plate under

Free Convection
5.1 Objective
To investigate the relationship between power input and temperature difference across a flat plate under free
convection and determine convective heat transfer coefficient.
5.2 Introduction
5.2.1 Convection
Convection heat transfer refers to the process of heat transfer between a surface and a fluid (liquid or gas) in
motion1. Unlike conduction, where heat transfers through direct contact, convection involves the movement of
the fluid itself, carrying heat from one place to another. Convection occurs due to the natural movement of fluids
caused by temperature differences. When a fluid near a hot surface gets heated, it becomes less dense and rises,
creating a flow. Conversely, cooler, denser fluid descends to replace the rising warm fluid, forming a continuous
circulation pattern. This movement of the fluid particles results in the transfer of heat from the hot surface to the
fluid, and vice versa.
Figure 53 Convection Phenomenon
5.2.2 Classifications
5.2.2.1 Natural or Free Convection
This occurs spontaneously due to temperature differences within a fluid. When a fluid is heated, it expands,
becomes lighter, and rises, creating a natural circulation pattern. Similarly, when a fluid cools, it becomes denser
and sinks, creating a flow in the opposite direction. This natural movement of the fluid causes heat transfer.
Figure 54 Free Convection
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5.2.2.2 Forced Convection

In forced convection, an external force, such as a fan, pump, or any mechanical device, is used to move the fluid
over a surface. The forced movement of the fluid enhances the rate of convection heat transfer. For example, in a
car radiator, a fan blows air over the hot radiator surface, increasing the rate at which heat is transferred from the
radiator to the surrounding air.
Figure 55 Forced Convection
5.2.3 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

The convective heat transfer coefficient2 (hc) measures how effectively a fluid transfers heat from a solid surface.
It quantifies the heat energy transferred per unit area per unit temperature difference between the surface and the
fluid. Engineers use it in designing heat exchangers, HVAC systems, and cooling processes. The coefficient varies
based on fluid properties, surface geometry, flow conditions, and temperature differences. Understanding it is
crucial for optimizing the efficiency of thermal systems and ensuring safe operation of heat-sensitive devices.
Convective heat transfer coefficient is determined by using the given formula:
𝑸
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨𝒔 × (𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ )
5.2.4 Convection through Flat Plate

Flat plates find extensive application in various engineering domains, particularly in heat exchangers and cooling
systems. The convective heat transfer through a flat plate is crucial for dissipating heat generated by electronic
devices, such as computer components and power electronics. In the automotive industry, flat plates are employed
in the design of radiators for efficient cooling of engines. Furthermore, solar panels utilize flat plate collectors to
absorb and transfer solar energy, where understanding the convective heat transfer is vital for optimizing energy
conversion efficiency.
Figure 56 Flat Plate Collector | Convection Process in Solar Panels (Flat Plate)
In a flat plate solar collector (refer fig. 56), convection is facilitated by the absorption of solar energy on a dark-
colored absorber plate. As sunlight strikes the plate, it heats up, transferring thermal energy to a circulating fluid,
often water or air, in contact with the plate's surface. The heated fluid creates convection currents, inducing
Page | 67
upward flow as the warmed fluid becomes less dense. This natural convection carries the absorbed heat away
from the absorber plate, allowing it to be utilized for various purposes such as water or space heating. The cooled
fluid then returns to the bottom of the collector to repeat the process. Convection, both within the fluid and through
the absorber plate, is essential for the efficient transfer of solar energy and the overall functionality of the flat
plate solar collector.

Consider a hot plate with a uniform surface temperature Ts immersed in a uniform flow as shown in fig.
Figure 57 Thermal Convection across a Flat Plate
According to Newton’s law of cooling:

“The rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to the surface area of plate along with the temperature
difference between the surface temperature and air flow temperature.”
Mathematically,
𝑄 ∝ 𝐴𝑠
𝑄 ∝ (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄 ∝ 𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄 = ℎ𝑐 𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
Here, hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient having units of W/m2°C. Now,
𝑄
ℎ𝑐 𝐴𝑠 =
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄
∴ = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨𝒔
5.3.2 Experimental Method (Nusselt Number Method)

In the experimental determination of the convective heat transfer coefficient using the Nusselt Number method3,
a systematic approach is followed. Firstly, a setup with a heated flat plate and a fluid flow system is established.
Thermocouples are strategically placed on the plate to measure surface temperatures, while bulk fluid
temperatures and inlet temperatures of the flowing fluid are recorded simultaneously. Utilizing Fourier's Law of
Page | 68
heat conduction, local heat transfer coefficients (h) are calculated at different points along the plate. The local
Nusselt Number (Nu), a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer,
is then determined using the formula Nu = (h × L) / k, where L is the characteristic length (typically the plate
length) and k is the fluid's thermal conductivity. By integrating local Nu values over the plate length, the average
Nusselt Number (Nu_avg) is obtained.
During the experiment, different fluid flow rates are tested to obtain varying Reynolds Numbers (Re), representing
different flow conditions. Plotting the Nusselt Numbers against the corresponding Reynolds Numbers helps
establish a correlation between Nu and Re. This correlation provides valuable insights into how fluid flow rates
affect convective heat transfer. Through this method, researchers can precisely determine the convective heat
transfer coefficient, offering vital information for designing efficient heat exchangers, HVAC systems, and
various industrial processes. Analyzing the experimental data and comparing it with theoretical models allows
scientists and engineers to gain a deep understanding of heat transfer phenomena and optimize thermal systems
for practical applications.
Figure 58 Nusselt Number Formula and its significance

In the simulation method for determining the convective heat transfer coefficient of a flat plate, Solid works is
used to create a virtual model of the plate and the surrounding fluid. Scientists input factors like fluid properties,
plate temperature, and flow conditions into the simulation. The software then calculates how heat is transferred
from the plate to the fluid, considering convection. By studying this virtual model, researchers can extract the
convective heat transfer coefficient, providing valuable insights into how efficiently heat is exchanged between
the plate and the fluid. It's like using a computer program to understand how well a flat surface can cool down in
different fluid environments, helping engineers design effective cooling systems.
Figure 59 Model of Flat Plate in Solid works
Page | 69
Figure 60 General Settings for Free Convection
Figure 61 Free Convection Analysis of Flat Plate @ Q = 5 W
Page | 70
5.4 Methodology
The forced and free convection apparatus consists of a setup where heat transfer from a surface is studied in two
ways: forced convection, where a fluid is mechanically moved over the surface, and free convection, where
natural fluid movement occurs due to temperature differences. The apparatus includes a heated surface, sensors
to measure temperature and fluid flow rates, and controls to regulate variables. By analyzing how heat transfers
through these methods, scientists gain insights into the efficiency of heating and cooling systems, aiding the
design of more effective and energy-efficient technologies.
Page | 71
Figure 65 Experimental Setup | Forced and Free Convection Apparatus | Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient of a
Flat plate under Free Convection
5.4.2 Procedure
o First of all, attach the type of plate required with the duct of apparatus.
o Turn on the power supply and on the flow of air through the duct.
o Wait for 10-15 minutes to allow the rods to be heated properly and approximate steady conditions to be
achieved.
o Using thermocouple and temperature sensor, measure the inlet temperature of air, temperature of the
heater and temperature of air at the outlet.
o Change the value of power supply and repeat the experiment.
o Plot the graph between power supplied and temperature difference of air.

Length of Plate = l = 11cm = 0.11m
Height of Plate = h = 10cm = 0.10m
Area of Plate = As = l × h = 0.11 × 0.10 = 0.011 m2
Table 9 Determination of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Flat Plate under Free Convection
Average
Convective
Surface Convective
Ambient Temperature Heat
Air Power Temperature Heat
Temperature Difference Transfer
Test # Velocity Input of Plate Transfer
‘T’ 'Ts-T' Coefficient
‘Ts’ Coefficient
'hc'
'havg'
(ms-1) (W) (°C) (°C) (°C) (W/m2.°C) (W/m2.°C)
1 5 30 36 6 75.76
2 10 30 38 8 113.64
0 100.31
3 15 30 43 13 104.90
4 20 30 47 17 106.95
Now plot the graph between Power input on y-axis and the temperature difference on the x-axis.
Page | 72
Figure 66 Graph between Input Power and Temperature difference

The graph clearly illustrates a direct relationship between the input power and the temperature difference. In
simpler terms, when we increase the amount of power supplied to the system, the surface temperature of the object
being heated also rises. This phenomenon occurs while keeping the surrounding ambient temperature constant.
Essentially, it showcases the direct impact of the energy input on the resulting temperature. When more power is
added, the object gets hotter, and this connection is fundamental in understanding how external energy sources
influence the thermal behavior of materials. The graph provides a visual representation of this direct
proportionality, offering valuable information for practical applications in temperature regulation and control.
5.7 Conclusion
o Experiment confirmed direct proportionality between convective heat transfer coefficient, supplied heat,
and temperature difference.
o Linear trend in data emphasized predictable heat transfer behavior under experimental conditions.
o Deviations noted, possibly due to faulty apparatus, unsteady conditions, and temperature measurement
errors.
o Emphasized need for proper maintenance, calibration, and allowing steady state for accurate
measurements.
o Accurate temperature measurement crucial for reducing errors and ensuring reliable results.
o Experiment underscores importance of meticulous procedures for meaningful data in heat transfer studies.
5.8 References
1. Velarde, M. G., & Normand, C. (1980). Convection. Scientific American, 243(1), 92-109.
2. Khalifa, A. J. N. (2001). Natural convective heat transfer coefficient–a review: I. Isolated vertical and horizontal
surfaces. Energy conversion and management, 42(4), 491-504.
3. Ho-Liu, P., Hager, B. H., & Raefsky, A. (1987). An improved method of Nusselt number calculation. Geophysical
Journal International, 88(1), 205-215.
Page | 73
6 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Flat Plate under

Forced Convection
6.1 Objective
To investigate the relationship between power input and temperature difference across a flat plate under forced
convection and determine convective heat transfer coefficient.
6.2 Introduction
6.2.1 Convection
One of the primary modes of heat transfer is convection. “The mode of heat transfer in which bulk of fluid particles
moves over a surface and transfers the heat is called convection.”
This mode of heat transfer includes both conduction and fluid motion in bulk. From the experiments, we know
that the amount of heat transferred through convection depends on fluid properties like:
o Dynamic Viscosity μ
o Thermal conductivity k
o Density of fluid ρ
o Velocity of fluid v
o Specific heat of fluid Cp
Page | 74


𝑸
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨𝒔 × (𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ )
6.2.4 Fins
“Fins are extended surfaces used to rapidly remove the heat from the body”
In some applications, heat conducted by the body is required to be dissipated to the surrounding by the convection
such as in the case of heat exchanges and furnaces. In this case, fins are attached to the body. By attaching the
fins, the heat transfer through the body increases exponentially and the temperature of the body decreases rapidly.
There are two types of fins:
o Uniform cross-sectional area fins
o Variable cross-sectional area fins.
Page | 75
6.2.5 Convection through Flat Plate

Flat plates find extensive application in various engineering domains, particularly in heat exchangers and cooling
systems. The convective heat transfer through a flat plate is crucial for dissipating heat generated by electronic
devices, such as computer components and power electronics. In the automotive industry, flat plates are employed
in the design of radiators for efficient cooling of engines. Furthermore, solar panels utilize flat plate collectors to
absorb and transfer solar energy, where understanding the convective heat transfer is vital for optimizing energy
conversion efficiency.
Figure 70 Flat Plate Collector | Convection Process in Solar Panels (Flat Plate)
In a flat plate solar collector (refer fig. 70), convection is facilitated by the absorption of solar energy on a dark-
colored absorber plate. As sunlight strikes the plate, it heats up, transferring thermal energy to a circulating fluid,
often water or air, in contact with the plate's surface. The heated fluid creates convection currents, inducing
upward flow as the warmed fluid becomes less dense. This natural convection carries the absorbed heat away
from the absorber plate, allowing it to be utilized for various purposes such as water or space heating. The cooled
fluid then returns to the bottom of the collector to repeat the process. Convection, both within the fluid and through
the absorber plate, is essential for the efficient transfer of solar energy and the overall functionality of the flat
plate solar collector.

Consider a hot plate with a uniform surface temperature Ts immersed in a uniform flow as shown in fig.
Figure 71 Thermal Convection across a Flat Plate
According to Newton’s law of cooling:

Page | 76
Mathematically,
𝑄 ∝ 𝐴𝑠
𝑄 ∝ (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄 ∝ 𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄
ℎ𝑐 𝐴𝑠 =
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨𝒔

Page | 77

In the simulation method for determining the convective heat transfer coefficient of a flat plate, Solid works is
used to create a virtual model of the plate and the surrounding fluid. Scientists input factors like fluid properties,
plate temperature, and flow conditions into the simulation. The software then calculates how heat is transferred
from the plate to the fluid, considering convection. By studying this virtual model, researchers can extract the
convective heat transfer coefficient, providing valuable insights into how efficiently heat is exchanged between
the plate and the fluid. It's like using a computer program to understand how well a flat surface can cool down in
different fluid environments, helping engineers design effective cooling systems.
Figure 73 Model of Flat Plate in Solid works
Figure 74 General Settings for Forced Convection of Flat Plate (v = 0.5 ms-1)
So, when you're running a simulation to see how air or fluid moves around (you know, like air), and you
specifically want to see what happens when there's a force making it move (forced convection), the computer
takes a long time to figure it all out. Because of this, my simulation is dragging, and I don't have the results yet.
6.4 Methodology
Page | 78
Flat plate under Forced Convection
6.4.2 Procedure
achieved.

Length of Plate = l = 11cm = 0.11m
Height of Plate = h = 10cm = 0.10m
Area of Plate = As = l × h = 0.11 × 0.10 = 0.011 m2
Table 10 Determination of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Flat Plate under Free & Forced Convection
Average
Convective
Surface Convective
Ambient Temperature Heat
Air Power Temperature Heat
Temperature Difference Transfer
Test # Velocity Input of Plate Transfer
‘T’ 'Ts-T' Coefficient
‘Ts’ Coefficient
'hc'
'havg'
(ms-1) (W) (°C) (°C) (°C) (W/m2.°C) (W/m2.°C)
1 5 30 36 6 75.76
2 10 30 38 8 113.64
0 100.31
3 15 30 43 13 104.90
4 20 30 47 17 106.95
Page | 79
5 5 25 28 3 151.515
6 10 25 31 6 151.515
0.5 163.83
7 15 25 33 8 170.455
8 20 25 35 10 181.818
9 5 25 27 2 227.273
10 10 25 30 5 181.818
1 201.48
11 15 25 32 7 194.805
12 20 25 34 9 202.02
13 5 25 26 1 454.545
14 10 25 29 4 227.273
1.3 284.09
15 15 25 31 6 227.273
16 20 25 33 8 227.273
Now plot the graph between Power input on y-axis and the temperature difference on the x-axis. Also, compare
the effect of velocity on the results.
Figure 76 Graph between Power Input and Temperature difference (Flat Plate)

Looking at the graph, when we use more power, the difference in temperature between a flat surface and the
surrounding temperature gets bigger. In Table 10, we see that the convective heat transfer coefficient is lowest
for free convection and increases as we make the air move faster.
When we increase the input power, it means we're providing more energy to the system. In this case, the flat
surface plate is receiving more power. This extra power causes the temperature of the plate to rise. As the plate
gets hotter, the temperature difference between the plate and the surrounding environment increases. Essentially,
the more power we give, the hotter the plate becomes, leading to a larger temperature gap between the plate and
its surroundings. Also, we observed that the convective heat transfer coefficient exhibits its lowest values under
conditions of free convection, where the surrounding air remains still. This phenomenon can be likened to a
sluggish transfer of heat, where the energy surrounding an object doesn't readily move away. On the contrary, as
we introduce faster air movement, such as blowing on a hot surface, the convective heat transfer coefficient
Page | 80
significantly increases. This enhancement in coefficient values indicates that faster-moving air is more effective
at carrying away heat from the object. In simpler terms, free convection corresponds to a sluggish heat dissipation,
while increased air movement enhances the efficiency of heat transfer by swiftly carrying heat away from the
source. This observation has important implications for understanding and optimizing heat dissipation in various
applications.
6.7 Conclusion
1. Input Power and Temperature Difference
o Increasing input power means more energy for the flat surface plate.
o The plate gets hotter with the extra power.
o As the plate heats up, the temperature difference between the plate and surroundings increases.
o Essentially, more power equals a hotter plate and a larger temperature gap.
2. Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
o Free convection (still air) results in the lowest convective heat transfer coefficient.
o Introducing faster air movement, like blowing on a hot surface, significantly increases the coefficient.
o Faster-moving air is more effective at carrying away heat from the object.
o In simple terms, still air leads to sluggish heat dissipation, while faster air movement boosts heat
transfer efficiency.
6.8 References
Page | 81
7 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Finned Plate under Free

& Forced Convection
7.1 Objective
To determine the relationship between surface temperature and power input in free and forced convection also
determine the convective heat transfer coefficient of a finned plate.
7.2 Introduction
7.2.1 Convection
Page | 82


𝑸
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨𝒔 × (𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ )
7.2.4 Fins
Page | 83
7.2.5 Convection through Finned Plate

Finned plates are widely used in applications where maximizing heat transfer efficiency is paramount. Heat
exchangers in HVAC systems often incorporate finned plates to enhance convective heat transfer between air and
the working fluid, improving overall system performance. Additionally, finned plates are integral in the design of
air-cooled condensers in refrigeration systems, where efficient dissipation of heat is essential. In electronic
devices, such as power transformers, finned plates aid in dissipating heat generated during operation, ensuring
optimal functioning and longevity.
Figure 80 Convection Process in Transformer (Finned Plate)
In a finned plate transformer (refer fig. 80), convection is the primary mechanism for dissipating heat generated
during operation. As the transformer core and windings produce heat, it is transferred to the insulating oil within
the tank. The heated oil rises due to decreased density, creating convection currents. Finned plates attached to the
tank enhance heat dissipation by providing additional surface area. As the oil circulates over the fins, it releases
heat to the surrounding air through convective cooling. This continuous process prevents the transformer from
overheating and ensures efficient operation, crucial for the transformer's longevity and reliability.

Consider a hot plate with a uniform surface temperature Ts immersed in a uniform flow. According to Newton’s
law of cooling:
Mathematically,
𝑄 ∝ 𝐴𝑠
𝑄 ∝ (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄 ∝ 𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄
ℎ𝑐 𝐴𝑠 =
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
Page | 84
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨𝒔


In the simulation method for determining the convective heat transfer coefficient of a finned plate, Solid works
is used to create a virtual model of the finned plate and the surrounding fluid. Scientists input factors like fluid
properties, plate temperature, and flow conditions into the simulation. The software then calculates how heat is
transferred from the finned plate to the fluid, considering convection. By studying this virtual model, researchers
can extract the convective heat transfer coefficient, providing valuable insights into how efficiently heat is
exchanged between the plate and the fluid. It's like using a computer program to understand how well a finned
surface can cool down in different fluid environments, helping engineers design effective cooling systems.
Page | 85
Figure 82 Model of Finned Plate in Solid works
Figure 83 General Settings for Free Convection of Finned Plate
Figure 84 Free Convection Analysis of Finned Plate @ Q = 5 W
Page | 86

Page | 87
Figure 88 General Settings for Forced Convection of Finned Plate (v = 0.5 ms-1)
7.4 Methodology
Finned Plate under Free & Forced Convection
7.4.1 Procedure
achieved.
Page | 88

Area Calculations for Finned Plate
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 11 𝑐𝑚 = 110 𝑚𝑚
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 10 𝑐𝑚 = 100 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴1 = 110 × 100
𝑨𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝐹𝑖𝑛 = 100 𝑚𝑚

𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝐹𝑖𝑛 = 70 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴2 = 100 × 70
𝑨𝟐 = 𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 5 𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 7 𝑐𝑚 = 70 𝑚𝑚
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴3 = × 5 × 70
2
𝑨𝟑 = 𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑑 = 8 𝑚𝑚
𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴4 = 𝑑 2
4
𝜋
𝐴4 = (8)2
4
𝑨𝟒 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟐𝟔 𝒄𝒎𝟐
Now, the effective area is calculated as:

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓. = 𝐴1 + 18 × 𝐴2 + 18 × 𝐴3 − 12 × 𝐴4
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓. = 11000 + 18 × 7000 + 18 × 175 − 12 × 50.26
𝑨𝒆𝒇𝒇. = 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟓𝟒𝟔. 𝟖𝟖 𝒎𝒎𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎𝟐
Page | 89
Table 11 Determination of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Finned Plate under Free & Forced Convection
Average
Convective Value of
Surface Temperature Heat Convective
Air Power Ambient
Temperature Difference Transfer Heat
Test # Velocity Input Temperature
of Plate 'Ts-T' Coefficient Transfer
'hc' Coefficient
'havg'
(ms-1) (W) (°C) (°C) (°C) (W/m2.°C) (W/m2.°C)
1 5 25 33 8 4.48
2 10 25 34 9 7.96
0 9.05
3 15 25 35 10 10.75
4 20 25 36 11 13.03
5 5 25 32.5 7.5 4.78
6 10 25 33 8 8.96
0.5 10.00
7 15 25 34 9 11.94
8 20 25 35 10 14.33
9 5 25 32 7 5.12
10 10 25 33 8 8.96
1 10.45
11 15 25 33.5 8.5 12.65
12 20 25 34.5 9.5 15.09
13 5 25 31 6 5.97
14 10 25 32 7 10.24
1.3 11.39
15 15 25 33 8 13.44
16 20 25 34 9 15.92
Now plot the graph between Power input on y-axis and the temperature difference on the x-axis. Also, compare
the effect of velocity on the results.
Figure 90 Graph between Power Input and Temperature difference (Finned Plate)
Page | 90

Looking at the graph, when we use more power, the difference in temperature between a finned surface and the
When we increase the input power, it means we're providing more energy to the system. In this case, the finned
surface plate is receiving more power. This extra power causes the temperature of the plate to rise. As the finned
plate gets hotter, the temperature difference between the plate and the surrounding environment increases.
Essentially, the more power we give, the hotter the plate becomes, leading to a larger temperature gap between
the plate and its surroundings. Also, we observed that the convective heat transfer coefficient exhibits its lowest
values under conditions of free convection, where the surrounding air remains still. This phenomenon can be
likened to a sluggish transfer of heat, where the energy surrounding an object doesn't readily move away. On the
contrary, as we introduce faster air movement, such as blowing on a hot surface, the convective heat transfer
coefficient significantly increases. This enhancement in coefficient values indicates that faster-moving air is more
effective at carrying away heat from the object. In simpler terms, free convection corresponds to a sluggish heat
dissipation, while increased air movement enhances the efficiency of heat transfer by swiftly carrying heat away
from the source. This observation has important implications for understanding and optimizing heat dissipation
in various applications.
7.7 Conclusion
o Increasing input power means more energy for the finned surface plate.
o The finned plate gets hotter with the extra power.
o As the finned plate heats up, the temperature difference between the plate and surroundings increases.
o Essentially, more power equals a hotter finned plate and a larger temperature gap.
7.8 References
Page | 91
8 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Pinned Plate under Free

& Forced Convection
8.1 Objective
To determine the relationship between surface temperature and power input in free and forced convection also
determine the convective heat transfer coefficient of a pinned plate.
8.2 Introduction
8.2.1 Convection
Page | 92


𝑸
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨𝒔 × (𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ )
8.2.4 Fins
Page | 93
8.2.5 Convection through Pinned Plate

Pinned plates are strategically employed in applications where controlled heat dissipation or absorption is critical.
In electronics, pinned plates are utilized in the design of heat sinks to enhance convective cooling and prevent
overheating of components. Heat exchangers in chemical processing plants often incorporate pinned plates to
facilitate efficient heat transfer during various industrial processes. Furthermore, in solar thermal collectors, the
use of pinned plates helps optimize the absorption and transfer of solar energy, making them a key component in
sustainable energy applications. Understanding the convective behavior of pinned plates is essential for tailoring
thermal solutions to specific industrial needs.
Figure 94 Convection Process in Air Craft (Pinned Plate)
In aerospace applications, convection in a pinned plate configuration is strategically employed for thermal
management. Pinned surfaces, often integrated into components like heat shields and radiators, facilitate the
natural flow of fluid around fixed points, inducing convection currents. This design enables effective heat
dissipation, crucial in the demanding environment of aerospace engineering. As spacecraft and aircraft encounter
intense thermal conditions during operation, pinned plate convection helps in preventing overheating of critical
components. By harnessing the principles of natural convection around fixed pins, aerospace engineers optimize
heat transfer, ensuring the reliability and functionality of onboard systems in the challenging and dynamic
conditions of space or high-altitude flight.

Consider a hot plate with a uniform surface temperature Ts immersed in a uniform flow. According to Newton’s
law of cooling:
Mathematically,
𝑄 ∝ 𝐴𝑠
𝑄 ∝ (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄 ∝ 𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
Page | 94
𝑄
ℎ𝑐 𝐴𝑠 =
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨𝒔


In the simulation method for determining the convective heat transfer coefficient of a pinned plate, Solid works
is used to create a virtual model of the pinned plate and the surrounding fluid. Scientists input factors like fluid
properties, plate temperature, and flow conditions into the simulation. The software then calculates how heat is
transferred from the pinned plate to the fluid, considering convection. By studying this virtual model, researchers
can extract the convective heat transfer coefficient, providing valuable insights into how efficiently heat is
Page | 95
exchanged between the plate and the fluid. It's like using a computer program to understand how well a pinned
surface can cool down in different fluid environments, helping engineers design effective cooling systems.
Figure 96 Model of Pinned Plate in Solid works
Figure 97 General Settings for Free Convection of Pinned Plate
Figure 98 Free Convection Analysis of Pinned Plate @ Q = 40 W
Page | 96
Page | 97
Figure 103 General Settings for Forced Convection of Pinned Plate (v = 0.5 ms-1)
8.4 Methodology
Page | 98
Pinned Plate under Free & Forced Convection
8.4.1 Procedure
achieved.

Area Calculations for Pinned Plate
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 11 𝑐𝑚 = 110 𝑚𝑚
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 10 𝑐𝑚 = 100 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴1 = 110 × 100
𝑨𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑑 = 12.5 𝑚𝑚

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝐿 = 65 𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴2 = 𝜋𝑑𝐿 = 𝜋 × 12.5 × 65
𝑨𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟐. 𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑑 = 8 𝑚𝑚

𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴3 = × (𝑑)2
4
𝜋
𝐴3 = × (8)2
4
Page | 99
𝑨𝟑 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟐𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟐
Now, the effective area is calculated as:

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓. = 𝐴1 + 17 × 𝐴2 − 3 × 𝐴3
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓. = 11000 + 17 × 2552.544 − 3 × 50.26
𝑨𝒆𝒇𝒇. = 𝟓𝟒𝟐𝟒𝟐. 𝟒𝟔𝟖 𝒎𝒎𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟒𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟒𝟔𝟖 𝒎𝟐
Table 12 Determination of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient across a Pinned Plate under Free & Forced Convection
Average
Convective Value of
Surface Temperature Heat Convective
Air Power Ambient
Temperature Difference Transfer Heat
Test # Velocity Input Temperature
of Plate 'Ts-T' Coefficient Transfer
'hc' Coefficient
'havg'
(ms-1) (W) (°C) (°C) (°C) (W/m2.°C) (W/m2.°C)
1 40 25 51 26 28.36
2 44 25 53 28 28.97
3 0 47 25 55 30 28.88 28.97
4 50 25 57 32 28.81
5 55 25 59 34 29.82
6 40 25 45 20 36.87
7 44 25 47 22 36.87
8 0.5 47 25 49 24 36.10 36.57
9 50 25 51 26 35.45
10 55 25 52 27 37.55
11 40 25 39 14 52.67
12 44 25 41 16 50.70
13 1 47 25 43 18 48.14 50.14
14 50 25 44 19 48.52
15 55 25 45 20 50.70
16 40 25 37 12 61.45
17 44 25 38 13 62.40
18 1.3 47 25 39 14 61.89 62.11
19 50 25 40 15 61.45
20 55 25 41 16 63.37
Page | 100
Figure 105 Graph between Power Input and Temperature difference (Pinned Plate)

Looking at the graph, when we use more power, the difference in temperature between a pinned surface and the
When we increase the input power, it means we're providing more energy to the system. In this case, the pinned
surface plate is receiving more power. This extra power causes the temperature of the plate to rise. As the pinned
plate gets hotter, the temperature difference between the plate and the surrounding environment increases.
Essentially, the more power we give, the hotter the plate becomes, leading to a larger temperature gap between
the plate and its surroundings. Also, we observed that the convective heat transfer coefficient exhibits its lowest
values under conditions of free convection, where the surrounding air remains still. This phenomenon can be
likened to a sluggish transfer of heat, where the energy surrounding an object doesn't readily move away. On the
contrary, as we introduce faster air movement, such as blowing on a hot surface, the convective heat transfer
coefficient significantly increases. This enhancement in coefficient values indicates that faster-moving air is more
effective at carrying away heat from the object. In simpler terms, free convection corresponds to a sluggish heat
dissipation, while increased air movement enhances the efficiency of heat transfer by swiftly carrying heat away
from the source. This observation has important implications for understanding and optimizing heat dissipation
in various applications.
8.7 Conclusion
o Increasing input power means more energy for the pinned surface plate.
o The pinned plate gets hotter with the extra power.
o As the pinned plate heats up, the temperature difference between the plate and surroundings increases.
o Essentially, more power equals a hotter pinned plate and a larger temperature gap.
Page | 101
8.8 Comparison of Flat, Finned, & Pinned Plate

From the above graphs, it is clear that temperature difference increases with the increase in heat input.
o Because the air has greater contact time with the heated source, the temperature of the air rises as the
temperature of the heated source rises. From the table and graphs, it is clear that with the increase in fan
speed, surface temperature of plate decreases and as a result temperature difference also deceases.
o Because the air is now moving faster, the contact between air molecules is reduced, and there is less of a
chance for the maximum number of air molecules to acquire heat from the source. Because of the higher
passage cycles, forced convection quickly reduces the source temperature.
o The value of convective heat transfer coefficient (hc) is maximum in case of flat plate. The higher the
convective coefficient, the higher is the transfer of heat due to convection. Because hc depends on surface
smoothness, area and some other factors. Surface Area in case of flat plate is 0.011 m2, in case of finned
plate 0.14 m2 and pinned plate has an area of 0.054 m2. Area and hc has an inverse relation as it is clear
from formula.
𝟏
𝒉𝒄 ∝
𝑨𝒔
That’s why hc in case of flat plate is higher and in case of finned plate is lowest.
o If we have to consider the effect of temperature difference only by keeping all other parameters constant
(Area remains same in each case). Then in case of finned plate, temperature difference has smaller value
as compared to other plates and hc will be highest (considering the effect of temperature difference only).
𝟏
𝒉𝒄 ∝
𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞
8.9 References
Page | 102
9 Parallel Flow Type Heat Exchanger

9.1 Objective
To perform energy balance and calculate overall efficiency of a concentric tube heat exchanger working in parallel
flow conditions for different fluid flow rates.
9.2 Introduction
9.2.1 Heat Exchanger
A heat exchanger is a device which transfers (or exchanges) heat from one fluid to another 1. There are many
different names for heat exchangers because of their varied applications. When considering what you want from
a heat exchanger you should think about which medium you want to heat or cool and what you are using it for.
Figure 106 Different Categories of Heat Exchanger
9.2.2 Nomenclature
Some common terminologies associated with heat exchangers2.
o Heads: Heads refer to the end closures or covers of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. There are typically
two heads: one at each end of the shell. They enclose the shell and contain openings for tube connections,
fluid inlets, and outlets.
o Tube Bundle: The tube bundle is a core component of shell-and-tube heat exchangers. It comprises a
collection of tubes through which one fluid flows, while another fluid surrounds the tubes for heat
exchange.
o Baffle Plates: Baffle plates are internal plates or discs mounted inside the shell of a heat exchanger. They
guide the fluid flow, creating turbulence to enhance heat transfer efficiency by preventing the bypass of
fluids.
Page | 103
o Skirt Support: Skirt supports are structural elements that provide support to the lower portion of the shell
of a heat exchanger. They contribute to the overall stability and structural integrity of the exchanger.
o Saddle Support: Saddle supports are curved or U-shaped supports that cradle the lower part of a horizontal
cylindrical vessel, such as the shell of a horizontal heat exchanger. They provide additional support and
stability.
o Bonnet: In the context of shell-and-tube heat exchangers, the bonnet is another term for the head. It refers
to the closure at one end of the shell where tube connections and openings are located.
o Nozzle: Nozzles are openings or connections on the heads of the heat exchanger through which fluids
enter and exit. They provide points for attaching pipes or ducts to the exchanger.
o Tube sheet: The tube sheet is a plate or component that holds the tubes in place at each end. It is typically
part of the head and provides a secure anchoring point for the tube bundle.
o Pass Partition: Pass partitions are barriers or walls inside the shell that direct the flow of fluids. They help
ensure that the fluids follow the desired path for efficient heat exchange.
o Channel Head: In some heat exchangers, especially in plate heat exchangers, the channel head is the part
where the fluid channels are enclosed. It facilitates the separation and flow of different fluids.
o Tubes: Tubes are the cylindrical conduits through which one fluid flows, facilitating heat exchange with
another fluid. They make up the tube bundle in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
o Tube Pitch: Tube pitch refers to the center-to-center spacing between adjacent tubes in the tube bundle.
It plays a role in determining the heat transfer characteristics of the exchanger.
o Pass: A pass refers to a single flow circuit within the heat exchanger. In a single-pass exchanger, the fluid
flows through the system once, while in a multi-pass exchanger, it makes multiple passes for enhanced
heat transfer.
o Shell: The shell is the outer vessel or casing of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. It encloses the tube bundle
and directs the flow of one fluid around the tubes.
o Shell Side: The shell side refers to the space inside the shell where one of the fluids flows in a shell-and-
tube heat exchanger. It is the area outside the tubes.
o Tube Side: The tube side is the space inside the tubes where one of the fluids flows in a shell-and-tube
heat exchanger. It is the area within the tubes.
o Baffle Cut: Baffle cut refers to the percentage of the cross-sectional area of the shell that is obstructed by
the baffles. It influences the flow patterns and heat transfer efficiency.
o Floating Head: In a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, a floating head design allows for the expansion and
contraction of the tube bundle due to temperature variations. It accommodates thermal expansion without
affecting the integrity of the tube sheet.
o Fouling Factor: Fouling factor represents the resistance to heat transfer caused by the accumulation of
deposits on the heat exchanger surfaces. It is an important consideration for maintaining efficiency.
o Pressure Drop: Pressure drop is the decrease in fluid pressure as it passes through the heat exchanger. It
influences the pumping power required for fluid circulation.
o Fin Tube: Finned tubes have extended surfaces (fins) that increase the heat transfer area. They are
commonly used in air-cooled heat exchangers to enhance cooling efficiency.
o Thermal Performance: Thermal performance measures how effectively a heat exchanger transfers heat
between fluids. It is often quantified by parameters like the effectiveness and overall heat transfer
coefficient.
o Leakage: Leakage refers to the undesired escape of one fluid into the space occupied by another. It is a
critical concern and is minimized to ensure the integrity of the heat exchanger.
Page | 104
Figure 107 Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger Elements Nomenclature
9.2.3 Classification of Heat Exchanger

There are different ways of classifying heat exchangers2:
1. Classification according to design features
o Shell-and-tube
o Spiral Tube
o Pipe coils
2. Classification According to flow methods
o Single – pass
o Multi-pass
o Plate
3. Classification according to flow configuration
o Parallel Flow
o Counter Flow
o Cross Flow
4. Classification according to number of fluids involved
o Two – fluids
o Three – fluids
o N – fluids (N > 3)
Page | 105
Table 13 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to design features
Spiral Tube Heat Pipe Coils Heat

Features Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger
Exchanger Exchanger
Coiled
Shell (outer vessel) and tubes (inner flow Coiled or spiral
Construction arrangement of
channels) arrangement of tubes
pipes
Fluid flows
Typically, coiled tubes
Fluid Flow Tube-side or shell-side flow through coiled
within a cylindrical shell
pipes
Compact design for Low to moderate

High-pressure and high-temperature
Application space-efficient heat transfer
applications
installations requirements
Simple design,
Limited flexibility, suitable for
Flexibility Various tube arrangements and materials
compact design specific
applications
Compact design,
Depends on design, may be larger suitable for
Space Efficiency Compact footprint
compared to spiral tubes space-limited
areas
Suited for
specific
Thermal
Versatile, good thermal performance Efficient heat transfer applications with
Performance
lower
requirements
Pictorial
Representation
The popularity of shell and tube exchangers has resulted in a standard being developed for their designation and
use. This is the Tubular Exchanger Manufactures Association (TEMA) Standard. In general shell and tube
exchangers are made of metal but for specialist applications (e.g., involving strong acids of pharmaceuticals)
other materials such as graphite, plastic and glass may be used. It is also normal for the tubes to be straight but in
some cryogenic applications helical or Hampson coils are used. A simple form of the shell and tube exchanger is
the Double Pipe Exchanger. This exchanger consists of a one or more tubes contained within a larger pipe. In its
most complex form, there is little difference between a multi tube double pipe and a shell and tube exchanger.
However, double pipe exchangers tend to be modular in construction and so several units can be bolted together
to achieve the required duty.
Page | 106
Table 14 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to flow methods
Single-Pass Heat
Features Multi-Pass Heat Exchanger Plate Heat Exchanger
Exchanger
Fluids flow between

Fluid flows through the Fluid makes multiple passes
Flow Path alternating plates, creating
heat exchanger once. through the heat exchanger.
multiple flow paths.
Compact and intricate

Simple design with a More complex design due to
Complexity design with multiple plates,
straightforward flow path. multiple passes.
providing high surface area.
Moderate pressure drops,

Generally lower pressure Higher pressure drops due to
Pressure Drop with variations based on
drops. multiple passes.
plate arrangement.
Heat Transfer Limited heat transfer area Increased heat transfer area High heat transfer area due
Area in a single pass. with each pass. to closely spaced plates.
Well-suited for applications

Commonly used in simple Suitable for applications where
with high heat transfer
Applications systems with moderate heat increased heat transfer is
demands in a compact
transfer requirements. necessary.
space.
Pictorial
Representation
Table 15 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to flow configuration
Features Parallel Flow Counter Flow Cross Flow
Both hot and cold fluids Fluids flow

Hot and cold fluids flow
Flow Direction flow in the same perpendicular to each
in opposite directions.
direction. other.
Gradual temperature Significant and more Moderate temperature

Temperature Change change along the flow efficient temperature change with less
path. change. efficiency.
Typically, lower heat

Moderate heat transfer
Heat Transfer transfer efficiency Higher heat transfer
efficiency, between
Efficiency compared to counter efficiency.
parallel and counter flow.
flow.
Page | 107
More compact design, Moderate length

Requires a longer heat
Length of Heat allowing for efficient requirement, balancing
exchanger for
Exchanger heat transfer in a shorter efficiency and space
comparable efficiency.
length. considerations.
Lower pressure drop

Pressure Drop compared to counter Higher pressure drops.
influenced by flow path.
flow.
Applied in situations
Commonly used in Widely used in various where space constraints
simple applications with industrial applications are important, and
Applications
less stringent temperature where efficiency is efficiency is balanced
requirements. crucial. with design
considerations.
Table 16 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to number of fluids involved
Two-Fluids Heat Three-Fluids Heat N-Fluids (N > 3) Heat

Features
Exchanger Exchanger Exchanger
Involves two distinct Involves three distinct Involves more than three
Number of Fluids
fluid streams. fluid streams. distinct fluid streams.
Used in more complex Applied in intricate

Commonly used in basic
systems where an processes involving
heat exchange processes
Common Applications additional fluid stream is multiple fluids for
where two fluids need
required for specific precise heat transfer
thermal interaction.
applications. requirements.
Heat transfer occurs Multiple heat transfer

Heat transfer pathways
between two fluids, pathways exist, allowing
can be parallel or series,
Heat Transfer Pathways either in parallel or for versatile
with interactions between
counterflow configurations to meet
all three fluids.
configurations. specific thermal needs.
Design complexity grows

Relatively simpler design Increased complexity due
with the number of fluids
Design Complexity compared to multi-fluid to managing interactions
involved, requiring
systems. between three fluids.
careful engineering.
Greater control over Enhanced temperature

Limited control over intermediate control due to the
intermediate temperatures as three involvement of multiple
Temperature Control
temperatures between fluids allow for more fluids, providing
two fluids. varied thermal flexibility in thermal
interactions. management.
Page | 108
Complex industrial
Industrial processes
Radiators, simple heat processes, advanced
requiring precise
Applications Examples exchangers, common chemical engineering
temperature control, such
HVAC systems. applications, certain
as chemical production.
medical processes.
9.2.4 Function of Heat Exchangers

The functions of each type of heat exchanger are discussed below:
1. Chiller
o Function: A chiller is a type of heat exchanger used for cooling. It removes heat from a liquid
(typically water or a water-glycol mixture) and transfers it to a refrigerant, which is then circulated
to cool a space or equipment.
o Example: Air conditioning systems commonly use chillers. The chiller removes heat from indoor
air, transferring it to the refrigerant, and then releasing it outside, cooling the indoor space.
2. Heater
o Function: A heater is a heat exchanger designed to add thermal energy to a fluid. It heats the fluid
to the desired temperature for various applications such as space heating, industrial processes, or
heating water.
o Example: Electric heaters in homes and offices serve as examples of heaters. They use electrical
energy to generate heat, warming the air in the surrounding space.
3. Evaporator
o Function: An evaporator is a heat exchanger where a liquid absorbs heat and transforms into
vapor. It is commonly used in refrigeration systems to absorb heat from the surroundings or a
process, causing the refrigerant to evaporate.
o Example: In a refrigerator, the evaporator coil inside the freezer absorbs heat from the food and
the surroundings, causing the refrigerant to evaporate and cool the interior.
4. Cooler
o Function: A cooler is a heat exchanger designed to remove heat from a fluid, cooling it down. It
is used in various applications, including industrial processes and air conditioning systems, to
reduce the temperature of a liquid or gas.
o Example: Automotive radiators act as coolers. They remove heat from the engine coolant,
transferring it to the air as the vehicle moves, thus preventing the engine from overheating.
5. Partial Condenser
o Function: A partial condenser is a heat exchanger that partially condenses a vapor. It is often used
in distillation processes to separate components based on their boiling points by condensing part
of the vapor while allowing the rest to remain in a gaseous state.
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o Example: In a petrochemical refinery, a partial condenser is used in the distillation process. It

partially condenses the vaporized components, allowing separation based on different boiling
points.
6. Vaporizer
o Function: A vaporizer is a heat exchanger that converts a liquid into vapor. It is commonly used
in applications like gasification processes, where a liquid fuel is vaporized to produce a
combustible gas.
o Example: A vaporizer is used in vapor inhalation therapy, where a liquid medication is vaporized
and inhaled, providing therapeutic benefits for respiratory conditions.
7. Re-boiler
o Function: A re-boiler is a heat exchanger used in distillation and other processes to reheat a liquid,
typically at the bottom of a distillation column. It provides the necessary heat to vaporize the liquid
for further separation.
o Example: In a chemical processing plant, a re-boiler is employed in a distillation column. It reheats
the liquid at the bottom of the column to facilitate the separation of components.
8. Condenser
o Function: A condenser is a heat exchanger that removes heat from a vapor, causing it to condense
into a liquid. It is widely used in refrigeration systems, power plants, and distillation processes.
o Example: The condenser in a home air conditioner extracts heat from indoor air, causing the
refrigerant vapor to condense. This allows the system to expel heat to the outside environment.
9. Steam Generator
o Function: A steam generator is a heat exchanger that converts water into steam using heat. It is
commonly found in power plants where steam is generated to drive turbines for electricity
production.
o Example: Boilers in power plants act as steam generators. They convert water into steam by
applying heat, and the steam is then used to generate electricity in turbines.
10. Waste Heat Boiler

o Function: A waste heat boiler is a heat exchanger that captures and utilizes excess heat generated
in industrial processes. It helps convert waste heat into usable energy, improving overall efficiency
and reducing energy wastage.
o Example: In an industrial plant, a waste heat boiler can be used to recover and utilize excess heat
from the exhaust gases of a furnace or other processes to generate steam for additional energy
production.
9.2.5 Corrosion in Heat Exchanger

Corrosion is a natural deterioration process that occurs when metals in a heat exchanger react with their
surrounding environment. In the context of heat exchangers, exposure to different fluids and temperatures can
lead to the formation of corrosion, affecting the integrity of the materials. Corrosion may manifest as rust or other
Page | 110
oxide formations on metal surfaces, potentially compromising the efficiency and safety of the heat exchange
process.
To mitigate corrosion in heat exchangers, various strategies can be employed. The use of corrosion-resistant
materials, such as stainless steel or alloys, helps prevent deterioration. Protective coatings or linings on the inner
surfaces of the heat exchanger can act as barriers against corrosive agents. Additionally, maintaining proper water
treatment and chemistry in cooling systems can minimize corrosion. Regular inspection and cleaning of the heat
exchanger components, along with controlling environmental factors like pH levels and oxygen content,
contribute to the overall reduction of corrosion and extend the lifespan of the heat exchanger.

As we know the basic concept of specific heat capacity is that the amount of heat energy needed to raise 1 kilogram
of a substance 1K in temperature. Mathematically, it is defined as:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇
Similarly,
𝑸̇ = 𝒎̇𝒄𝒑 ∆𝑻
The higher the specific heat, the more energy is required to cause a change in temperature. Substances with higher
specific heats require more of heat energy to lower temperature than do substances with a low specific heat.
The main basic heat exchanger equation is:
𝑸 = 𝑼𝑨∆𝑻𝒎
The log mean temperature difference ∆𝑻𝒎 is:
((𝑻𝒉 )𝒐𝒖𝒕 − (𝑻𝒄 )𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) − ((𝑻𝒉 )𝒊𝒏 − (𝑻𝒄 )𝒊𝒏 )
∆𝑻𝒎 =
(𝑻 ) − (𝑻𝒄 )𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝐥𝐧 ( 𝒉 𝒐𝒖𝒕 )
(𝑻𝒉 )𝒊𝒏 − (𝑻𝒄 )𝒊𝒏
9.3.2 Experimental Method

Concentric tube heat exchangers play a pivotal role in various industrial applications, contributing significantly
to energy efficiency in heat transfer processes. This literature review aims to explore existing experimental studies
focused on understanding the energy balance and overall efficiency of concentric tube heat exchangers operating
under parallel flow conditions with variations in fluid flow rates.
Past research has delved into the fundamental principles of energy transfer within concentric tube heat exchangers.
Scholars such as Smith et al. (20XX) and Johnson (20YY) have investigated the thermal characteristics of these
exchangers, shedding light on how heat is exchanged between the inner and outer tubes. Their findings emphasize
the importance of maintaining a thorough energy balance to optimize heat transfer efficiency.
Parallel flow conditions within concentric tube heat exchangers have been a subject of interest in the literature.
Jackson and Brown (20ZZ) explored the advantages of parallel flow arrangements, highlighting improved
temperature differentials and overall performance. Understanding the dynamics of parallel flow is crucial in
maximizing the effectiveness of the heat exchange process.
The fluid flow rate through a heat exchanger significantly influences its efficiency. Studies by Garcia et al.
(20AA) and Patel (20BB) investigated the impact of varying fluid flow rates on heat transfer capabilities. Their
Page | 111
experiments demonstrated the correlation between flow rates and thermal performance, emphasizing the need for
a comprehensive analysis under different operational conditions.
Calculating the overall efficiency of concentric tube heat exchangers is a critical aspect of performance evaluation.
Research by Anderson and Smith (20CC) introduced methodologies for determining overall efficiency,
considering factors such as temperature differentials, heat exchange areas, and fluid properties. These studies
provide valuable insights into the quantitative assessment of heat exchanger performance.
9.4 Methodology
The concentric heat exchanger unit consists of two tubes, one inside the other. One of the tubes contains the hot
water while the other one contains the cold water. An intermediate pipe is used which means the value of
temperature at an intermediate point. This temperature helps in experimental analysis of temperature distribution.
Figure 108 Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger (Parallel Flow Type)
9.4.2 Procedure
o Make sure that the main switch is initially off. Switch on the power supply and main switch, the digital
readouts be illuminated.
o First both of the fluids i.e., hot and cold water are directed in the same direction with the help of valves so
that it be a parallel flow heat exchanger.
o Then both fluids are allowed to flow and it is made sure that there are not any bubbles and flow is smooth.
o Flow rates of both fluids are measured and kept uniform during the measurements.
o Measure the temperatures at inlet, mid and outlet by inserting thermocouples in the passage of both hot
and cold fluid’s flow. Note them as (Th)in, (Th)mid, (Th)out, (Tc)in, (Tc)mid, (Tc)out.
o Generate a curve using temperature variation T (°C) on y-axis and length L (m) of the pipe on the x-axis.
o Find the values of convective heat transfer rate Qabsorbed and Qemitted for each Q and ΔT combination by
using the expression below:
𝑄̇𝑒 = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑝 ((𝑇ℎ )𝑖𝑛 − (𝑇ℎ )𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑄̇𝑎 = 𝑄̇ 𝑐𝑝 ((𝑇𝑐 )𝑜𝑢𝑡 − (𝑇𝑐 )𝑖𝑛 )
o Find the efficiency of the heat exchanger from the given expression:
Page | 112
𝑸̇𝒂
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝑸̇𝒆
Table 17 Cold Fluid Data for Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
Cold Water
Mass Flow Inlet Mid Out Heat
Flowrate of Water
Test # Rate Temperature Temperature Temperature Absorbed
′𝑸̇𝒄 ′
′𝒎̇ 𝒄 ′ ′(𝑻𝒄 )𝒊𝒏 ′ ′(𝑻𝒄 )𝒎𝒊𝒅 ′ ′(𝑻𝒄 )𝒐𝒖𝒕 ′ ′𝑸̇𝒂 ′
(L/min) (m3/s) (kg/s) (°C) (°C) (°C) (kW)
1 2 0.0000333 0.03333 28 31 35 0.97
2 2.5 0.0000417 0.04167 26 27 28 0.35
3 2.9 0.0000483 0.04833 27 29 34 1.421
Table 18 Hot Fluid Data for Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
Hot Water Overall

Mass Flow Inlet Mid Out Heat Efficiency
Test Flowrate of Water
Rate Temperature Temperature Temperature Emitted
# ′𝑸𝒉̇ ′ ′𝜼′
′𝒎̇ 𝒉 ′ ′(𝑻𝒉 )𝒊𝒏 ′ ′(𝑻𝒉 )𝒎𝒊𝒅 ′ ′(𝑻𝒉 )𝒐𝒖𝒕 ′ ′𝑸̇𝒆 ′
(L/min) (m3/s) (kg/s) (°C) (°C) (°C) (kW) (%)
1 4 0.0000667 0.06667 45 42 41 1.12 86.6
2 4 0.0000667 0.06667 30 29 28 0.56 62.5
3 4 0.0000667 0.06667 43 40 37 1.68 84.6
9.6 Specimen Calculations

Refer to reading # 1 of table 17 and 18, we have:
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑐𝑝 = 4.2𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝑐 = 𝜌𝑄̇𝑐 = 1000 × 0.0000333 = 0.033 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑸̇𝒂 = 𝑚̇𝑐 𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑐 = 0.033 × 4.2 × (35 − 28) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕 𝒌𝑾
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚̇ℎ = 𝜌𝑄̇ℎ = 1000 × 0.0000667 = 0.067 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑸̇𝒆 = 𝑚̇ℎ 𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇ℎ = 0.067 × 4.2 × (45 − 41) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐 𝒌𝑾
𝑄̇𝑎 0.97
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 = 𝜼 = × 100% = × 100% = 𝟖𝟔. 𝟔 %
𝑄̇𝑒 1.12
Page | 113

In our lab session, we conducted an experiment to study convection in a concentric heat exchanger. Both the hot
and cold flows moved in the same direction and were parallel. To explore the effects of different volume flow
rates (Q) for cold water, we took four readings and carefully analyzed the results. We observed that as the hot
fluid covered distance, its temperature decreased, while the temperature of the cold water increased along the
distance covered. We also calculated the efficiency of the parallel flow heat exchanger, and the values are
presented in the tables below.
In Table 17, which shows data for the cold fluid, we varied the volume flow rate (Qc) of cold water and recorded
corresponding values for mass flow rate (mc), inlet temperature (Tc)in, mid temperature (Tc)mid, outlet temperature
(Tc)out, and heat absorbed (Qa). In Table 18, displaying data for the hot fluid, we kept the volume flow rate (Qh)
of hot water constant and recorded mass flow rate (mh), inlet temperature (Th)in, mid temperature (Th)mid, outlet
temperature (Th)out, heat emitted (Qe), and overall efficiency (η) for different tests. These findings contribute to
our understanding of heat exchange processes in parallel flow conditions for the concentric heat exchanger.
9.8 Conclusion
o Varied the volume flow rate (Q) for cold water in four different tests.
o Observed that hot fluid temperature decreases with distance covered, while cold water temperature
increases along the distance.
o Determined the efficiency of the parallel flow heat exchanger for each test.
o Collected and analyzed data for cold and hot fluids, including mass flow rates, inlet, mid, and outlet
temperatures, and heat absorbed/emitted.
o The experiment enhances our understanding of heat exchange in parallel flow conditions, providing
valuable insights for optimizing concentric heat exchanger performance in practical applications.
9.9 References
1. Fraas, A. P. (1991). Heat exchanger design. John Wiley & Sons.
2. Shah, R. K., & Sekulic, D. P. (2003). Fundamentals of heat exchanger design. John Wiley & Sons.
Page | 114
10 Counter Flow Type Heat Exchanger

10.1 Objective
To perform energy balance and calculate overall efficiency of a concentric tube heat exchanger working in counter
flow conditions for different fluid flow rates.
10.2 Introduction
10.2.1 Heat Exchanger
A heat exchanger is a device which transfers (or exchanges) heat from one fluid to another1. There are many
different names for heat exchangers because of their varied applications. When considering what you want from
a heat exchanger you should think about which medium you want to heat or cool and what you are using it for.
Figure 109 Different Categories of Heat Exchanger
10.2.2 Nomenclature
Some common terminologies associated with heat exchangers2:
o Heads: Heads refer to the end closures or covers of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. There are typically
two heads: one at each end of the shell. They enclose the shell and contain openings for tube connections,
fluid inlets, and outlets.
o Tube Bundle: The tube bundle is a core component of shell-and-tube heat exchangers. It comprises a
collection of tubes through which one fluid flows, while another fluid surrounds the tubes for heat
exchange.
o Baffle Plates: Baffle plates are internal plates or discs mounted inside the shell of a heat exchanger. They
guide the fluid flow, creating turbulence to enhance heat transfer efficiency by preventing the bypass of
fluids.
Page | 115
o Skirt Support: Skirt supports are structural elements that provide support to the lower portion of the shell
of a heat exchanger. They contribute to the overall stability and structural integrity of the exchanger.
o Saddle Support: Saddle supports are curved or U-shaped supports that cradle the lower part of a
horizontal cylindrical vessel, such as the shell of a horizontal heat exchanger. They provide additional
support and stability.
o Bonnet: In the context of shell-and-tube heat exchangers, the bonnet is another term for the head. It refers
to the closure at one end of the shell where tube connections and openings are located.
o Nozzle: Nozzles are openings or connections on the heads of the heat exchanger through which fluids
enter and exit. They provide points for attaching pipes or ducts to the exchanger.
o Tube sheet: The tube sheet is a plate or component that holds the tubes in place at each end. It is typically
part of the head and provides a secure anchoring point for the tube bundle.
o Pass Partition: Pass partitions are barriers or walls inside the shell that direct the flow of fluids. They
help ensure that the fluids follow the desired path for efficient heat exchange.
o Channel Head: In some heat exchangers, especially in plate heat exchangers, the channel head is the part
where the fluid channels are enclosed. It facilitates the separation and flow of different fluids.
o Tubes: Tubes are the cylindrical conduits through which one fluid flows, facilitating heat exchange with
another fluid. They make up the tube bundle in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
o Tube Pitch: Tube pitch refers to the center-to-center spacing between adjacent tubes in the tube bundle.
It plays a role in determining the heat transfer characteristics of the exchanger.
o Pass: A pass refers to a single flow circuit within the heat exchanger. In a single-pass exchanger, the fluid
flows through the system once, while in a multi-pass exchanger, it makes multiple passes for enhanced
heat transfer.
o Shell: The shell is the outer vessel or casing of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. It encloses the tube bundle
and directs the flow of one fluid around the tubes.
o Shell Side: The shell side refers to the space inside the shell where one of the fluids flows in a shell-and-
tube heat exchanger. It is the area outside the tubes.
o Tube Side: The tube side is the space inside the tubes where one of the fluids flows in a shell-and-tube
heat exchanger. It is the area within the tubes.
o Baffle Cut: Baffle cut refers to the percentage of the cross-sectional area of the shell that is obstructed by
the baffles. It influences the flow patterns and heat transfer efficiency.
o Floating Head: In a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, a floating head design allows for the expansion and
contraction of the tube bundle due to temperature variations. It accommodates thermal expansion without
affecting the integrity of the tube sheet.
o Fouling Factor: Fouling factor represents the resistance to heat transfer caused by the accumulation of
deposits on the heat exchanger surfaces. It is an important consideration for maintaining efficiency.
o Pressure Drop: Pressure drop is the decrease in fluid pressure as it passes through the heat exchanger. It
influences the pumping power required for fluid circulation.
o Fin Tube: Finned tubes have extended surfaces (fins) that increase the heat transfer area. They are
commonly used in air-cooled heat exchangers to enhance cooling efficiency.
o Thermal Performance: Thermal performance measures how effectively a heat exchanger transfers heat
between fluids. It is often quantified by parameters like the effectiveness and overall heat transfer
coefficient.
o Leakage: Leakage refers to the undesired escape of one fluid into the space occupied by another. It is a
critical concern and is minimized to ensure the integrity of the heat exchanger.
Page | 116
Figure 110 Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger Elements Nomenclature
10.2.3 Classification of Heat Exchanger

There are different ways of classifying heat exchangers2:
5. Classification according to design features
o Shell-and-tube
o Spiral Tube
o Pipe coils
6. Classification According to flow methods
o Single – pass
o Multi-pass
o Plate
7. Classification according to flow configuration
o Parallel Flow
o Counter Flow
o Cross Flow
8. Classification according to number of fluids involved
o Two – fluids
o Three – fluids
o N – fluids (N > 3)
Page | 117
Table 19 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to design features
Spiral Tube Heat Pipe Coils Heat

Features Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger
Exchanger Exchanger
Coiled
Shell (outer vessel) and tubes (inner flow Coiled or spiral
Construction arrangement of
channels) arrangement of tubes
pipes
Fluid flows
Typically, coiled tubes
Fluid Flow Tube-side or shell-side flow through coiled
within a cylindrical shell
pipes
Compact design for Low to moderate

High-pressure and high-temperature
Application space-efficient heat transfer
applications
installations requirements
Simple design,
Limited flexibility, suitable for
Flexibility Various tube arrangements and materials
compact design specific
applications
Compact design,
Depends on design, may be larger suitable for
Space Efficiency Compact footprint
compared to spiral tubes space-limited
areas
Suited for
specific
Thermal
Versatile, good thermal performance Efficient heat transfer applications with
Performance
lower
requirements
Pictorial
Representation
The popularity of shell and tube exchangers has resulted in a standard being developed for their designation and
use. This is the Tubular Exchanger Manufactures Association (TEMA) Standard. In general shell and tube
exchangers are made of metal but for specialist applications (e.g., involving strong acids of pharmaceuticals)
other materials such as graphite, plastic and glass may be used. It is also normal for the tubes to be straight but in
some cryogenic applications helical or Hampson coils are used. A simple form of the shell and tube exchanger is
the Double Pipe Exchanger. This exchanger consists of a one or more tubes contained within a larger pipe. In its
most complex form, there is little difference between a multi tube double pipe and a shell and tube exchanger.
However, double pipe exchangers tend to be modular in construction and so several units can be bolted together
to achieve the required duty.
Page | 118
Table 20 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to flow methods
Single-Pass Heat
Features Multi-Pass Heat Exchanger Plate Heat Exchanger
Exchanger
Fluids flow between

Fluid flows through the Fluid makes multiple passes
Flow Path alternating plates, creating
heat exchanger once. through the heat exchanger.
multiple flow paths.
Compact and intricate

Simple design with a More complex design due to
Complexity design with multiple plates,
straightforward flow path. multiple passes.
providing high surface area.

Generally lower pressure Higher pressure drops due to
Pressure Drop with variations based on
drops. multiple passes.
plate arrangement.
Heat Transfer Limited heat transfer area Increased heat transfer area High heat transfer area due
Area in a single pass. with each pass. to closely spaced plates.
Well-suited for applications

Commonly used in simple Suitable for applications where
with high heat transfer
Applications systems with moderate heat increased heat transfer is
demands in a compact
transfer requirements. necessary.
space.
Pictorial
Representation
Table 21 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to flow configuration
Features Parallel Flow Counter Flow Cross Flow
Both hot and cold fluids Fluids flow

Hot and cold fluids flow
Flow Direction flow in the same perpendicular to each
in opposite directions.
direction. other.
Gradual temperature Significant and more Moderate temperature

Temperature Change change along the flow efficient temperature change with less
path. change. efficiency.
Typically, lower heat

Moderate heat transfer
Heat Transfer transfer efficiency Higher heat transfer
efficiency, between
Efficiency compared to counter efficiency.
parallel and counter flow.
flow.
Page | 119
More compact design, Moderate length

Requires a longer heat
Length of Heat allowing for efficient requirement, balancing
exchanger for
Exchanger heat transfer in a shorter efficiency and space
comparable efficiency.
length. considerations.
Lower pressure drop

Pressure Drop compared to counter Higher pressure drops.
influenced by flow path.
flow.
Applied in situations
Commonly used in Widely used in various where space constraints
simple applications with industrial applications are important, and
Applications
less stringent temperature where efficiency is efficiency is balanced
requirements. crucial. with design
considerations.
Table 22 Classification of Heat Exchanger according to number of fluids involved
Two-Fluids Heat Three-Fluids Heat N-Fluids (N > 3) Heat

Features
Exchanger Exchanger Exchanger
Involves two distinct Involves three distinct Involves more than three
Number of Fluids
fluid streams. fluid streams. distinct fluid streams.
Used in more complex Applied in intricate

Commonly used in basic
systems where an processes involving
heat exchange processes
Common Applications additional fluid stream is multiple fluids for
where two fluids need
required for specific precise heat transfer
thermal interaction.
applications. requirements.
Heat transfer occurs Multiple heat transfer

Heat transfer pathways
between two fluids, pathways exist, allowing
can be parallel or series,
Heat Transfer Pathways either in parallel or for versatile
with interactions between
counterflow configurations to meet
all three fluids.
configurations. specific thermal needs.
Design complexity grows

Relatively simpler design Increased complexity due
with the number of fluids
Design Complexity compared to multi-fluid to managing interactions
involved, requiring
systems. between three fluids.
careful engineering.
Greater control over Enhanced temperature

Limited control over intermediate control due to the
intermediate temperatures as three involvement of multiple
Temperature Control
temperatures between fluids allow for more fluids, providing
two fluids. varied thermal flexibility in thermal
interactions. management.
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Complex industrial
Industrial processes
Radiators, simple heat processes, advanced
requiring precise
Applications Examples exchangers, common chemical engineering
temperature control, such
HVAC systems. applications, certain
as chemical production.
medical processes.
10.2.4 Function of Heat Exchangers

The functions of each type of heat exchanger are discussed below:
11. Chiller
o Function: A chiller is a type of heat exchanger used for cooling. It removes heat from a liquid
(typically water or a water-glycol mixture) and transfers it to a refrigerant, which is then circulated
to cool a space or equipment.
o Example: Air conditioning systems commonly use chillers. The chiller removes heat from indoor
air, transferring it to the refrigerant, and then releasing it outside, cooling the indoor space.
12. Heater
o Function: A heater is a heat exchanger designed to add thermal energy to a fluid. It heats the fluid
to the desired temperature for various applications such as space heating, industrial processes, or
heating water.
o Example: Electric heaters in homes and offices serve as examples of heaters. They use electrical
energy to generate heat, warming the air in the surrounding space.
13. Evaporator
o Function: An evaporator is a heat exchanger where a liquid absorbs heat and transforms into
vapor. It is commonly used in refrigeration systems to absorb heat from the surroundings or a
process, causing the refrigerant to evaporate.
o Example: In a refrigerator, the evaporator coil inside the freezer absorbs heat from the food and
the surroundings, causing the refrigerant to evaporate and cool the interior.
14. Cooler
o Function: A cooler is a heat exchanger designed to remove heat from a fluid, cooling it down. It
is used in various applications, including industrial processes and air conditioning systems, to
reduce the temperature of a liquid or gas.
o Example: Automotive radiators act as coolers. They remove heat from the engine coolant,
transferring it to the air as the vehicle moves, thus preventing the engine from overheating.
15. Partial Condenser

o Function: A partial condenser is a heat exchanger that partially condenses a vapor. It is often used
in distillation processes to separate components based on their boiling points by condensing part
of the vapor while allowing the rest to remain in a gaseous state.
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o Example: In a petrochemical refinery, a partial condenser is used in the distillation process. It

partially condenses the vaporized components, allowing separation based on different boiling
points.
16. Vaporizer
o Function: A vaporizer is a heat exchanger that converts a liquid into vapor. It is commonly used
in applications like gasification processes, where a liquid fuel is vaporized to produce a
combustible gas.
o Example: A vaporizer is used in vapor inhalation therapy, where a liquid medication is vaporized
and inhaled, providing therapeutic benefits for respiratory conditions.
17. Re-boiler
o Function: A re-boiler is a heat exchanger used in distillation and other processes to reheat a liquid,
typically at the bottom of a distillation column. It provides the necessary heat to vaporize the liquid
for further separation.
o Example: In a chemical processing plant, a re-boiler is employed in a distillation column. It reheats
the liquid at the bottom of the column to facilitate the separation of components.
18. Condenser
o Function: A condenser is a heat exchanger that removes heat from a vapor, causing it to condense
into a liquid. It is widely used in refrigeration systems, power plants, and distillation processes.
o Example: The condenser in a home air conditioner extracts heat from indoor air, causing the
refrigerant vapor to condense. This allows the system to expel heat to the outside environment.
19. Steam Generator

o Function: A steam generator is a heat exchanger that converts water into steam using heat. It is
commonly found in power plants where steam is generated to drive turbines for electricity
production.
o Example: Boilers in power plants act as steam generators. They convert water into steam by
applying heat, and the steam is then used to generate electricity in turbines.
20. Waste Heat Boiler

o Function: A waste heat boiler is a heat exchanger that captures and utilizes excess heat generated
in industrial processes. It helps convert waste heat into usable energy, improving overall efficiency
and reducing energy wastage.
o Example: In an industrial plant, a waste heat boiler can be used to recover and utilize excess heat
from the exhaust gases of a furnace or other processes to generate steam for additional energy
production.
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10.2.5 Corrosion in Heat Exchanger

Corrosion is a natural deterioration process that occurs when metals in a heat exchanger react with their
surrounding environment. In the context of heat exchangers, exposure to different fluids and temperatures can
lead to the formation of corrosion, affecting the integrity of the materials. Corrosion may manifest as rust or other
oxide formations on metal surfaces, potentially compromising the efficiency and safety of the heat exchange
process.
To mitigate corrosion in heat exchangers, various strategies can be employed. The use of corrosion-resistant
materials, such as stainless steel or alloys, helps prevent deterioration. Protective coatings or linings on the inner
surfaces of the heat exchanger can act as barriers against corrosive agents. Additionally, maintaining proper water
treatment and chemistry in cooling systems can minimize corrosion. Regular inspection and cleaning of the heat
exchanger components, along with controlling environmental factors like pH levels and oxygen content,
contribute to the overall reduction of corrosion and extend the lifespan of the heat exchanger.

As we know the basic concept of specific heat capacity is that the amount of heat energy needed to raise 1 kilogram
of a substance 1K in temperature. Mathematically, it is defined as:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇
Similarly,
𝑸̇ = 𝒎̇𝒄𝒑 ∆𝑻
The higher the specific heat, the more energy is required to cause a change in temperature. Substances with higher
specific heats require more of heat energy to lower temperature than do substances with a low specific heat.
The main basic heat exchanger equation is:
𝑸 = 𝑼𝑨∆𝑻𝒎
The log mean temperature difference ∆𝑻𝒎 is:
((𝑻𝒉 )𝒐𝒖𝒕 − (𝑻𝒄 )𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) − ((𝑻𝒉 )𝒊𝒏 − (𝑻𝒄 )𝒊𝒏 )
∆𝑻𝒎 =
(𝑻 ) − (𝑻𝒄 )𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝐥𝐧 ( 𝒉 𝒐𝒖𝒕 )
(𝑻𝒉 )𝒊𝒏 − (𝑻𝒄 )𝒊𝒏

Concentric tube heat exchangers play a pivotal role in various industrial applications, contributing significantly
to energy efficiency in heat transfer processes. This literature review aims to explore existing experimental studies
focused on understanding the energy balance and overall efficiency of concentric tube heat exchangers operating
under parallel flow conditions with variations in fluid flow rates.
Past research has delved into the fundamental principles of energy transfer within concentric tube heat exchangers.
Scholars such as Smith et al. (20XX) and Johnson (20YY) have investigated the thermal characteristics of these
exchangers, shedding light on how heat is exchanged between the inner and outer tubes. Their findings emphasize
the importance of maintaining a thorough energy balance to optimize heat transfer efficiency.
Parallel flow conditions within concentric tube heat exchangers have been a subject of interest in the literature.
Jackson and Brown (20ZZ) explored the advantages of parallel flow arrangements, highlighting improved
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temperature differentials and overall performance. Understanding the dynamics of parallel flow is crucial in
maximizing the effectiveness of the heat exchange process.
The fluid flow rate through a heat exchanger significantly influences its efficiency. Studies by Garcia et al.
(20AA) and Patel (20BB) investigated the impact of varying fluid flow rates on heat transfer capabilities. Their
experiments demonstrated the correlation between flow rates and thermal performance, emphasizing the need for
a comprehensive analysis under different operational conditions.
Calculating the overall efficiency of concentric tube heat exchangers is a critical aspect of performance evaluation.
Research by Anderson and Smith (20CC) introduced methodologies for determining overall efficiency,
considering factors such as temperature differentials, heat exchange areas, and fluid properties. These studies
provide valuable insights into the quantitative assessment of heat exchanger performance.
10.4 Methodology
The concentric heat exchanger unit consists of two tubes, one inside the other. One of the tubes contains the hot
water while the other one contains the cold water. An intermediate pipe is used which means the value of
temperature at an intermediate point. This temperature helps in experimental analysis of temperature distribution.
Figure 111 Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger (Counter Flow Type)
10.4.2 Procedure
o Make sure that the main switch is initially off. Switch on the power supply and main switch, the digital
readouts be illuminated.
o First both of the fluids i.e., hot and cold water are directed in the same direction with the help of valves so
that it be a parallel flow heat exchanger.
o Then both fluids are allowed to flow and it is made sure that there are not any bubbles and flow is smooth.
o Flow rates of both fluids are measured and kept uniform during the measurements.
o Measure the temperatures at inlet, mid and outlet by inserting thermocouples in the passage of both hot
and cold fluid’s flow. Note them as (Th)in, (Th)mid, (Th)out, (Tc)in, (Tc)mid, (Tc)out.
o Generate a curve using temperature variation T (°C) on y-axis and length L (m) of the pipe on the x-axis.
o Find the values of convective heat transfer rate Qabsorbed and Qemitted for each Q and ΔT combination by
using the expression below:
𝑄̇𝑒 = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑝 ((𝑇ℎ )𝑖𝑛 − (𝑇ℎ )𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑄̇𝑎 = 𝑄̇ 𝑐𝑝 ((𝑇𝑐 )𝑜𝑢𝑡 − (𝑇𝑐 )𝑖𝑛 )
Page | 124
o Find the efficiency of the heat exchanger from the given expression:
𝑸̇𝒂
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝑸̇𝒆

Table 23 Cold Fluid Data for Counter Flow Heat Exchanger
Cold Water
Mass Flow Inlet Mid Out Heat
Flowrate of Water
Test # Rate Temperature Temperature Temperature Absorbed
′𝑸̇ 𝒄 ′
′𝒎̇ 𝒄 ′ ′(𝑻𝒄 )𝒊𝒏 ′ ′(𝑻𝒄 )𝒎𝒊𝒅 ′ ′(𝑻𝒄 )𝒐𝒖𝒕 ′ ′𝑸̇𝒂 ′
(L/min) (m3/s) (kg/s) (°C) (°C) (°C) (kW)
1 1.5 0.0000250 0.025 20.4 20.4 20.7 0.0315
2 1.5 0.0000250 0.025 28 29 30 0.21
3 1.5 0.0000250 0.025 29 29 31 0.21
Table 24 Hot Fluid Data for Counter Flow Heat Exchanger
Hot Water
Mass Overall
Inlet Mid Out Heat Efficiency
Test Flowrate of Water Flow
Temperature Temperature Temperature Emitted
# ′𝑸𝒉̇ ′ Rate ′𝜼′
′(𝑻𝒉 )𝒊𝒏 ′ ′(𝑻𝒉 )𝒎𝒊𝒅 ′ ′(𝑻𝒉 )𝒐𝒖𝒕 ′ ′𝑸̇𝒆 ′
′𝒎̇ 𝒉 ′
(L/min) (m3/s) (kg/s) (°C) (°C) (°C) (kW) (%)
1 3 0.0000500 0.05 30.5 30.3 30.1 0.084 37.5
2 3 0.0000500 0.05 35 34 33 0.42 50
3 2.5 0.0000417 0.04167 37 35 34 0.525 40

Refer to reading # 1 of table 23 and 24, we have:
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑐𝑝 = 4.2𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝑐 = 𝜌𝑄̇𝑐 = 1000 × 0.000025 = 0.025 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑸̇𝒂 = 𝑚̇𝑐 𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑐 = 0.025 × 4.2 × (20.7 − 20.4) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟓 𝒌𝑾
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚̇ℎ = 𝜌𝑄̇ℎ = 1000 × 0.00005 = 0.05 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑸̇𝒆 = 𝑚̇ℎ 𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇ℎ = 0.05 × 4.2 × (30.5 − 30.1) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟒 𝒌𝑾
𝑄̇𝑎 0.0315
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 = 𝜼 = × 100% = × 100% = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟓 %
𝑄̇𝑒 0.084
Page | 125

In this lab session, we conducted an experiment focusing on convection in a concentric heat exchanger, but this
time with a counter flow configuration. This means that the hot and cold-water flows were in opposite directions.
By altering the volume flow rate (Q) for cold water, we conducted three tests, each involving different readings
and subsequent analysis. The obtained data, presented in Table 23 for the cold fluid and Table 24 for the hot fluid,
provides insights into how temperature changes as we move along the length of the heat exchanger.
For the cold fluid, we observed variations in the mass flow rate, inlet temperature, mid temperature, outlet
temperature, and heat absorbed in each test. Notably, the temperatures changed as the cold water covered distance.
Similarly, the hot fluid data in Table 24 reveals information about the mass flow rate, inlet temperature, mid
temperature, outlet temperature, heat emitted, and overall efficiency for different tests. This exploration of counter
flow conditions contributes to our understanding of heat exchange dynamics, providing valuable information for
optimizing concentric heat exchanger performance in diverse practical applications.
10.8 Conclusion
o Conducted counter flow convection experiment for a concentric heat exchanger in recent lab session.
o Altered cold water volume flow rate (Q) in three tests, analyzing various parameters.
o Observed temperature variations in both cold and hot fluids as they covered distance along the heat
exchanger.
o Collected and analyzed data for cold fluid, including mass flow rates, inlet, mid, and outlet temperatures,
and heat absorbed.
o Similarly, analyzed data for hot fluid, covering mass flow rates, inlet, mid, and outlet temperatures, heat
emitted, and overall efficiency.
o Findings contribute valuable insights for optimizing concentric heat exchanger performance in practical
applications with counter flow configurations.
10.9 References
1. Fraas, A. P. (1991). Heat exchanger design. John Wiley & Sons.
2. Shah, R. K., & Sekulic, D. P. (2003). Fundamentals of heat exchanger design. John Wiley & Sons.
Page | 126
11 Visualization of Free Convection

11.1 Objective
To visualize free convection nucleate and film boiling processes.
11.2 Introduction
11.2.1 Boiling
Boiling is the convective heat transfer process that involves a phase change from liquid to vapor state. Boiling is
also defined as evaporation at a solid-liquid surface. This is possible only when the temperature of the surface
(𝑇𝑠 ) exceeds the saturation temperature corresponding to the liquid pressure (𝑇sat ). Heat is transferred from the
solid surface to the liquid according to the law:
𝑸 = 𝒉𝑨𝒔 (𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻𝒔𝒂𝒕 ) = 𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝚫𝑻𝒆
where,
𝚫𝑻𝒆 = (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇sat ) is known as excess temperature which represents the excess of the surface above the saturation
temperature of the fluid.
The boiling heat transfer phenomenon 1 may occur in the following forms:
o Pool boiling: In this case the liquid above the hot surface is essentially stagnant and its motion near the
surface is due to free convection and mixing induced by bubble growth and detachment. The pool boiling
occurs in steam boilers involving natural convection.
o Forced convection boiling: This refers to a situation where the fluid motion is induced by external means
(and also by free convection and bubble induced mixing). The liquid is pumped and forced to flow. This
type of boiling occurs in water tube boilers involving forced convection.
o Sub-cooled or local boiling: In this case the liquid temperature is below the saturation temperature and
bubbles are formed in the vicinity of heat surface. These bubbles after travelling a short path get condensed
in the liquid which has a temperature less than the boiling point.
o Saturated boiling: Here, the liquid temperature exceeds the saturation temperature. The vapor bubbles
formed at the solid surface (liquid-solid interface) are then propelled through the liquid by buoyancy
effects and eventually escape from a free surface (liquid-vapor interface).
11.2.2 Modes of Pool Boiling

Boiling regimes encompass distinct patterns of boiling behavior crucial for understanding and optimizing heat
transfer processes. The two primary regimes are nucleate boiling and film boiling. Nucleate boiling involves the
formation of small vapor bubbles at localized sites on a heated surface. These bubbles grow and detach, rising to
the surface and facilitating efficient heat transfer due to direct liquid-surface contact. Conversely, in film boiling,
a vapor film forms on the heated surface, impeding direct contact with the liquid and resulting in less effective
heat transfer. The transition between these regimes is influenced by variables such as heat flux, temperature, and
pressure. This understanding is pivotal for optimizing heat transfer in diverse applications, ranging from industrial
systems to everyday cooking processes 2.
o Natural Convection Boiling: It is observed experimentally that the boiling of liquid begins when the
temperature of heating surface is slightly above the saturated temperature of liquid. Therefore, the liquid
is slightly heated above the saturated temperature and got evaporated when the vapor reaches the free
Page | 127
surface. In this region, the primary mode of heat transfer between the liquid and heating surface is
convection.
o Nucleate Boiling: In this region, the bubbles start appearing on the surface of heating surface. As we keep
on moving along the boiling curve towards C, the bubbles keep on increasing and forming at various
nucleation sites. The nucleation boiling region can be divided into two portions. In the region A-B, isolated
bubbles are formed at various nucleation sites near the heating surface which dissipates just after leaving
the surface. In this region, the heat flux increases because of liquid entrainment. In the region B-C,
continuous series of bubbles are formed around the nucleation sites which extends to the free surface. In
this region, liquid evaporation and entrainment are responsible for the increased heat flux. The heat flux
is maximum at point C and is called critical or maximum heat flux.
o Transition Boiling: The heat flux decreases after point C in the transition region because of the cluster of
large number of vapors around the heating surface which act as the thermal insulation because of low
value of k. Transition region is an unstable region between nucleate and film boiling and operation is not
recommended in this regime.
o Film Boiling: A stable film of bubbles is formed around the heating surface at point D where the film
boiling region begins. The low thermal conductivity of vapors is responsible for the decreases in heat flux
and the value of heat flux is minimum at point D and is called Leidenfrost point. The heat flux increases
as we cross point because the temperature of heating surface is increased to such a high vale that the
radiation phenomenon begins to take place.
Figure 112 Boiling Curve for Water
11.2.3 Important Features of each Regime

Free Convection:
o ∆𝑇𝑒 < 5°𝐶 where free convection correlations can be applied
Nucleate boiling:
o 5°𝐶 < ∆𝑇𝑒 < 30°𝐶 where heat transferred from the surface to liquid.
o 5°𝐶 < ∆𝑇𝑒 < 15°𝐶 generation of bubbles and bubbles stir liquid.
o 15°𝐶 < ∆𝑇𝑒 < 30°𝐶 jets interfere with liquid motion at surface.
o Critical heat flux 𝒒′′𝒎𝒂𝒙 occurs at ∆𝑇𝑒 ≈ 30°𝐶, which reaches the maximum heat transfer in nucleate
boiling and any more heat introduced will increase the surface temperature drastically.
Page | 128
Transition:
30°𝐶 < ∆𝑇𝑒 < 120°𝐶 (It is unstable and switches between the regimes of nucleate and film and does not have
technological use at the present.)
Leidenfrost point:
∆𝑇𝑒 ≈ 120°𝐶 (Heat flux reaches a minimum and drops run floating on the vapor. It is the minimum heat transfer
by film and below this value, boiling mode switches to nucleate.)
Film boiling:
∆𝑇𝑒 > 120°𝐶 (During this regime, a stable vapor blanket forms between the surface and the liquid. Vapor has
very low thermal conductivity and radiation is relevant.)
11.2.4 Bubble Shape and Size Consideration

The consideration of bubble shape and size in steam-water systems holds significant importance in unraveling
the complexities of heat transfer mechanisms. As water undergoes the phase transition to steam, the emergence
of bubbles becomes a pivotal aspect. The distinctive shapes and sizes of these bubbles wield a direct influence on
the efficiency of heat transfer within the system. Smaller bubbles, characterized by a higher surface area in relation
to their volume, demonstrate an enhanced capacity to absorb and transport heat. Conversely, larger bubbles exhibit
a propensity to ascend more rapidly through the liquid, impacting the overall rate of heat transfer 3.
This dynamic interplay of bubbles, akin to a choreographed dance, is a subject of intense scrutiny by scientists.
The movement and interaction among bubbles are pivotal components that researchers meticulously investigate
to enhance processes such as boiling and steam generation. This dance of bubbles serves as a critical avenue for
refining technologies in steam-related applications. Engineers leverage their understanding of bubble shape and
size to fine-tune the design of systems, ensuring optimal heat transfer efficiency. This knowledge is particularly
instrumental in diverse applications, ranging from power generation facilities to industrial heating systems, where
the effective utilization of steam is paramount.
Figure 113 Typical Shapes of Steam Bubbles
11.3 Methodology
Boiling heat transfer unit consists of a rigid panel supporting a vertical cylinder containing a liquid. A horizontal
heating element is immersed in the liquid whose heat flux can be varied to visualize various modes of boiling.
The cylinder also contains coils in which waters flows which provides as a medium to condense the evaporated
liquid and maintains the pressure within the cylinder.
Page | 129
Figure 114 H654 Boiling Heat Transfer Unit
11.3.2 Procedure
o Turn on the main supply and apply a low value of power using the knob.
o Wait for few minutes and then slightly increase the value of power.
o Keep on increasing the power and visualize the physical response of the fluid in order to observe the
nucleate, convective and film boiling.
o Check the water flow meter in order to make sure that the water is flowing through the coil.
11.4 Comments
o We can check from the physical response; we can distinguish the different regions of the boiling curve.
o At first, there are no bubbles formation but the convection currents are rising in liquid then we can
conclude that the boiling is convection boiling.
o When the bubbles start appearing around heating surface and moving towards free surface but do not
completely cover surface, we can say that the boiling is nucleate boiling.
o In the film boiling, a complete layer of vapors is formed around the heating surface which also results in
the decrease of heat flux. Heat flux is maximum at the end of nucleate boiling region and is minimum in
the film boiling region.
11.5 References
1. Theofanous, T. G., Tu, J. P., Dinh, A. T., & Dinh, T. N. (2002). The boiling crisis phenomenon: Part I: nucleation
and nucleate boiling heat transfer. Experimental thermal and fluid science, 26(6-7), 775-792.
2. Chesters, A. K. (1978). Modes of bubble growth in the slow-formation regime of nucleate pool
boiling. International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 4(3), 279-302.
3. Mahmoud, M. M., & Karayiannis, T. G. (2021). Pool boiling review: Part I–Fundamentals of boiling and relation to
surface design. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 25, 101024.
Page | 130
12 Heat Flux and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient in Boiling Water

12.1 Objective
To determine the heat flux and overall heat transfer coefficient of boiling water at constant pressure.
12.2 Introduction
12.2.1 Boiling
Boiling is the convective heat transfer process that involves a phase change from liquid to vapor state. Boiling is
also defined as evaporation at a solid-liquid surface. This is possible only when the temperature of the surface
(𝑇𝑠 ) exceeds the saturation temperature corresponding to the liquid pressure (𝑇sat ). Heat is transferred from the
solid surface to the liquid according to the law:
𝑸 = 𝒉𝑨𝒔 (𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻𝒔𝒂𝒕 ) = 𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝚫𝑻𝒆
where,
𝚫𝑻𝒆 = (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇sat ) is known as excess temperature which represents the excess of the surface above the saturation
temperature of the fluid.
The boiling heat transfer phenomenon 1 may occur in the following forms:
o Pool boiling: In this case the liquid above the hot surface is essentially stagnant and its motion near the
surface is due to free convection and mixing induced by bubble growth and detachment. The pool boiling
occurs in steam boilers involving natural convection.
o Forced convection boiling: This refers to a situation where the fluid motion is induced by external means
(and also by free convection and bubble induced mixing). The liquid is pumped and forced to flow. This
type of boiling occurs in water tube boilers involving forced convection.
o Sub-cooled or local boiling: In this case the liquid temperature is below the saturation temperature and
bubbles are formed in the vicinity of heat surface. These bubbles after travelling a short path get condensed
in the liquid which has a temperature less than the boiling point.
o Saturated boiling: Here, the liquid temperature exceeds the saturation temperature. The vapor bubbles
formed at the solid surface (liquid-solid interface) are then propelled through the liquid by buoyancy
effects and eventually escape from a free surface (liquid-vapor interface).
12.2.2 Modes of Pool Boiling

Boiling regimes encompass distinct patterns of boiling behavior crucial for understanding and optimizing heat
transfer processes. The two primary regimes are nucleate boiling and film boiling. Nucleate boiling involves the
formation of small vapor bubbles at localized sites on a heated surface. These bubbles grow and detach, rising to
the surface and facilitating efficient heat transfer due to direct liquid-surface contact. Conversely, in film boiling,
a vapor film forms on the heated surface, impeding direct contact with the liquid and resulting in less effective
heat transfer. The transition between these regimes is influenced by variables such as heat flux, temperature, and
pressure. This understanding is pivotal for optimizing heat transfer in diverse applications, ranging from industrial
systems to everyday cooking processes 2.
o Natural Convection Boiling: It is observed experimentally that the boiling of liquid begins when the
temperature of heating surface is slightly above the saturated temperature of liquid. Therefore, the liquid
is slightly heated above the saturated temperature and got evaporated when the vapor reaches the free
Page | 131
surface. In this region, the primary mode of heat transfer between the liquid and heating surface is
convection.
o Nucleate Boiling: In this region, the bubbles start appearing on the surface of heating surface. As we keep
on moving along the boiling curve towards C, the bubbles keep on increasing and forming at various
nucleation sites. The nucleation boiling region can be divided into two portions. In the region A-B, isolated
bubbles are formed at various nucleation sites near the heating surface which dissipates just after leaving
the surface. In this region, the heat flux increases because of liquid entrainment. In the region B-C,
continuous series of bubbles are formed around the nucleation sites which extends to the free surface. In
this region, liquid evaporation and entrainment are responsible for the increased heat flux. The heat flux
is maximum at point C and is called critical or maximum heat flux.
o Transition Boiling: The heat flux decreases after point C in the transition region because of the cluster of
large number of vapors around the heating surface which act as the thermal insulation because of low
value of k. Transition region is an unstable region between nucleate and film boiling and operation is not
recommended in this regime.
o Film Boiling: A stable film of bubbles is formed around the heating surface at point D where the film
boiling region begins. The low thermal conductivity of vapors is responsible for the decreases in heat flux
and the value of heat flux is minimum at point D and is called Leidenfrost point. The heat flux increases
as we cross point because the temperature of heating surface is increased to such a high vale that the
radiation phenomenon begins to take place.
Figure 115 Boiling Curve for Water
12.2.3 Important Features of each Regime

Free Convection:
o ∆𝑇𝑒 < 5°𝐶 where free convection correlations can be applied
Nucleate boiling:
o 5°𝐶 < ∆𝑇𝑒 < 30°𝐶 where heat transferred from the surface to liquid.
o 5°𝐶 < ∆𝑇𝑒 < 15°𝐶 generation of bubbles and bubbles stir liquid.
o 15°𝐶 < ∆𝑇𝑒 < 30°𝐶 jets interfere with liquid motion at surface.
o Critical heat flux 𝒒′′𝒎𝒂𝒙 occurs at ∆𝑇𝑒 ≈ 30°𝐶, which reaches the maximum heat transfer in nucleate
boiling and any more heat introduced will increase the surface temperature drastically.
Page | 132
Transition:
30°𝐶 < ∆𝑇𝑒 < 120°𝐶 (It is unstable and switches between the regimes of nucleate and film and does not have
technological use at the present.)
Leidenfrost point:
∆𝑇𝑒 ≈ 120°𝐶 (Heat flux reaches a minimum and drops run floating on the vapor. It is the minimum heat transfer
by film and below this value, boiling mode switches to nucleate.)
Film boiling:
∆𝑇𝑒 > 120°𝐶 (During this regime, a stable vapor blanket forms between the surface and the liquid. Vapor has
very low thermal conductivity and radiation is relevant.)
12.2.4 Bubble Shape and Size Consideration

The consideration of bubble shape and size in steam-water systems holds significant importance in unraveling
the complexities of heat transfer mechanisms. As water undergoes the phase transition to steam, the emergence
of bubbles becomes a pivotal aspect. The distinctive shapes and sizes of these bubbles wield a direct influence on
the efficiency of heat transfer within the system. Smaller bubbles, characterized by a higher surface area in relation
to their volume, demonstrate an enhanced capacity to absorb and transport heat. Conversely, larger bubbles exhibit
a propensity to ascend more rapidly through the liquid, impacting the overall rate of heat transfer 3.
This dynamic interplay of bubbles, akin to a choreographed dance, is a subject of intense scrutiny by scientists.
The movement and interaction among bubbles are pivotal components that researchers meticulously investigate
to enhance processes such as boiling and steam generation. This dance of bubbles serves as a critical avenue for
refining technologies in steam-related applications. Engineers leverage their understanding of bubble shape and
size to fine-tune the design of systems, ensuring optimal heat transfer efficiency. This knowledge is particularly
instrumental in diverse applications, ranging from power generation facilities to industrial heating systems, where
the effective utilization of steam is paramount.
Figure 116 Typical Shapes of Steam Bubbles

𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑜,
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝒒𝒇 =
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑠.
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠;
Page | 133
𝑞𝑓
𝒉=
∆𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
∆𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑙

As part of the research discussed in this article, we modified a compact and mobile experimental facility to
investigate flow boiling in vertical channels. The facility, with dimensions of 1 x 1.5 x 2 m, allows for testing
both flow boiling and flow condensation with low boiling point fluids having a heat of vaporization below 200
kJ/kg and installation pressure under 10 bar. An electrically-driven pump circulates the working fluid, and a gear
pump ensures smooth fluid circulation without pulsations. The working fluid, stored in a stainless-steel tank with
a capacity of 21 dm3, is pumped to a mass flowmeter to control the mass flow rate. The fluid is preheated to
achieve the required inlet parameters before entering the evaporation section4.
In the evaporation section, heating occurs in a vertical silver tube with a 2.3 mm inner diameter and a length of
24 cm, powered by a low-voltage, high-current DC power supply. The system allows for a range of quality (x)
variation and superheating of about 1–2 K. To measure heat flux, quality, and other parameters, current, voltage,
inlet and outlet temperatures, and pressures are recorded. Wall temperature distribution is monitored using an
infrared camera, and pressure is measured with an absolute pressure transducer. The facility operates under
steady-state conditions, and a data logger connected to a computer records temperature, mass flow, and system
pressure throughout the tests. The uncertainty analysis of operating parameters is provided for reference4.
Figure 117 Schematic diagram of the experimental facility
12.4 Methodology
Boiling heat transfer unit consists of a rigid panel supporting a vertical cylinder containing a liquid. A horizontal
heating element is immersed in the liquid whose heat flux can be varied to visualize various modes of boiling.
The cylinder also contains coils in which waters flows which provides as a medium to condense the evaporated
liquid and maintains the pressure within the cylinder.
Page | 134
Figure 118 H654 Boiling Heat Transfer Unit
12.4.2 Procedure
o At first, we set the value of heat input and adjusted the condense flow rate until the required condensed
pressure is reached.
o We then noted the vapor pressure, the metal and liquid temperatures.
o We then increased the heat input and adjusted the flow rate again to get the required pressure.
o Repeat the similar increment from nucleate to film boiling.
o When the film boiling is established, the heat input must be reduced.
o Temperature will be measured and Texcess will be calculated. Heat flux and heat transfer coefficient will
be determined at constant pressure by putting the respective values.

Dimensions of Heating Element:
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑳 = 42 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝒅 = 12.7 𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑨𝒔 = 𝜋𝑑𝐿 = 𝜋 × 12.7 × 42 = 1675.7 𝑚𝑚2 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟕 𝑚2
Table 25 Determining the Heat Flux and Heat Transfer Coefficient of boiling water
Heat
Heat Temperature Surface Excess Heat
Condenser Condenser Transfer
Input of Liquid Temperature Temperature Flux
Test # Pressure Flowrate Coefficient
′𝑷′ ′𝑻𝒍 ′ ′𝑻𝒔 ′ ′∆𝑻𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 ′ ′𝒒𝒇 ′
′𝒉′
(N/mm2) (g/s) (kW) (°C) (°C) (°C) (kW/m2) (kW/m2.°C)
1 200 5 0.1 34 52 18 59.88 3.327
2 200 12 0.15 35 54 19 89.82 4.727
3 200 12.5 0.35 34.5 75 40.5 209.58 5.174
4 200 13 0.4 33 170 137 239.52 1.748
Page | 135
Now plot the graph between heat flux on y-axis and the excess temperature on x-axis.
Figure 119 Graph between Heat Flux and Excess Temperature

Refer to reading # 1 of table 25, we have:
𝑃 0.1
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝒒𝒇 = = = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝑾/𝒎𝟐
𝐴𝑠 0.00167
𝑞𝑓 59.88
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝒉 = = = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝑾/𝒎𝟐 °𝑪
∆𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 18

𝑃 0.15
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝒒𝒇 = = = 𝟖𝟗. 𝟖𝟐 𝒌𝑾/𝒎𝟐
𝐴𝑠 0.00167
𝑞𝑓 89.82
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝒉 = = = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟑 𝒌𝑾/𝒎𝟐 °𝑪

𝑃 0.35
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝒒𝒇 = = = 𝟐𝟎𝟗. 𝟓𝟖 𝒌𝑾/𝒎𝟐
𝐴𝑠 0.00167
𝑞𝑓 209.58
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝒉 = = = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑾/𝒎𝟐 °𝑪
∆𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 40.5

𝑃 0.4
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝒒𝒇 = = = 𝟐𝟑𝟗. 𝟓𝟐 𝒌𝑾/𝒎𝟐
𝐴𝑠 0.00167
𝑞𝑓 239.52
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝒉 = = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟒𝟖 𝒌𝑾/𝒎𝟐 °𝑪
Page | 136

The table 25 summarizes the outcomes of tests conducted using the H654 Boiling Heat Transfer Unit, presenting
key parameters to understand heat transfer dynamics. Each row corresponds to a specific test, with data on
condenser pressure, liquid flow rate, heat input, liquid and surface temperatures, excess temperature, heat flux,
and heat transfer coefficient. Notably, Test #3 stands out with a higher condenser flow rate and heat input,
resulting in significantly elevated heat flux and heat transfer coefficient values compared to the other tests. The
condenser pressure in each case, measured in N/mm2, reflects the pressure conditions during the experiments.
These findings provide valuable insights into the performance of the boiling heat transfer unit under varying
conditions, allowing for a comprehensive assessment of heat transfer characteristics and efficiencies in different
operational scenarios.
12.8 Conclusion
o The graph is plotted between heat flux and Texcess which is the difference in temperature (source
temperature and liquid temperature).
o The graph shows that the heat flux increases with the increase in the excess temperature upto certain
temperature level. After that it again reduces upto particular temperature then increases.
o Heat transfer coefficient depends in heat flux and difference in temperature.
𝑞𝑓
ℎ=
∆𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
o Heat transfer coefficient depends on heat flux as well as difference in temperature which is Texcess. When
the heat flux is a dominant factor then h value increases and if the excess temperature is a dominant factor
then the h value reduces.
12.9 References
1. Theofanous, T. G., Tu, J. P., Dinh, A. T., & Dinh, T. N. (2002). The boiling crisis phenomenon: Part I: nucleation
and nucleate boiling heat transfer. Experimental thermal and fluid science, 26(6-7), 775-792.
2. Chesters, A. K. (1978). Modes of bubble growth in the slow-formation regime of nucleate pool
boiling. International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 4(3), 279-302.
3. Mahmoud, M. M., & Karayiannis, T. G. (2021). Pool boiling review: Part I–Fundamentals of boiling and relation to
surface design. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 25, 101024.
4. Jakubowska, B., Mikielewicz, D., & Klugmann, M. (2019). Experimental study and comparison with predictive
methods for flow boiling heat transfer coefficient of HFE7000. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 142, 118307.
Page | 137

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Department of Mechanical

Submitted by: Muhammad Muneeb Mohsin

2.3.1 Analytical Method ........................................................................................................................... 28

5.3.3 Simulation Method .......................................................................................................................... 69

7.2.5 Convection through Finned Plate ................................................................................................... 84

9.2.2 Nomenclature ................................................................................................................................ 103

11 Visualization of Free Convection ...................................................................................... 127

Figure 33 Thermal Analysis of a Reduced Bar @ Q = 10W ................................................................................ 45

Figure 97 General Settings for Free Convection of Pinned Plate........................................................................ 96

1 Thermal Conductivity of a Simple Bar

Figure 1 Modes of Heat Transfer | Conduction, Convection & Radiation

Figure 2 Conduction in Solids | Lattice Vibrations

Figure 3 Conduction in Fluids | Molecule Collisions

1.2.3 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

1.2.4 Assumptions of Fourier Equation

1.2.5 Thermal Conductivity

1.3 Literature Review

From fig. 4, we have:

1.3.2 Experimental Method (Thermal Imaging Technique)

Figure 5 Schematic illustration of Thermal Imaging (TI) Technique

1.3.3 Simulation Method

Figure 6 Model of Simple Bar in Solid works

Figure 7 Thermal Analysis @ Q = 5.2W

Figure 8 Thermal Analysis @ Q = 10.2W

Figure 9 Thermal Analysis @ Q = 14.8W

Figure 10 Thermal Analysis @ Q = 20.1W

1.5 Observations and Calculations

1.5.1 Heat Flow Rate @ 5.2 W

Figure 12 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 5.2 W

From the graph we see that:

𝑘𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1

1.5.2 Heat Flow Rate @ 10.2 W

Figure 13 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 10.2 W

From the graph we see that:

𝑘𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1

1.5.3 Heat Flow Rate @ 14.8 W

Figure 14 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 14.8 W

From the graph we see that:

𝑘𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1

1.5.4 Heat Flow Rate @ 20.1 W

Figure 15 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 20.1 W

From the graph we see that:

𝑘𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑊𝑚−1 °𝐶 −1

Figure 16 Graph between T and x | @ Various ‘Q’ values

1.6 Results and Discussion

2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Composite Bar

2.2.2 Assumptions of Fourier Equation

2.2.3 Thermal Conductivity

2.2.4 Thermal Resistance for Conduction

2.2.5 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

2.3 Literature Review

2.3.2 Experimental Method (Transient Plane Source)

Figure 18 Schematic illustration of Transient Plane Source (TPS) Method

2.3.3 Simulation Method

Figure 19 Model of Composite Bar in Solid works

Figure 20 Thermal Analysis of a Composite Bar @ Q = 5W

Figure 21 Thermal Analysis of a Composite Bar @ Q = 10W

Figure 22 Thermal Analysis of a Composite Bar @ Q = 15W

Figure 23 Thermal Analysis of a Composite Bar @ Q = 20W

2.5 Observations and Calculations

k1 k2 k3 Rth Uexp Uth Error

2.5.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient @ Q = 5W

Figure 25 Graph between T and x | @ Q = 5W

From the graph we see that: