Insulated-gate bipolar transistor

An insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal

Insulated-gate bipolar
power semiconductor device primarily forming an electronic
transistor
switch. It was developed to combine high efficiency with fast
switching. It consists of four alternating layers (P–N–P–N) that are
controlled by a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) gate structure.

Although the structure of the IGBT is topologically similar to a

thyristor with a "MOS" gate (MOS-gate thyristor), the thyristor
action is completely suppressed, and only the transistor action is
permitted in the entire device operation range. It is used in
switching power supplies in high-power applications: variable- IGBT module (IGBTs and
frequency drives (VFDs), uninterruptible power supply systems freewheeling diodes) with a rated
(UPS), electric cars, trains, variable-speed refrigerators, lamp current of 1200 A and a maximum
ballasts, arc-welding machines, induction hobs, and air voltage of 3300 V
conditioners.
Working principle Semiconductor
Since it is designed to turn on and off rapidly, the IGBT can Invented 1959
synthesize complex waveforms with pulse-width modulation and Electronic symbol
low-pass filters, thus it is also used in switching amplifiers in sound
systems and industrial control systems. In switching applications
modern devices feature pulse repetition rates well into the
ultrasonic-range frequencies, which are at least ten times higher
than audio frequencies handled by the device when used as an
analog audio amplifier. As of 2010, the IGBT was the second most
widely used power transistor, after the power MOSFET.
IGBT schematic symbol
 IGBT comparison table[1]
Device characteristic Power BJT Power MOSFET IGBT
Voltage rating High <1 kV High <1 kV Very high >1 kV

Current rating High <500 A Low <200 A High >500 A

Current ratio Voltage Voltage

Input drive
hFE ~ 20–200 VGS ~ 3–10 V VGE ~ 4–8 V

Input impedance Low High High

Output impedance Low Medium Low

Switching speed Slow (µs) Fast (ns) Medium

Cost Low Medium High

Device structure
An IGBT cell is constructed similarly to an n-channel vertical-
construction power MOSFET, except the n+ drain is replaced with
a p+ collector layer, thus forming a vertical PNP bipolar junction

Cross-section of a typical IGBT

showing internal connection of
MOSFET and bipolar device
transistor. This additional p+ region creates a cascade connection of a PNP bipolar junction transistor with
the surface n-channel MOSFET.

Difference between Thyristor and IGBT

Difference Between Thyristor and IGBT[2]
Aspect Thyristor IGBT
An insulated gate bipolar transistor
A four-layer semiconductor device with
Definition combining features from bipolar transistors
a P-N-P-N structure
and MOSFETs

Terminals Anode, cathode, gate Emitter, collector, gate

Layers Four layers Three layers

Junction PNPN structure NPN structure

Reverse blocking, forward blocking,

Modes of operation On-state, off-state
forward conducting

Design structure Coupled transistors (PNP and NPN) Combined bipolar and MOSFET features
Carrier source Two sources of carriers One source of carriers

Turn-on voltage N/A Low gate voltage required

Turn off loss Higher Lower

Plasma density Higher Lower

Operating frequency Suitable for line frequency, typically Suitable for high frequencies, typically
range lower higher

Die Size and

Larger die size, can be manufactured as Smaller die size, often paralleled in a
Paralleling
monolithic devices up to 6" in diameter package
Requirements
Power range Suitable for high power applications Suitable for medium power applications

Control requirements Requires gate current Requires continuous gate voltage

Value for money Cost-effective Relatively higher cost

Control method Pulse triggering Gate voltage control

Switching speed Slower Faster

Current switching
High Moderate
capability

Control current High current drive Low current drive

Voltage capability High voltage handling Lower voltage handling

Power loss Higher power dissipation Lower power dissipation

Application High voltage, robustness High-speed switching, efficiency

History
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla
and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[3] The basic IGBT mode of operation, where a pnp transistor is
driven by a MOSFET, was first proposed by K. Yamagami and Y. Akagiri of Mitsubishi Electric in the
Japanese patent S47-21739, which was filed in 1968.[4]
Following the commercialization of power MOSFETs
in the 1970s, B. Jayant Baliga submitted a patent
disclosure at General Electric (GE) in 1977 describing
a power semiconductor device with the IGBT mode of
operation, including the MOS gating of thyristors, a
four-layer VMOS (V-groove MOSFET) structure, and
the use of MOS-gated structures to control a four-layer
semiconductor device. He began fabricating the IGBT
device with the assistance of Margaret Lazeri at GE in
1978 and successfully completed the project in
1979.[5] The results of the experiments were reported
Static characteristic of an IGBT
in 1979.[6][7] The device structure was referred to as a
"V-groove MOSFET device with the drain region
replaced by a p-type anode region" in this paper and subsequently as "the insulated-gate rectifier" (IGR),[8]
the insulated-gate transistor (IGT),[9] the conductivity-modulated field-effect transistor (COMFET)[10] and
"bipolar-mode MOSFET".[11]

An MOS-controlled triac device was reported by B. W. Scharf and J. D. Plummer with their lateral four-
layer device (SCR) in 1978.[12] Plummer filed a patent application for this mode of operation in the four-
layer device (SCR) in 1978. USP No. 4199774 was issued in 1980, and B1 Re33209 was reissued in
1996.[13] The IGBT mode of operation in the four-layer device (SCR) switched to thyristor operation if the
collector current exceeded the latch-up current, which is known as "holding current" in the well known
theory of the thyristor.

The development of IGBT was characterized by the efforts to completely suppress the thyristor operation or
the latch-up in the four-layer device because the latch-up caused the fatal device failure. IGBTs had, thus,
been established when the complete suppression of the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor was achieved as
described in the following.

Hans W. Becke and Carl F. Wheatley developed a similar device, for which they filed a patent application
in 1980, and which they referred to as "power MOSFET with an anode region".[14][15] The patent claimed
that "no thyristor action occurs under any device operating conditions". The device had an overall similar
structure to Baliga's earlier IGBT device reported in 1979, as well as a similar title.[5]

A. Nakagawa et al. invented the device design concept of non-latch-up IGBTs in 1984.[16] The
invention[17] is characterized by the device design setting the device saturation current below the latch-up
current, which triggers the parasitic thyristor. This invention realized complete suppression of the parasitic
thyristor action, for the first time, because the maximal collector current was limited by the saturation current
and never exceeded the latch-up current.

In the early development stage of IGBT, all the researchers tried to increase the latch-up current itself in
order to suppress the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor. However, all these efforts failed because IGBT could
conduct enormously large current. Successful suppression of the latch-up was made possible by limiting the
maximal collector current, which IGBT could conduct, below the latch-up current by controlling/reducing
the saturation current of the inherent MOSFET. This was the concept of non-latch-up IGBT. “Becke’s
device” was made possible by the non-latch-up IGBT.
The IGBT is characterized by its ability to simultaneously handle a high voltage and a large current. The
product of the voltage and the current density that the IGBT can handle reached more than 5 × 105
W/cm2 ,[18][19] which far exceeded the value, 2 × 105 W/cm2 , of existing power devices such as bipolar
transistors and power MOSFETs. This is a consequence of the large safe operating area of the IGBT. The
IGBT is the most rugged and the strongest power device yet developed, affording ease of use and so
displacing bipolar transistors and even GTOs. This excellent feature of the IGBT had suddenly emerged
when the non-latch-up IGBT was established in 1984 by solving the problem of so-called “latch-up,”
which is the main cause of device destruction or device failure. Before that, the developed devices were
very weak and were easy to be destroyed because of “latch-up.”

Practical devices
Practical devices capable of operating over an extended current range were first reported by B. Jayant
Baliga et al. in 1982.[8] The first experimental demonstration of a practical discrete vertical IGBT device
was reported by Baliga at the IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) that year.[20][8]
General Electric commercialized Baliga's IGBT device the same year.[5] Baliga was inducted into the
National Inventors Hall of Fame for the invention of the IGBT.[21]

A similar paper was also submitted by J. P. Russel et al. to IEEE Electron Device Letter in 1982.[10] The
applications for the device were initially regarded by the power electronics community to be severely
restricted by its slow switching speed and latch-up of the parasitic thyristor structure inherent within the
device. However, it was demonstrated by Baliga and also by A. M. Goodman et al. in 1983 that the
switching speed could be adjusted over a broad range by using electron irradiation.[9][22] This was followed
by demonstration of operation of the device at elevated temperatures by Baliga in 1985.[23] Successful
efforts to suppress the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor and the scaling of the voltage rating of the devices at
GE allowed the introduction of commercial devices in 1983,[24] which could be utilized for a wide variety
of applications. The electrical characteristics of GE's device, IGT D94FQ/FR4, were reported in detail by
Marvin W. Smith in the proceedings of PCI April 1984.[25] Marvin W. Smith showed in Fig.12 of the
proceedings that turn-off above 10 amperes for gate resistance of 5kOhm and above 5 amperes for gate
resistance of 1kOhm was limited by switching safe operating area although IGT D94FQ/FR4 was able to
conduct 40 amperes of collector current. Marvin W. Smith also stated that the switching safe operating area
was limited by the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor.

Complete suppression of the parasitic thyristor action and the resultant non-latch-up IGBT operation for the
entire device operation range was achieved by A. Nakagawa et al. in 1984.[16] The non-latch-up design
concept was filed for US patents.[26] To test the lack of latch-up, the prototype 1200 V IGBTs were directly
connected without any loads across a 600 V constant voltage source and were switched on for 25
microseconds. The entire 600 V was dropped across the device and a large short circuit current flowed. The
devices successfully withstood this severe condition. This was the first demonstration of so-called "short-
circuit-withstanding-capability" in IGBTs. Non-latch-up IGBT operation was ensured, for the first time, for
the entire device operation range.[19] In this sense, the non-latch-up IGBT proposed by Hans W. Becke and
Carl F. Wheatley was realized by A. Nakagawa et al. in 1984. Products of non-latch-up IGBTs were first
commercialized by Toshiba in 1985. This was the real birth of the present IGBT.

Once the non-latch-up capability was achieved in IGBTs, it was found that IGBTs exhibited very rugged
and a very large safe operating area. It was demonstrated that the product of the operating current density
and the collector voltage exceeded the theoretical limit of bipolar transistors, 2 × 105 W/cm2 , and reached
5 × 105 W/cm2 .[18][19]

The insulating material is typically made of solid polymers which have issues with degradation. There are
developments that use an ion gel to improve manufacturing and reduce the voltage required.[27]

The first-generation IGBTs of the 1980s and early 1990s were prone to failure through effects such as
latchup (in which the device will not turn off as long as current is flowing) and secondary breakdown (in
which a localized hotspot in the device goes into thermal runaway and burns the device out at high
currents). Second-generation devices were much improved. The current third-generation IGBTs are even
better, with speed rivaling power MOSFETs, and excellent ruggedness and tolerance of overloads.[18]
Extremely high pulse ratings of second and third-generation devices also make them useful for generating
large power pulses in areas including particle and plasma physics, where they are starting to supersede older
devices such as thyratrons and triggered spark gaps. High pulse ratings and low prices on the surplus
market also make them attractive to the high-voltage hobbyists for controlling large amounts of power to
drive devices such as solid-state Tesla coils and coilguns.

Patent issues
The device proposed by J. D. Plummer in 1978 (US Patent Re.33209) is the same structure as a thyristor
with a MOS gate. Plummer discovered and proposed that the device can be used as a transistor although the
device operates as a thyristor in higher current density level.[28] The device proposed by J. D. Plummer is
referred here as “Plummer’s device.” On the other hand, Hans W. Becke proposed, in 1980, another device
in which the thyristor action is eliminated under any device operating conditions although the basic device
structure is the same as that proposed by J. D. Plummer. The device developed by Hans W. Becke is
referred here as “Becke’s device” and is described in US Patent 4364073. The difference between
“Plummer’s device” and “Becke’s device” is that “Plummer’s device” has the mode of thyristor action in its
operation range and “Becke’s device” never has the mode of thyristor action in its entire operation range.
This is a critical point, because the thyristor action is the same as so-called “latch-up.” “Latch-up” is the
main cause of fatal device failure. Thus, theoretically, “Plummer’s device” never realizes a rugged or strong
power device which has a large safe operating area. The large safe operating area can be achieved only
after “latch-up” is completely suppressed and eliminated in the entire device operation range. However, the
Becke's patent (US Patent 4364073) did not disclose any measures to realize actual devices.

Despite Becke's patent describing a similar structure to Baliga's earlier IGBT device,[5] several IGBT
manufacturers paid the license fee of Becke's patent.[14] Toshiba commercialized “non-latch-up IGBT” in
1985. Stanford University insisted in 1991 that Toshiba's device infringed US Patent RE33209 of
“Plummer’s device.” Toshiba answered that “non-latch-up IGBTs” never latched up in the entire device
operation range and thus did not infringe US Patent RE33209 of “Plummer’s patent.” Stanford University
never responded after Nov. 1992. Toshiba purchased the license of “Becke’s patent” but never paid any
license fee for “Plummer’s device.” Other IGBT manufacturers also paid the license fee for Becke's patent.

Applications
As of 2010, the IGBT is the second most widely used power transistor, after the power MOSFET. The
IGBT accounts for 27% of the power transistor market, second only to the power MOSFET (53%), and
ahead of the RF amplifier (11%) and bipolar junction transistor (9%).[29] The IGBT is widely used in
consumer electronics, industrial technology, the energy sector, aerospace electronic devices, and
transportation.

Advantages
The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive characteristics of power MOSFETs with the high-current and
low-saturation-voltage capability of bipolar transistors. The IGBT combines an isolated-gate FET for the
control input and a bipolar power transistor as a switch in a single device. The IGBT is used in medium to
high-power applications like switched-mode power supplies, traction motor control and induction heating.
Large IGBT modules typically consist of many devices in parallel and can have very high current-handling
capabilities in the order of hundreds of amperes with blocking voltages of 6500 V. These IGBTs can control
loads of hundreds of kilowatts.

Comparison with power MOSFETs

An IGBT features a significantly lower forward voltage drop compared to a conventional MOSFET in
higher blocking voltage rated devices, although MOSFETS exhibit much lower forward voltage at lower
current densities due to the absence of a diode Vf in the IGBT's output BJT. As the blocking voltage rating
of both MOSFET and IGBT devices increases, the depth of the n- drift region must increase and the doping
must decrease, resulting in roughly square relationship decrease in forward conduction versus blocking
voltage capability of the device. By injecting minority carriers (holes) from the collector p+ region into the
n- drift region during forward conduction, the resistance of the n- drift region is considerably reduced.
However, this resultant reduction in on-state forward voltage comes with several penalties:

The additional PN junction blocks reverse current flow. This means that unlike a MOSFET,
IGBTs cannot conduct in the reverse direction. In bridge circuits, where reverse current flow
is needed, an additional diode (called a freewheeling diode) is placed in parallel (actually
anti-parallel) with the IGBT to conduct current in the opposite direction. The penalty isn't
overly severe because at higher voltages, where IGBT usage dominates, discrete diodes
have a significantly higher performance than the body diode of a MOSFET.
The reverse bias rating of the N-drift region to collector P+ diode is usually only of tens of
volts, so if the circuit application applies a reverse voltage to the IGBT, an additional series
diode must be used.
The minority carriers injected into the N-drift region take time to enter and exit or recombine
at turn-on and turn-off. This results in longer switching times, and hence higher switching
loss compared to a power MOSFET.
The on-state forward voltage drop in IGBTs behaves very differently from power MOSFETS.
The MOSFET voltage drop can be modeled as a resistance, with the voltage drop
proportional to current. By contrast, the IGBT has a diode-like voltage drop (typically of the
order of 2V) increasing only with the log of the current. Additionally, MOSFET resistance is
typically lower for smaller blocking voltages, so the choice between IGBTs and power
MOSFETS will depend on both the blocking voltage and current involved in a particular
application.
In general, high voltage, high current and low switching frequencies favor the IGBT while low voltage,
medium current and high switching frequencies are the domain of the MOSFET.

IGBT
Circuits with IGBTs can be developed and modeled with various circuit simulating computer programs
such as SPICE, Saber, and other programs. To simulate an IGBT circuit, the device (and other devices in
the circuit) must have a model which predicts or simulates the device's response to various voltages and
currents on their electrical terminals. For more precise simulations the effect of temperature on various parts
of the IGBT may be included with the simulation. Two common methods of modeling are available: device
physics-based model, equivalent circuits or macromodels. SPICE simulates IGBTs using a macromodel that
combines an ensemble of components like FETs and BJTs in a Darlington configuration. An alternative
physics-based model is the Hefner model, introduced by Allen Hefner of the National Institute of Standards
and Technology. Hefner's model is fairly complex but has shown good results. Hefner's model is described
in a 1988 paper and was later extended to a thermo-electrical model which include the IGBT's response to
internal heating. This model has been added to a version of the Saber simulation software.[30]

IGBT failure mechanisms

The failure mechanisms of IGBTs includes overstress (O) and wearout(wo) separately.
The wearout failures mainly include bias temperature instability (BTI), hot carrier injection (HCI), time-
dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB), electromigration (ECM), solder fatigue, material reconstruction,
corrosion. The overstress failures mainly include electrostatic discharge (ESD), latch-up, avalanche,
secondary breakdown, wire-bond liftoff and burnout.[31]

IGBT modules

IGBT module (IGBTs Opened IGBT module Infineon IGBT Module rated for 450 A
and freewheeling diodes) with four IGBTs (half of 1200 V
with a rated current of H-bridge) rated for
1200 A and a maximum 400 A 600 V
voltage of 3300 V

Small IGBT Detail of the inside of a

module, rated up Mitsubishi Electric
to 30 A, up to CM600DU-24NFH IGBT
900 V module rated for 600 A
1200 V, showing the IGBT
dies and freewheeling
diodes

See also
Electronics portal

Bipolar junction transistor

Bootstrapping
Current injection technique
Floating-gate MOSFET
Junction-gate field-effect transistor
MOSFET
Power electronics
Power MOSFET
Power semiconductor device
 Solar inverter

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Further reading
Wintrich, Arendt; Nicolai, Ulrich; Tursky, Werner; Reimann, Tobias (2015). Semikron (ed.).
Application Manual Power Semiconductors (https://www.semikron.com/service-support/appli
cation-manual.html) (PDF-Version) (2nd Revised ed.). Germany: ISLE Verlag. ISBN 978-3-
938843-83-3. Retrieved 2019-02-17.

External links
Device physics information (http://www.elec.gla.ac.uk/groups/dev_mod/papers/igbt/igbt.html)
from the University of Glasgow
Spice model for IGBT (http://www.intusoft.com/articles/Igbt.pdf)
IGBT driver calculation (https://web.archive.org/web/20130608203946/http://www.powergur
u.org/igbt-driver-calculation/)

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