AStudyofEmotionalIntelligenceandSelf Leadership

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A Study of Emotional Intelligence and Self Leadership
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A Study of Emotional Intelligence and Self-Leadership

Vann, Valerie, Sparks, Betsy, Baker, Cassandra, SAM Advanced Management Journal
Leaders in the 21st century are rising from diverse backgrounds, cultures, ethnic groups, and generations. Leaders are tasked
with making corporate and organizational decisions, leading others, and displaying positive traits, attitudes, emotions, and
perspectives in the marketplace. Despite leaders' IQ, leadership practices, and professional development training, various
leaders have failed in their roles. Emotions, attitudes, and behaviors may have an impact on leader success. Therefore, emo-
tional intelligence (EI) plays a major role in leadership effectiveness (Dabke, 2016). These leaders are involved in various
leadership roles that involve human interactions among superiors and subordinates, individuals from various backgrounds,
cultures, ethnicities, and generations. Leaders within organizational and institutional settings must understand the impor-
tance of EI and their perceptions of self-leadership. Numerous studies have examined EI and leadership from diverse per-
spectives, as shown in the Appendix. Prior self-leadership studies involved self-management teams and empowerment lead-
ership. However, a gap exists in studies examining how EI is related to the use of self-leadership strategies. This study con-
tributes to filling the gap by examining individuals' global EI and determining which dimensions of self-leadership are prac-
ticed by individuals based on the individuals' global EI score.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine how an individual's self-evaluation of EI was related to the use of three self-leader-
ship strategies: behavior-focused, natural reward, and constructive thought pattern. Diverse leaders are tasked with making
decisions, problem solving, and leading organizations. These leaders must understand their own abilities, including their
level of EI and self-leadership strategies.
Research Questions
The research questions for this study were as follows:
1. What is the level of global emotional intelligence exhibited by individuals in the workforce?
2. What is the level of self-leadership strategies exhibited by individuals in the workforce?
3. What is the relationship between leaders' perception of their emotional intelligence and perception of their self-leadership
strategies?
Literature Review
Background
EI has been described as an "effective barometer for effectively dealing with emotions within one's self and others" (Spear,
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2015) and the "ability to perceive, appraise, and express emotion, access and process emotional information, generate feel-
ings, understand emotional knowledge, and regulate emotions for emotional and intellectual growth" (Salovey & Mayer,
1990). Goleman (1998) described EI as a "capacity for recognizing one's own feelings and those of others, for motivating, and
managing emotions well within oneself and in relationships". By 1997, the term EI became more prevalent in society and
academic communities, creating a need to understand EI in business and organizational settings. Mayer and Salovey (1997)
identified EI as the "the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate
feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotions and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regu-
late emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth".
Goleman (1998) suggested technical skills and IQ be used as relevant skills for entry requirements or threshold capabilities
into leadership. Leaders need EI as a sine qua non, which is an essential component of leadership. Goleman also noted that
EI is more important than drivers of intellect, vision, or technical skills for excellent performance as a leader. Salovey and
Mayer (1990), Weisinger (1998), Goleman (1998, 2004), and Barling, Slater, and Kelloway (2000) all agreed on the five
characteristics of EI and leadership:
1. Self-awareness: recognition, understanding, and acceptance of one's emotions
2. Self-regulation: ability to control and manage emotions and disruptive behavior
3. Motivation: strong desire to work and achieve goals
4. Empathy: understanding the emotions and emotional construct of others
5. Social skills: building and managing relationships and networks
Barling et al. (2000) investigated the relationship between EI and transformational leadership. They hypothesized that lead-
ers who display high empathy characteristics also display the ability for inspirational motivation, idealized influence, and in-
dividual consideration when managing relationships. In addition, these same leaders recognize the importance of contingent
rewards as a motivational tool to transform behaviors within an organization. Leaders who can express emotional manage-
ment, which includes self-control, and delay gratification serve as an example for followers. Additionally, leaders with a high
degree of EI understand the extent and impact of the leader-follower relationship (Barling et al., 2000).
Corporations and scholars use EI as an integral factor in the leadership process. George (2000) suggested that emotions play
a significant role in the leadership process and discovered that leaders with a high degree of EI practice knowledge transfer-
ence, generate enthusiasm and confidence, and encourage empowerment. George argued that high-EI leaders have an in-
creased ability to solve problems and identify opportunities within organizations. Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004) concep-
tualized emotional intelligence "as a set of abilities (verbal and nonverbal) that enable a person to generate, recognize, ex-
press, understand, and evaluate their own, and others, emotions as a guide to thinking and action that successfully cope with
environmental demands and pressures". They used research synthesis or metaanalysis to understand the power of EI and
suggested that EI should be a predictor of occupational burnout. Gewertz (2006) and Boyatzis (1999) both noted that an in-
creased financial profitability occurs when a leader displays higher levels of self-management and self-awareness. The im-
portance of EI research is applicable to organizational and industry leaders, scholars, and practitioners.
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Studies
Transformational leadership studies of EI were conducted by Abraham (2000). Leaders who were transformational did not
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have issues expressing emotions to others or identifying feelings. Leaders with a high degree of EI display a higher degree of
happiness and organizational commitment. The positive relationship between transformational leadership behaviors and or-
ganizational performance has been well-established since the mid-1990s. For example, Gardner and Stough (2002) and
Palmer, Gardner, and Stough (2003) examined the relationship between EI and leadership using the Swinburne University
Emotional Intelligence Test as a measure for workplace EI based on the five factors pioneered by Salovey and Mayer (1990)
and Goleman (1998). Results concluded that a strong relationship exists between transformational leadership and EL Con-
versely, Rosete and Ciarrochi (2005) believed that previous researchers focused on leadership effectiveness from a
transformational-transactional leadership model. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test Version 2.0 (MS-
CEIT; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2003) was used to test the dimensions of EL The MSCEIT is based on problem-
solving using emotions. Results suggested that executives who have a high level of EI are more likely to achieve successful
business outcomes and are considered effective leaders. Additionally, executives with a high level of emotional perception
served as a predictor of effective leadership. Performance management was a predictor of effective leadership in dealing ef-
fectively with staff. Rosete and Ciarrochi s (2005) study illustrated that emotional perception and performance could have
important consequences on training and development.
A leadership effectiveness study by Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, and Boyle (2006) employed the same MSCEIT instrument to in-
vestigate a correlation between managerial EI ratings of leadership effectiveness. The results indicate that supervisory EI and
effectiveness could possibly be a key determinant of effective leadership. How an employee views a skill, leadership ability,
and effectiveness is strongly related to EI of the leader, manager, or supervisor. Brown, Bryant, and Reilly (2006) examined
the relationships between EI, leadership, and desirable outcomes in organizations. In another study, Fambrough and Hart
(2008) examined emotions in leadership development to better understand human resource development professionals'
emotions and reflect on the use of EI instruments and interventions in leadership development. The discussion involved the
use of EI tools and instruments for helping human resource development practitioners to make well-informed decisions re-
sulting in enhanced leadership effectiveness and healthier organizations. Table Al in the Appendix displays studies from
1990 to 2008 that examined leader roles and EI in various capacities. However, prior studies did not examine EI and self-
leadership strategies, indicating a need for this research.
Mills (2009) conducted a meta-analysis to ascertain if there was empirical evidence to support the inclusion of EI as a com-
ponent of effective leadership study using Biostat's Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software version 2.0 (Borenstein, Hedges,
Higgins, & Rothstein, 2005). The study analysis yielded a combined effect of r = .38, which can be interpreted as a moder-
ately strong relationship between EI and leadership effectiveness.
Choi et al. (2015) reviewed the effects of emotion management and EI as the antecedent for negotiation behaviors in busi-
ness. Emotion management includes three parts: (a) emotion recognition, (b) emotion expression, and (c) shaping counter-
point (eliciting positive emotions for other people). The results indicated a small link between EI, emotion management, and
negotiation behaviors. Choi et al. (2015) believed there could be an overestimation of the EI in the process of emotion man-
agement, citing environmental factors as possible other sources of emotion management. Further, Doe, Ndinguri, and
Phipps (2015) examined EI and leadership success or failure within organizations.
Mehrparvar and Moosavi (2016) conducted a more recent study involving leader self-efficacy in the relationship between EI
and leadership styles. Badri-Harun, Zainol, Amar, and Shaari (2016) examined the relationship between leadership styles
and leadership effectiveness to increase understanding of EI as a mediator of the relationship. Another recent study by Ra-
manauskas (2016) examined eight organizational leaders who managed large organizations to determine the interrelation-
ships between the EI of managers, the performance of the organization, and sustainable development (economic, social, eco-
logical). This EI and organizational performance study was conducted to determine if a balanced scorecard was a reflection
of leaders' EI effectiveness. The study revealed the EI of managers was closely related to individual indicators of organiza-
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tional performance and a balanced scorecard, which represents key performance indicators pertinent to an organization's
success. Several prior studies on EI and leadership have been examined by various authors and from diverse perspectives.
Table A2 in the Appendix displays EI and leadership studies from various perspectives from 2009 to 2016. This study exam-
ined EI and self-leadership.
Theory of Emotional Intelligence and Self-Leadership
A theoretical framework for the study involves EI and self-leadership perspectives. The two variables should align because
emotionally intelligent leaders should display self-control, with an ability to control their own behaviors, attitudes, and emo-
tions, by leading themselves before leading others. An early EI theory shared nearly three decades ago by Salovey and Mayer
(1990) suggested skills related to one's emotions are important. To understand the term EI, one must first understand the
terms emotions and intelligence, and the impact of these on one's self as well as others. In agreement with this theory, Ciar-
rochi, Chan, and Caputi (2000) and Roberts, Zeidner, and Matthews (2001) viewed EI as a cooperative combination of intel-
ligence and emotion. Mayer and Mitchell (1998) and Mayer et al. (2003) concluded that persons with EI attributes display
social, practical, and personal intelligences. EI theories are various and derive from differing past perspectives. Golemans EI
theory suggested five EI domains, also referred to as "emotional quotient": self-awareness, self-management, social aware-
ness, empathy, and relationship management. EI leaders may be more productive and successful in helping others become
more productive and successful. A need to understand one's EI may help to reduce stress for individuals and within organi-
zations. Developing and applying EI may also be beneficial for decreasing conflict, improving relationships, and increasing
stability, continuity, and harmony among individuals and within organizations (Goleman, 2011).
Manz and Neck (2004) developed a measure of self-leadership that comprised three dimensions of strategies used in self-
leadership. Self-leadership is a means by which behavior and cognitive strategies are used to influence, control, and lead in
accomplishing goals. These strategies are grouped into three categories of behavior-focused, natural rewards, and construc-
tive thought strategies (Houghton & Neck, 2002; Manz & Neck, 2004). Behavior-focused strategies include self-awareness
and use of self-goal setting, self-reward, self-punishment, self-observation, and self-cueing to make individuals more cog-
nizant of behavior (Manz & Neck, 2004). Self-goal setting is based on Locke and Latham's (1990) goal setting theory, which
shows that goals can increase individual performance. Self-reward is often used by individuals in the form of a special pur-
chase or trip as a means of acknowledging meeting a goal (Manz & Neck, 2004). Natural rewards include focusing on pleas-
ant aspects of the job, surrounding one's self with others who bring out one's best, choosing enjoyable methods for perform-
ing work, and finding favorite ways to accomplish work (Houghton & Neck, 2002). Constructive thought patterns include us-
ing mental imagery of successful performance, evaluating beliefs and assumptions in difficult situations, and using self-talk
(Houghton & Neck, 2002).
Hauschildt and Konradt (2012) researched the relationship between self-leadership and work-life performance of team
members of organizations in different industries across Germany. The variables included individual task, team member pro-
ficiency, productivity, and proactivity. The results concluded a strong positive relationship between self-leadership, profi-
ciency, adaptivity, and productivity. The study had managerial implications, citing a strong need to foster employees toward
creating natural rewards focusing on the pleasure of new experiences, increasing intrinsic motivation.
Politis (2015) investigated the influence of self-leadership strategies and the dimensional relationship with entrepreneurship
organization, creativity, and productivity on employees within an organization known for innovation. The study surveyed
225 employees. The results were that self-leadership behaviors are a predictor of entrepreneurial orientation that include be-
haviors of risk-taking, innovation, and proactiveness. Furthermore, the study found that self-leadership enhanced creativity
and productivity, concluding that organizations should hire employees with high self-leadership ability because it allows for
the natural regulation of self-goal-setting, self-observation, self-reward, self-punishment, and self-practice.
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Sesen, Tabak, and Arli (2017) reviewed self-leadership, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and innovative behav-
iors among primary school teachers across the United States. The outcome of this study illustrated that self-leadership had a
direct correlation on job satisfaction, innovative behaviors, and commitment to the organization. Additionally, other findings
were discovered, including that self-observation had a strong impact on self-leadership regardless of location.
This research adds to the body of knowledge in organization management and leadership and fills a gap that links manage-
ment intervention with employee behavior and management. By taking a practical approach to emotional intelligence and
self-leadership, this research provides the academic community and corporate managers with useful information for teams,
workforce relationship, and building organizational structures.
Methodology
Instruments and Validation
The researchers for this study used the short form of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue-SF) developed
by Cooper and Petrides (2010) to measure EI as a global trait. Cooper and Petrides examined the psychometric properties of
the TEIQue-SF in two separate studies using item response theory, which provides information about measurement preci-
sion across the range of a latent trait at the item and test level. Item response theory gives more information than a single re-
liability estimate. Both studies suggested reasonably good measures of data fit with chi-square divided by degrees of freedom
between two and four in the first study and one and four in the second study. Some multidimensionality was present, but
Cooper and Petrides indicated there was no cause for concern due to high discrimination parameters. Based on their psycho-
metric study of the TEIQue-SF, they indicated that the 30-item instrument showed good precision across the latent trait
range and was good for providing a rapid self-assessment of the EI trait.
To measure the self-leadership construct, we used the Revised Self-Leadership Questionnaire consisting of 35 items devel-
oped by Houghton and Neck (2002). Table 1 displays the dimensions of the self-leadership questionnaire and the number of
items relating to each dimension. Houghton and Neck (2002) performed an exploratory factor analysis with principle com-
ponents extraction and varimax rotation, with .35 as the critical cutoff value in defining whether each item was a factor. To
further refine, they performed a second-order confirmatory factor analysis using a second sample and parceling procedures
for composite indicators. Their revised 35-item questionnaire indicated a well-fitting model based on the use of multiple in-
dices. Cronbach alpha values for each subdimension exceeded .70. To assess the reliability of the combined instruments, the
researchers calculated Cronbach's alpha for the global EI measure (a = .91), which indicated the global EI measure to be reli-
able. The researchers also calculated Cronbach's alpha values of the nine dimensions of self-leadership. These values are dis-
played in Table 1. The evaluating beliefs and assumptions dimension had a Cronbach's alpha value slightly less than .70 (a =
.67), but all other dimensions exceeded .70.
Sample and Data Collection
To elicit a greater sample size and enhance the estimation of our model, we distributed the survey to employees in the United
States through SurveyMonkey (www.surveymonkey.com) and Amazon Mechanical Turk. The criteria for inclusion were that
participants must be in the United States and employed in full-time or part-time positions. Each participant completing the
survey was offered small noncash awards for completion (i.e., charitable donations or credits of 10 cents). The incentive for
completing the survey was so small that it should not have introduced bias into the survey results. The survey required ap-
proximately 1520 minutes to complete. Over 456 participants opened the survey, which resulted in 386 useable responses.
There were 27 participants who completed the survey but were not employed in full-time or part-time positions whose re-
sponses were eliminated from the analysis. The overall abandonment rate was 9.6% with a survey span of one week. The us-
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able sample consisted of full-time and part-time employees from a variety of occupations and employment levels. Incomplete
responses with more than 5% missing values and two responses exhibiting straight-lining were eliminated. Table 2 displays
the demographics of the sample.
Data Analysis
This study used a correlational research methodology Table 3 displays the descriptive statistics and correlations for the
global EI as measured by Cooper and Petrides's (2010) TEIQue-SF, and self-leadership dimensions as measured by
Houghton and Neck's (2002) questionnaire. The correlations for EI and the three dimensions of self-leadership (behavior-
focused, natural rewards, and constructive thought) are displayed in Table 3. In addition, the subdimensions of behavior-fo-
cused strategies (self-goal setting, self-reward, self-punishment, self-observation, and self-cueing) and the three subdimen-
sions of constructive thought (visualizing successful performance, self-talk, and evaluating beliefs and assumptions) are
shown.
Results
Based on the results in Table 3, there was a medium effect in terms of the relationship between EI and the behavior-focused
strategies of self-leadership (r = .32, p < .01). Individuals who exhibited higher levels of EI used more behavior-focused
strategies of self-leadership. When examining the subdimensions of behavior-focused strategies, self-goal setting (r = .43, p
< .01) and self-observation (r = .50, p< .01) had the strongest correlations with EI, indicating that individuals with higher EI
used self-goal setting and self-observation strategies more. The correlation with EI and the behavior-focused strategy of self-
punishment was negative (r = -.23, p < .01), indicating that individuals with higher EI used less self-punishment for self-
leadership but more self-reward (r = .22, p < .01). Self-cueing as a behavior-focused strategy had the weakest relationship
with EI (r = .14, p < .01).
As shown in Table 3, there was a large effect in terms of the relationship between EI and natural rewards as a self-leadership
strategy (r = .48, p < .01). This means that individuals with higher EI used the enjoyable aspects and good feelings of compe-
tence, self-control, and purpose to influence themselves as internal motivation and direction for actions.
There was a positive medium effect in the relationship between EI and constructive thought (r = .29, p < .01). The subdimen-
sions for constructive thought, visualizing, and evaluating beliefs had a medium effect in the relationship with EI (r = .34, p <
.01). This indicates that individuals with higher EI used visualizing and evaluating beliefs more than individuals with lower
EI used these behaviors.
Limitations
This study required individuals to perform a self-assessment of their own EI and self-leadership strategies. As with any study
requiring self-evaluation, individuals may not have answered truthfully or had a false perception of their own attitudes and
abilities. This survey was conducted at a single point in time. How individuals rate the EI and self-leadership items could be
indicative of the mood of the individuals at that time and not representative of their overall EI and self-leadership.
Implications
This research provides some insight into how individuals' EI impacts their use of self-leadership strategies. Individuals with
higher EI used more behavior-focused strategies of self-leadership, particularly self-goal-setting and self-observation, and
less self-punishment. Individuals with higher EI used more natural rewards strategies and constructive thought. This is im-
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portant because as more organizations operate in the global environment, individuals must work not only independently but
also on virtual teams, requiring employees to exhibit more self-leadership. An employee's manager may not be at the same
geographical location with the employee, meaning that the employee must show high levels of self-leadership. Self-leader-
ship becomes even more important as organic organizational structures drive more decision-making authority to individual
employees. Individuals who do not practice self-leadership in a positive way are not as productive and self-sufficient, requir-
ing more upper management intervention. Assessing an employee's EI results in a better understanding of self-leadership
strategies used by the employee. Furthermore, with understanding these relationships, training can be developed to improve
EI and self-leadership strategies to benefit the employee and employer.
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Table A1.
Emotional Intelligence Studies, 1990-2008
Publication Author Title

year
1990 Salovey & Mayer Emotional Intelligence

1998 Mayer & Mitchell Intelligence as a Subsystem of
Personality Advances in
Cognition and Educational
Practice
1999 Boyatzis The Financial Impact of
Competencies in Leadership and
Management
2000 Barling, Slater, & Transformational Leadership and
Kelloway Emotional Intelligence
2000 Ciarrochi, Chan, & A Critical Evaluation of the
Caputi Emotional Intelligence
2000 George Emotions and Leadership
2000 Abraham The Role of Job Control
2001 Roberts, Zeidner, & Does Emotional Intelligence Meet
Matthews Traditional Standards for an
Intelligence?
2002 Gardner & Stough Examining the Relationship
Between Leadership and Emotional
Intelligence
2002 Houghton & Neck The Revised Self-Leadership
Questionnaire
2003 Mayer, Salovey, Measuring Emotional Intelligence
Caruso, & Sitarenios With theEmotion MSCEIT V2.0
2003 Palmer, Gardner, & Measuring Emotional Intelligence
Stough in the Workplace
2004 Goleman What Makes a Leader?

2004 Van Rooy & Emotional Intelligence: A Meta-
Viswesvaran Analytic Investigation
2005 Rosete & Ciarrochi Emotional Intelligence and Its
Relationship Leadership &
Organization Development to
Workplace Performance Journal
2005 Borenstein, Hedges, Comprehensive Meta-Analysis
Higgins, & Rothstein Version 2
2006 Brown, Bryant, & Does Emotional Intelligence--as
Reilly, Measured by the EQI--Influence
Transformational Leadership
2006 Kerr, Garvin, Emotional Intelligence and
Heaton, & Boyle Leadership Effectiveness
2006 Gewertz Emotional Intelligence: Impact
8 of 17 9/13/2018, 5:15 PM
on Leadership Capabilities
2006 Petrides & Furnham The Role of Trait Emotional
2007 Mokhtaripour, Siadat A Study of the Relation Between

Seyed Ata, & Ainiri Emotional Intelligence and
Outcomes of Leadership
2008 Fambrough & Hart Emotions in Leadership
Development
Publication Publication
year
1990 Imagination, Cognition, and

1998 Personality
1999
2000 Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
2000 Personality and Individual
Differences
2000 Human Relations
2000 Journal of Psychology
2001 Emotion
Development Journal
2002 Journal of Managerial Psychology
2003
2003 Proceedings of the First
International Conference on
Contemporary Management:
Emotional Intelligence in
Organizations
2004 Harvard Business Review
2004 Journal of Vocational Behavior
2005
2005
Development Journal
Development Journal
2006 Archives of Surgery
2006 Journal of Applied Social
Psychology
2007 Studies in Education &
Psychology
2008 Advances in Developing Human
Resources
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Valerie Vann, DBA, is master of business administration program director and assistant professor of management at South
College, Knoxville, Tennessee. She holds a master of arts in organizational management and doctor of business administra-
tion with a concentration in international business. Dr. Vann has over 25 years of leadership and management experience.
She has worked in higher education environments for over 16 years, including 12 years of teaching graduate and undergradu-
ate courses in business and management. Prior to joining academia, Dr. Vann was a former associate postmaster for seven
years, and early retired after a 22-year career with the United
States Postal Service. Dr. Vanns background further involves, customer service/property management, entrepreneurship,
trainer/facilitator, and education/ management consulting. Dr. Vanns research interest includes emotional intelligence, crit-
ical thinking, leadership, professional development, organizational effectiveness, entrepreneurship, international/global
business, and women studies. Dr. Vann is coauthor of several academic and business publications.
Betsy H. Sparks, PhD, is dean of the School of Business and Technology at South College in Knoxville, Tennessee, and is a
former business consultant for QualPro. At QualPro, she worked with many businesses applying big data analytics and de-
sign of experiments to improve business processes and return on company investments. She teaches courses in management,
research methods, strategy, and ethics. She also developed an online master of business administration for South College.
Her research interests are in decision making, leadership, business analytics, big data, and business process improvement.
She has published her research work in an international business journal.
Cassandra Baker, PhD, is an instructor of business management at Gwinnett Technical College, in Atlanta, Georgia. She
holds a master of business administration from Brenau University, in Gainesville, Georgia, and doctor of philosophy in orga-
nization and management from Capella University. Dr. Baker has over 25 years of corporate, leadership, and management
experience, including working internationally in the countries of Sweden, United Kingdom, China, and Malaysia, and being
the owner of Sugar Hill Research & Consulting, LLC. Dr. Baker's research interest includes organizational management,
channel development, leadership, organizational effectiveness, business process improvement, and entrepreneurship. Before
13 of 17 9/13/2018, 5:15 PM
joining academia, Dr. Baker worked in the automotive industry for Ford Motor Company and Volvo Cars of North America
in marketing, sales, and service divisions.
Valerie Vann, South College
Betsy Sparks, South College
Cassandra Baker, Gwinnett Technical College
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Table 1. Survey Details for Self-Leadership Dimensions
Dimension Description of item (number of items) Cronbach's

alpha
Behavior- Self-goal setting (5) .83

focused Self-reward (3) .77
Self-punishment (4) .71
Self-observation (4) .74
Self-cueing (2) .74
Natural reward Focusing thoughts on natural .72
dimensions (5)
Constructive Visualizing successful performance (5) .80
thought Self-talk (3) .82
pattern Evaluating beliefs and assumptions (4) .67
Table 2. Participant Demographics
Demographic n Percent
Employment
Full-time 292 75.6%
Part-time 84 24.4%
Gender
Male 252 65.3%
Female 134 34.7%
Level of education
Less than high school 1 0.3%
High school graduate 19 4.9%
Some college 33 8.5%
Associate degree 19 4.9%
Bachelor degree 192 49.7%
Graduate degree 122 31.6%
Industry
Health care 41 10.6%
Nonprofit 17 4.4%
Technology 107 27.7%
Energy and utilities 9 2.3%
Transportation 8 1.6%
Materials 7 1.8%
Consumer 37 9.6%
Finance 43 11.1%
Education 52 13.5%
Professional Service 37 9.6%
Government 12 3.1%
Manufacturing 18 4.7%
Job level
Owner or CEO 20 5.2%
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Senior management 42 10.9%

Middle management 146 37.8%
Intermediate 108 28.0%
Entry level 65 16.8%
Other 5 1.3%
Table 3. Correlations for Emotional Intelligence and SeLf-Leadership

Dimensions
Dimension no.
Dimension
M SD 1 2 3
Emotional 4.69 0.81 .32 * .43 * .22 *

intelligence (global) 3.63
Behavior-focused 0.57 1
(overall) (1)
Behavior-focused
Self-goal setting (2) 3.75 0.78 .86 * 1
Self-reward (3) 3.58 0.88 .62 * .43 * 1
Self-punishment (4) 3.42 0.82 .52 * .23 * .13 *
Self-observation (5) 3.76 0.72 .79 * .74 * .37 *
Self-cueing (6) 3.53 1.04 .60 * .45 * .28 *
Natural rewards (7) 3.72 0.66 .76 * .76 * .53 *
Constructive thought 3.55 0.64 .74 * .68 * .53 *
(overall) (8)
Constructive thought
Visualizing (9) 3.64 0.76 .69 * .69 * .47 *
Self-talk (10) 3.46 0.99 .39 * .29 * .34 *
Evaluating beliefs (11) 3.52 0.68 .69 * .62 * .45 *
Dimension no.
Dimension
4 5 6 7 8
Emotional -0.23 * .50 * .14 * .48* .29*

intelligence (global)
Behavior-focused
(overall) (1)
Behavior-focused
Self-goal setting (2)
Self-reward (3)
Self-punishment (4) 1
Self-observation (5) .19 * 1
Self-cueing (6) .15 * .38 * 1
Natural rewards (7) .21 * .66 * .43 * 1
Constructive thought .31 * .60 * .39 * .66 * 1
(overall) (8)
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View publication stats
Visualizing (9) .20 * .60 * .36 * .66 * .86 *
Self-talk (10) .26 * .23 * .21 * .27 * .72 *
Evaluating beliefs (11) .31 * .58 * .37 * .62 * .82 *
Dimension no.
Dimension
9 10 11
Emotional .34* -.00 .34*

intelligence (global)
Behavior-focused
(overall) (1)
Behavior-focused
Self-goal setting (2)
Self-reward (3)
Self-punishment (4)
Self-observation (5)
Self-cueing (6)
Natural rewards (7)
(overall) (8)
Visualizing (9) 1
Self-talk (10) .36 * 1
Evaluating beliefs (11) .61 * .41 * 1
* p< .01.
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A Study of Emotional Intelligence and Self Leadership

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A Study of Emotional Intelligence and Self-Leadership

Purpose of the Study

The research questions for this study were as follows:

2. What is the level of self-leadership strategies exhibited by individuals in the workforce?

1. Self-awareness: recognition, understanding, and acceptance of one's emotions

2. Self-regulation: ability to control and manage emotions and disruptive behavior

3. Motivation: strong desire to work and achieve goals

4. Empathy: understanding the emotions and emotional construct of others

5. Social skills: building and managing relationships and networks

Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Studies

Theory of Emotional Intelligence and Self-Leadership

Instruments and Validation

Sample and Data Collection

Publication Author Title

1990 Salovey & Mayer Emotional Intelligence

2004 Goleman What Makes a Leader?

2007 Mokhtaripour, Siadat A Study of the Relation Between

1990 Imagination, Cognition, and

Valerie Vann, South College

Betsy Sparks, South College

Cassandra Baker, Gwinnett Technical College

Table 1. Survey Details for Self-Leadership Dimensions

Dimension Description of item (number of items) Cronbach's

Behavior- Self-goal setting (5) .83

Table 2. Participant Demographics

Senior management 42 10.9%

Table 3. Correlations for Emotional Intelligence and SeLf-Leadership

Emotional 4.69 0.81 .32 * .43 * .22 *

Emotional -0.23 * .50 * .14 * .48* .29*

Emotional .34* -.00 .34*

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