Leading By Following: The

Importance of Followership for

Organizational Success
Leadership. It’s a very popular buzzword. Recruiters are always looking for someone
who possesses leadership qualities, and everybody wants to be a leader. There is a

strong emphasis on this concept in society, especially in times of crisis. However,

many do not pay attention to the other, equally important, half of the

equation: followership.

Unfortunately, not many people want to be a follower. The mindset stems from

society’s viewpoint of this term; a follower is considered passive or subservient in a

subordinate position. In essence, some people think followers are ‘sheep.’ This belief

is especially true in Western cultures that emphasize individualism and leadership as a

focus starting from childhood.

The Value of Good Followership

Effective followership appears when individuals are proactively engaged with duties

or assignments and meaningfully contribute through independent, critical thinking.

Good, skilled followers are self-reliant, active participants who push forward ideas in

support of a vision or in service to a cause.

These types of individuals can work successfully without strong leadership as they

carry a strong sense of responsibility and motivation. Most importantly, the best

followers know how to adapt and adjust to changing circumstances, a skill necessary

in times of crisis. Organizations cycle through periods of triumph and struggle, and

often times, the focus is on leadership. However, in order to truly thrive, all people

involved must actively pay attention and think through the group’s problems. In the

end, these valuable followers understand how they can contribute in their respective

roles and proactively work to ensure the organization’s success.

As portrayed by this description, it should be clear that effective followers are not

‘sheep.’ Different types of followers exist, and the diagram below categorizes their

traits and patterns based on two dimensions: passive versus active and dependent

versus independent, critical thinking.

https://www.ioatwork.com/follower-characteristics-matter-in-leadership-evaluations/

https://www.ckju.net/en/dossier/what-followers-expect-leaders-or-how-implicit-leadership-
theories-influence-way-we-think-leadership/1263

Follower Characteristics Matter in Leadership

Evaluations
On March 21, 2019 By I-O AT WORK

Topic(s): fairness, leadership, performance, personality

Publication: Journal of Applied Psychology, 2019
Article: Meta-Analytic and Primary Investigations of the Role of Followers in Ratings of
Leadership Behavior in Organizations
Authors: G. Wang, C.H. Van Iddekinge, L. Zhang, J. Bishoff
Reviewed by: Mona Bapat, PhD
Most leadership research explores the impact that leaders have on their followers.
However, new research suggests that, in addition, certain characteristics of followers
may influence how leaders are perceived, or may even shape leader behavior. Examining
this new perspective could have implications for evaluating organizational leadership and
could demonstrate that follower characteristics, not just leader behavior, may also drive
follower performance.

Researchers conducted two studies that found significant relationships between follower
characteristics and leadership behavior, particularly in regards to abusive leadership
and transformational leadership (the kind of leadership that inspires or imbues
organizational values).

RESULTS OF THE META-ANALYSIS

In their first study, the researchers (Wang et al., 2019) conducted a meta-analysis (or
statistical combination) of 479 previous studies. They included studies in which 1) leader
behaviors were assessed by their followers, 2) correlations between follower
characteristics and leadership behaviors were found, and 3) participants were working
adults who rated their direct supervisors.

Follower Sociodemographic Characteristics and Leadership Ratings

First, the researchers found that compared to men, women tended to rate their leaders
high on transformational leadership and low on abusive supervision. Second, follower
race was related to the leadership style of initiating structure (i.e., being task-oriented).
White followers tended to rate their leaders higher on task-oriented leadership compared
to other races or ethnicities.

Follower Psychological Characteristics and Leadership Ratings

With regard to personality traits, agreeableness refers to how well someone gets along
with others. The study found that the more agreeable the follower, the higher they tended
to rate their leader on transformational leadership, and the lower they tended to rate them
on abusive supervision and passive leadership.

Second, this study found that those high on conscientiousness (tendency to be disciplined
and dependable) tended to rate their leaders higher on transformational leadership and
initiating structure, and lower on abusive supervision. Third, followers who scored high
on extraversion (sociability, talkativeness) were likely to rate their leaders high on
transformational leadership and initiating structure, and low on abusive supervision and
passive leadership.

Fourth, followers high on neuroticism (those prone to psychological stress or emotional

instability) tended to rate their leaders low on transformational leadership and initiating
structure, but high on abusive supervision, passive leadership, and autocratic leadership
(for example, an authoritarian or unilateral decision-maker).

Finally, core self-evaluation (CSE) reflects an appraisal of one’s worthiness and

capability. The authors found that the higher the CSE that followers had, the higher they
rated their leaders on transformational leadership and ethical leadership. Those with
higher CSE also rated their leaders lower on abusive supervision.

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

In their second study, the researchers sought to answer two questions: 1) Do actual leader
behaviors or follower perceptions of those behaviors contribute more toward leadership
ratings? 2) Do correlations between follower characteristics and leader ratings reflect real
differences in leader behaviors or differences in how followers perceive the leaders?

The researchers conducted an experimental study of 705 full-time adult employees of US

companies. First, participants completed an online survey that measured their
characteristics. Two weeks later, participants were randomly assigned to read one of two
vignettes: one depicted a transformational leader and the other depicted an abusive leader.
After reviewing the vignette, participants rated the behavior of the leader. They also rated
the behavior of their real-life supervisors.

Ratings of Transformational Leadership Behavior

Regarding the first research question, the researchers found that actual leader behavior
only accounts for 52% of the variation in ratings of the leaders. The other 48% is
comprised of follower perceptions and measurement error (which is the inherent
inexactness of the study).

Regarding the second research question, the study showed that gender, extraversion,
agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism were significant predictors of ratings
of the vignette leader on transformational leadership. Additionally, follower
organizational tenure, extraversion, agreeableness, core self-evaluations,
conscientiousness, and education level were significant predictors of their ratings of their
real leaders on transformational leadership.

Ratings of Abusive Supervision

Regarding their first research question, the authors found that actual abusive behavior of
the real supervisors accounted for about 33% of the variation in ratings of abusive
behavior. Followers’ perceptions and measurement error accounted for about 67% of the
variance in ratings of real leaders’ abusive behavior.
Regarding the second research question, agreeableness, core self-evaluations,
race/ethnicity, and conscientiousness predicted ratings of real leaders on abusive
supervision.

ORGANIZATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
According to the authors, these findings suggest that followers are not passive to leaders’
influence. Rather, they suggest that followers seem to make sense of leader behaviors
based on their own personal characteristics, and also that leaders may behave differently
toward different people.

The authors say that organizations might consider assessing follower characteristics as
part of the leader evaluation process to see if follower characteristics impact the ratings of
leaders. Otherwise, inaccurate conclusions may be reached. For example, a supervisor
who has more extraverted or agreeable employees could appear to be a more effective
leader than an equally effective supervisor whose employees are introverted or less
agreeable.

The authors also point out that employee characteristics could influence how supervisors
rate the employees. They say that when leaders are trained in employee evaluation, it
could be beneficial to include information on various follower characteristics.
What followers expect from leaders or
how implicit leadership theories
influence the way we think of leadership
All Management Learning Resources
 implicit leadership

Leadership effectiveness is in the eye of the beholder

There are many definitions of leadership yet they all contain the same theme–leaders need
followers for their mission to be successful. In fact, Hollander provides a definition of leadership
that captures this sentiment, “leadership is a process of influence between a leader and those who
are followers” (Hollander, 1978). It is also true that leadership is in the eye of the beholder.

There are several theories of leadership that have focused on the necessary competencies and
behaviors to be a successful leader. However, few have focused on what followers expect from
their leaders. This CQ Dossier focuses on implicit leadership theory to demonstrate the
importance of understanding follower cognitions and perceptions of leadership.

Individuals generate and hold schemas concerning what

constitutes an effective leader
Psychological science has taught us that individuals form impressions of others before they have
met them. Even more importantly, individuals tend to generate and hold schemas concerning
what constitutes an effective leader. Lord and his colleagues define implicit leadership theory as
“Cognitive structures or prototypes specifying the traits and abilities that characterize leaders.”
(Lord, Foti & DeVader, 1984).

Leaders that match the prototype the subordinate holds are

considered effective leaders
Research by Robert Lord and his colleagues confirms that when an individual matches our idea
of what a leader looks like, we tend to categorize this person as a leader. Imagine that the
prototype of effective leadership for a subordinate includes the following: intelligent, high verbal
skills, fair, and effective interpersonal skills. If the subordinate observes the manager as showing
intelligence, high verbal skills and being fair, then these observations will match the prototype
that the subordinate holds concerning effective leadership. In turn, this will lead the subordinate
to evaluating the manager as being an effective leader.

Implicit schemas about effective leadership are unconscious and

can be biased
However, research from human decision-making demonstrates that these judgements are
sometimes fallacious (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). Individuals who do not possess the
characteristics that we associate with leadership might be overlooked for promotion or
development into leadership positions. The research conducted by Lord and his colleagues
demonstrate that the implicit theories of leadership that individuals possess are often associated
with the notion of success.

In one study, participants watched a videotape of group members interacting with their leader
(Foti & Lord, 1987). The results of the study indicated that people had a faster response time and
were more confident when they were judging behaviors that were part of the implicit leadership
theory (ILT) compared to behaviors that were part of their ILT and were not performed by the
leader.

There is evidence that masculinity is an implicit schema associated

with effective leadership
An implicit theory is unconscious so individuals are probably unaware of their biases when they
evaluate a leader. Those behaviors that were identified as part of the ILT were rated as more
accurate than those that were not part of the ILT. Because of this potential bias, it is possible that
followers will tend to evaluate their manager as effective when the behavior is part of their ILT;
this can occur even if the behavior is ineffective.

Lynn Offerman and her colleagues found this to be true in a study that examined follower
perceptions of men and women leaders (Offerman et al., 1994). They found that masculinity was
a stable implicit leadership theory across participants, sex, and stimuli. Essentially, when
followers consider an effective leader it is typically in masculine terms.

This bias can result in women receiving poorer evaluations than men despite the finding that a
collaborative approach, which is typically adopted by female managers, is more effective for
leadership. Men tend to be more autocratic and task-oriented in their leadership style whereas
women tend to be more relationship-oriented. Individuals also tend to filter information based on
the ILT that they hold.
When individuals observe a team and are given information concerning the performance of that
group, they tend to remember more leadership behavior if they are told that the team was
successful. Followers filter information based on the implicit leadership theory that they hold.

Research indicates that leaders' appraisals are impacted by

implicit schemas
This area of research has implications for human resource practices because these prototypes can
affect the ratings that managers receive based on the ILTs held by subordinates. As research has
shown these prototypes are not without bias. Employee ratings are frequently linked to
promotions decisions yet when subordinates evaluate their manager, there is typically variability
of scores between raters even when they are observing the same manager (Junker & van Dick,
2014).

One study found that up to 62% of the variability in leaders’ appraisal of employee performance
was due to implicit person theories (Scullen, Mount, & Goff, 2000). This means that the
variability in performance ratings is mainly due to rater biases or implicit leadership theories
rather than to actual leader behavior.

Employee training and development initiatives can mitigate the

effect of implicit schemas
One way in which to circumvent biases in ratings is through employee training and development
initiatives (Junker & van Dick, 2014). Frame of reference training has been found to be effective
in performance appraisal research in reducing biases and assumptions about employees
(Uggerslev & Sulsky, 2008).

A novel instructional technique involves an Implicit Leadership Theory drawing exercise that is
part of team training. Team members are asked to think about their image of a leader, discuss
this image in the team, and then to draw the image. Following the exercise results are shared
with the team and the results are discussed. This technique challenges team member assumptions
concerning what an effective leader does and how biases can distort accurate assessment of
leaders (Schyns et al., 2011).

Another instructional method that shows potential is to present examples of outstanding female
leaders or older employees. When individuals witness female exemplars this tends to strengthen
the linkage between femininity and leadership (Junker & van Dick, 2014).

This CQ Dossier provides an overview of implicit leadership theory (ILT). The research on ILT
shows that followers filter information concerning leader behavior based on their implicit
leadership theory. Because ILT is an implicit theory, these assumptions about effective
leadership are unconscious and can lead to biases regarding leader behavior. In particular, ILT
suggests that followers can hold gender bias regarding effective leadership and can overlook the
behaviors of effective female leaders. The research suggests that these biases can affect
performance ratings. The dossier also recommends several training initiatives such as the
Implicit Leadership Drawing Exercise, which challenges assumptions concerning effective
leadership.

Key take-aways
 Followers hold implicit leadership theories concerning what constitutes an effective leader
 Implicit Leadership Theories (ILT) can lead to bias and can influence performance ratings of both
followers and leaders
 Because ILT can lead to bias and influence performance ratings, this can result in capable
candidates not being promoted based on their knowledge, skills and abilities
 Effective training initiatives have the potential to reduce ILT so that there is less bias in
performance ratings