This article was downloaded by: [York University Libraries]

On: 12 August 2014, At: 09:24

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Food Reviews International

Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lfri20

Rice properties and processing

a
Bienvenido O. Juliano
a
Cereal Chemistry Department , The International Rice Research
Institute , Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
Published online: 03 Nov 2009.

To cite this article: Bienvenido O. Juliano (1985) Rice properties and processing, Food Reviews
International, 1:3, 423-445

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87559128509540778

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
 Food Reviews International, 1(3), 423-445 (1985-86)

RICE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING

Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

BIENVENIDO O. JULIANO
Cereal Chemistry Department
The International Rice Research Institute
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

RICE PROPERTIES
Morphology

Several reviews on rice chemistry and technology have appeared during the
last two decades, with emphasis on different aspects of the subject (1-5).
The present review deals with rice grain properties and their effects on rice
processing. The rice grain (rough rice or paddy) consists of an outer protective
covering, the hull, and the rice caryopsis (brown rice or dehulled or husked
rice) (Figure 1). Brown rice consists of the outer layers of pericarp, seedcoat,
and nucellus, and the germ or embryo, which are maternal tissues, and the
endosperm. The endosperm consists of the aleurone layer, with the endosperm
proper consisting of the subaleurone layer and the starchy or inner endosperm.
The aleurone layer encloses the embryo.
The aleurone layer varies from 1 to 5 cell layers, thicker at the dorsal than
at the ventral side, and thicker in short-grain than in long-grain rices. The
aleurone cells are rich in protein bodies (containing globoids or phytate bodies)
and in lipid bodies (6). Phytate is mainly the potassium magnesium salt of myo-
inosital hexaphosphate.

423

Copyright © 1986 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. 8755-9129/85/0103-0423$3.50/0

 424 JULIANO
Awn

Lemma
Palea

Caryopsis

Subaleurone —Pericarp
layer _Seedcoat
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

—Nucellus
Starchy
endosperm ^—Aleurone layer

Embryo

Rachilla Sterile lemmae

Figure 1. Longitudinal structure of the rice grain.

The endosperm cells are thin-walled and packed with amyloplasts contain-
ing 3-9 /zni compound starch granules. The two outermost cell layers (the
subaleurone layer) are rich in protein and have smaller amyloplasts and com-
pound starch granules. Protein occurs mainly in the form of spherical protein
bodies 1-4 fim in size throughout the endosperm (7,8). But crystalline protein
bodies and small spherical protein bodies are localized in the subaleurone layer
(8). Rice starch granules are polyhedral and mainly 3-9 /xm in size.

Postharvest Technology

Conditions during grain ripening and drying in the field affect the processing
characteristics of the rice grain. Evenness of flowering affects the percentage of
immatures in the harvest crop, with photosensitive rices having more synchron-
ous anthesis than nonsensitive varieties. However, among nonsensitive rices,
early-maturing (90-110 days) rices tended to have more immature grains
than medium-maturing rices (130-140 days). Immature grains reduce milling
quality (9).
Dormancy is a desirable trait because it prevents germination of wet grain in
the field, but it is a nuisance if the harvested crop is to be immediately used as
 RICE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING 425

seed. Dormancy in rice is not true embryo dormancy, because removing the
covering hull and bran layers breaks dormancy (10). Storing 3-4 weeks at
ambient temperature breaks dormancy, probably due to a temporary barrier to
oxygen and water uptake by the embryo (10,11).
Stack burning occurs when wet grain, particularly unthreshed grain, is piled
without provision for aeration. Microbial respiration causes the mass to heat to
over 60°C (12). The resulting milled rice becomes yellow, regardless of variety,
due to the heating effect rather than direct microbial infestation, since the
yellowing can be simulated even for milled rice in a laboratory oven. Yellowing
reduces the lysine content of rice about 10% with a resultant drop in net pro-
tein utilization (NPU) in rats (10).
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

Hull tightness is a desirable storage trait of rough rice because a tight hull
protects the brown rice from infestation by insects and microorganisms.

Milling and Milling Fractions

Rice is consumed mainly as whole-grain cereal. Rough rice processing con-

sists of dehulling followed by abrasive milling of the brown rice to produce
milled or polished or white rice and bran and polish. In the Engelberg or huller-
type mills, dehulling and milling are done in one step with greater grain
breakage. The by-product is a mixture of hull and bran-polish, which is usually
used for animal feed. Modern rice mills produce separate fractions consisting of
bran, hull, and milled grain. For modern plants, hull disposal is a problem.
An important factor contributing to grain breakage during milling is pre-
formed fissures or cracks in brown rice resulting from moisture adsorption
stress during drying, storage, and milling (13). Varietal differences in suscep-
tibility to fissuring have been demonstrated for both rough rice and brown rice
(13,14). Hull tightness would affect the rate of moisture adsorption of rough
rice. Immature grains result in small, chalky brokens. Chalky portions in
nonwaxy endosperm contribute also to grain breakage (15). Chalky portions
correspond to loose arrangement of the cell contents (air spaces) (7). Yellow
grains resulting from stack burning are resistant to breakage during milling.
Parboiled rice also requires greater pressure to mill because of a harder endo-
sperm. The bran from parboiled rice also tends to clog the sieves (16).
Starch is localized mainly in the endosperm of the mature rice grain (Fig-
ure 1). Starch is classified based on amylose (linear fraction) content into waxy
(0-2% amylose) and nonwaxy-low (10-20%), intermediate (20-25%), and
high (25-33%) (17). Amylose content is measured by the iodine colorimetry
of alkali-dispersed milled rice with iodine-potassium iodide solution in acetate
buffer of pH 4.5-4.8 (18). Rice starch granules also differ in final gelatiniza-
tion temperature (GT), classified as low (<70°C), intermediate (70-74.5°C),
and high (75-80°C) (17). Not all combinations of amylose content and GT are
r
OS
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

Table I. Comparative Properties of Rough Rice and Its Fractions at 14% Moisture

Property Rough Rice Brown Rice Milled Rice Rice Bran Rice Hull

Crude protein (% N X 5.95) 5.8-7.7 7.1-8.3 6.3-7.1 11.3-14.9 2.0-2.8

Crude fat (%) 1.5-2.3 1.6-2.8 0.3-0.5 15.0-19.7 0.3-0.8
Crude fiber (%) 7.2-10.4 0.6-1.0 0.2-0.5 7.0-11.4 34.5-45.9
Crude ash (%) 2.9-5.2 1.0-1.5 0.3-0.8 6.6-9.9 13.2-21.0
Available carbohydrates (%) 64-73 73-87 77-89 34-62 22-35
Neutral detergent fiber (%) 16.4 3.9 0.7-2.3 24-29 66-74
Energy content (kJ/g) 15.8 15.2-16.1 14.6-15.6 16.7-19.9 11.1-13.9
Density (g/ml) 1.17-1.23 1.31 1.44-1.46 1.16-1.29 0.67-0.74
Bulk density (g/ml) 0.56-0.64 0.68 0.78-0.85 0.20-0.40 0.10-0.16

>
o
 RICE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING 427

known: waxy starch is mainly low GT with some high GT as with low amylose
starch. High GT is rare among intermediate- and high-amylose rices.
Bran is richer in minerals, vitamins, protein, fat, and fiber than milled rice
(5) (Table 1). Bran proteins are rich not only in the lysine-rich proteins
albumin (water-soluble) and globulin (salt-soluble), but also in antinutrition
factors—trypsin inhibitor and hemagglutinin or lectin, mainly in the embryo.
By contrast, milled rice (endosperm) is rich in glutelin (~80% of total), 15%
albumin-globulin, and less than 5% prolamin (alcohol-soluble). Crystalline
protein bodies are rich in albumin-globulin, whereas spherical protein bodies
are rich in prolamin (19). Protein complexed with starch granules not removed
by protease or dodecylbenzene sulfonate (0.1-0.7%) is mainly the Wx gene
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

product (20), which is proportionate to amylose content (21).

The lipid content is mainly in the bran fraction (20% dry basis) (see Table 1),
but about 1.5-1.7% is present in milled rice, mainly as nonstarch lipids ex-
tracted by ether, chloroform-methanol, and cold water-saturated butanol (22,
23). Protein bodies, particularly the core, are rich in lipids which are readily
extracted (22,24). Starch lipids are mainly monoacyl lipids (fatty acids and
lysophosphatides) complexed with amylose (22). The lipid content of starch is
lowest for waxy starch granules (about 0.2%) and highest for intermediate-
amylose rices (1.0%) and may be slightly lower in high-amylose rice (22,23).
Nonstarch lipids are involved in fat rancidity, since amylose protects starch
lipids from oxidation (25). Dietary fiber content as indexed by neutral deter-
gent fiber is also higher (about 30%) in bran (26) than in milled rice (0.5-
0.8%) (27) (see Table 1).

Aging and Parboiling

During ambient temperature storage of rough or brown rice, the endosperm

undergoes an aging process, particularly during the first 3-4 months after
harvest (28,29) (postharvest ripening). The endosperm becomes harder, result-
ing in better milling recoveries and more flaky cooked rice with less solids in
cooking gruel.
Parboiling is practiced in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh (where
up to 50% of the rice is consumed as milled parboiled rice), probably to accel-
erate aging of freshly harvested rice (16). Parboiling is also a "salvage" process
to upgrade chalky and wet, fermented, discolored paddy, which otherwise
would produce unacceptably low milling recoveries. The process consists of
steeping rough rice to equilibrium water content at a temperature below starch
GT, steaming with or without pressure for several minutes with minimum
caryopsis expansion, followed by cooling and slow drying (16,30). The endo-
sperm may become discolored, depending on severity of heating, and B
 428 JULIANO

vitamins diffuse inward from bran to endosperm. The resultant gelatinization

of starch results in a clear, harder endosperm, which resists breakage during
milling. However, parboiling results in slightly open hull and destroys anti-
oxidants (16), but inactivates lipoxygenase and other enzymes. In modern
parboiling processes using vacuum and steam under pressure, endosperm dis-
coloration is minimized.
Dry-heat methods may also be used to accelerate aging with the precaution
of retaining grain moisture, such as sealed containers, to minimize grain break-
age (31,32).
Rice is stored mainly as brown rice in Japan but as rough rice in most of
tropical Asia. Rubber rollers are used in Japan for dehulling to minimize
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

damage to or bruising of the brown rice surface. Stone dehullers damage the
brown rice surface, necessitating immediate milling; otherwise lipase action of
bran lipids proceeds readily as in the bran. Within a few weeks milled rice
storage results in the loosening of starch granules on the open surface cells,
which become powdery. In addition, off-flavors are produced, mainly from
oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids on the surface of milled rice, the major
carbonyl compound being hexanal (33).

Market Quality

Consumer preference studies and studies of market samples showed a consumer

preference and premium for whiteness or well-milled rice with minimum
brokens (34,35). Various markets prefer specific sizes and shapes. Fine-grain
varieties are preferred in the Philippines and Thailand, whereas shorter-grain
javanica or bulu varieties are preferred in Indonesia. Aromatic or scented fine
varieties are preferred in India and Pakistan, but small-grain samba varieties are
prized in Sri Lanka. Variety name is also sought, relative to cooking and eating
qualities. Certain aromatic varieties are prized, such as Khao Dawk Mali 105 in
Thailand, Basmati in India and Pakistan, aromatic upland rices in the Phil-
ippines, and Rojolele and Seratus Malam in Indonesia, all of which have
2-acetyl-l-pyrroline as the principal aroma compound of cooked rice (36).
Pandan (Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.) leaves, used to impart aroma to non-
aromatic rice during cooking in India and the Philippines, contain 2-acetyl-
l-pyrroline (37).
Pigmented rices, such as red rice, are common in Sri Lanka and among
African O. glaberrima rices.
 RICE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING 429

Cooking and Eating Qualities

Cooking time is directly affected by GT and by protein content and grain

thickness (38,39). Differences in GT were shown to influence the cooking rate
constants and enthalpy of cooking (40), particularly at temperatures of 8 0 -
90°C. Rice is cooked either in an optimum amount of water to produce soft-
cooked rice (optimum-water method) or in excess water until the core of grain
is gelatinized (excess-water method). In the excess-water method, cooking time
ranges from 15 to 25 min to achieve 72-75% moisture wet basis. In the
optimum-water method, water/rice ratio increases with amylose content, as
does volume expansion.
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

Cooked rices differ vastly in texture properties—softness, stickiness, gloss,

and whiteness—which are related to the amylose/amylopectin ratio of milled
rice (17,38). Waxy rice is very soft, cohesive, tacky, glossy, but darker colored
than nonwaxy rice. Waxy rice is the staple food in north and northeast
Thailand (Figure 2) and Laos. Low-amylose rice is consumed in most temperate
countries producing japonica rice. Intermediate-amylose rice is preferred over
high-amylose rice in Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, and
Burma because of its softer texture. High-amylose rices predominate in Bangla-
desh, Sri Lanka, India, and Pakistan, except for the intermediate-amylose,
aromatic fine rices grown in the Punjab area. Preferred high-amylose varieties
have intermediate GT and soft gel consistency and are softer-textured than
cooked, hard-gel, high-amylose rices. Unlike in the U.S. market, where low-
and medium-grain rices have low amylose and low GT and long-grain rices have
intermediate amylose and intermediate GT, the grain size and shape of indica
rices are not related to starch type in tropical rices. Waxy rices are preferred
for the preparation of sweets and desserts because of their sticky, soft texture
and the stability of their starch gel, even when refrigerated.

Nutritional Value

The nutritional value of milled rice is mainly determined by and predicted from
the protein content (41,42). Contributing factors are the high lysine content
(3.5-4.0%) of rice proteins (although this decreases with an increase in protein
content below 10% protein) and the low level of antinutrition factors in milled
rice. Although the first limiting essential amino acid of rice protein is lysine,
rice diets are probably not limiting in this amino acid, because the other
 430 JULIANO

Bangladesh
8
Burma
OQ O

China

India

Indonesia
o •
Japan
OOP <9r>

Korea
O O

Malaysia, West
. . . .
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

Malaysia, East
o *
Nepal

Pakistan

Philippines
QO

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Vietnam

Australia

Brazil
$% o 000
Egypt

Italy
o o odcro o
United States
o apt
U. S. S. R.
J I ,, I I I I I I I I ^ *l ^ * P |OI I I I I I I I I I
10 15 20 25 30
Milled rice amylose(%dry basis)

Figure 2. Scattergram of amylose content of milled rice from selected rice-producing

countries, o, low GT (alkali spreading value 6-7); • , intermediate or high GT (alkali spread-
ing value <6).
Source: IRRI, 1978-1983.
 o
pi
JO

pi
Table 2. Comparative Energy and Protein Availability in Brown Rice and Its Milling Fractions (44,45) jo
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

H
Property (Wet Basis) Undermilled Rice Milled Rice pi
Brown Rice Bran Polish
LSD >
Z
Wt % of Brown Rice 100 95 91 (5%)
o
JO
A. Rat Data o
n
Energy value (kj/g) 15.9 15.7 15.5 19.9 17.9 0.3 m
Digestible energy (kJ/g) 14.9 15.0 15.0 13.4 13.1
Protein content (% N X 6.25) 8.5 8.3 8.1 16.2 12.9 0.2
z
Lysine content (g/16 g N) 3.8 3.6 3.6 5.8 5.0 0.1 o
True N digestibility8 (% of intake) 96.9b 97.3ab 98.4a 78.8d 82.5c
Biological valuea (% of absorbed N) 68.9c 69.7b 67.5c 86.6a 86.3a
NPUa(% of intake) 66.7bc 67.8bc 66.4c 68.3b 71.2a

5. Preschool Children Data*

Energy absorbed (%) 90.1 ± 1.0b 92.0 ± 1.0a
Fat absorbed (%) 94.3 ± 1.8b — 97.6 ± 1.3a — —
N absorbed (% of intake) 59.7 ± 8.6a _ 63.3 +3.3a _
N retained (% of intake) 27.3 ± 9.4a 28.9 ± 2.4a
a
Means in the same line followed by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by Duncan's multiple range test (44).
Mean ± s.d., 6 children. 200 mg N/kg daily rice-milk diet with 2/3 of dietaiy N from rice (45).
 432 JULIANO

protein sources in the diet—fish, meat, and legumes—are rich in lysine (43).
Although brown rice protein has a slightly higher lysine content than milled
rice protein, the NPU of both proteins is similar because of the lower
digestibility of bran proteins (44,45) (Table 2). Energy digestibility is also
about 3% lower in brown rice.
Boiling reduces the digestibility of rice protein, in contrast to other cereal
proteins, but it improves the biological value of the protein such that NPU in
rats is not reduced (46). The poorly digested protein, which passes out of the
alimentary system as fecal protein particles, represents the lipid-rich core
proteins of the spherical protein bodies, which are poor in lysine but rich in
cystine (24).
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

The major nutritional limitation of milled rice is its low protein content.
Efforts to breed rice two percentage points higher in protein have not been
successful due to poor heritability of endosperm protein content. However,
early-maturing rices (90-110 days) tend to have higher grain protein content
than medium-maturity rices (47).

PROCESSED RICE PRODUCTS

Introduction

Milled rice for food applications is preferably well milled and freshly milled to
ensure low fat content and minimal fat rancidity. The flavor of cooked rice has
been attributed to hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and ethanal (48). Its level de-
creases during milled-rice aging (49). The level of sulfur volatiles, particularly
hydrogen sulfide and dimethyl sulfide, also decreases during storage (50).
Dimethyl sulfide is the off-flavor compound in rice wine (sake) prepared from
rice stored above 15°C (51).

Parboiled Rice

Parboiled milled rice is preferred to raw milled rice as the staple food in Bangla-
desh and Sri Lanka and by 50% of rice consumers in India and Pakistan. Par-
boiled rice is also the starting material for canned and quick-cooking rices in
the United States and for traditional puffed rice products, discussed in later
sections of this review.
Although parboiled milled rice takes longer to cook, cooking time may be
reduced by presoaking of the rice before cooking. Parboiled rice has a distinctly
different taste from that of raw rice. The cooked parboiled rice also does not
disintegrate on overcooking in contrast to cooked raw rice, but is firmer.
Parboiled rice is no more prone to oxidative rancidity than raw rice, probably
 RICE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING 433

because of the inactivation of lipoxygenase and antioxidants during parboiling

(16).

Precooked, Quick-Cooking, and Convenience

Rice Foods
Precooked and Quick-Cooking Rice
Quick-cooking rices have been reviewed (52-54). Quick-cooking rices require
significantly less cooking time than raw rice (raw milled rice requires 15-25
min and raw brown rice, 45-60 min). Parboiled rice requires a much longer
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

time. The grain is precooked in boiling water, steam, or both, and usually dried
in such a way that a porous and open-structured condition, without clumping,
is retained (52,54). An exception is the dry-heat treatment, where the grain
fissures but the starch granules are not gelatinized. Easy-to-cook brown rice in
Japan is prepared by drying brown rice in a countercurrent hot-air stream at
105-130°C for 10-30 min and quickly cooling below 30°C, which makes it
cook as fast as milled rice and allows it to be cooked together with milled rice
(54). "Cream of rice" is raw milled rice grits from low-GT, low-amylose rice
and cooks quicker because of smaller particle size.

Canned Rice
The desired canned rice product in the U. S. is white, with separate noncohesive
grains, a minimum amount of longitudinal splitting and fraying of edges and
ends, and a clear canning liquor (55). Because of the required cooked rice
stability, intermediate-amylose rices are used in canned rice. The grain is
usually parboiled before canning to produce the desired stability. Cross-linking
also improves grain stability, but chemicals used are not approved for food
applications. A pH below 4.6 is suggested for canned rice to reduce microbial
contamination, because retorted canned rice may not be completely sterilized.
In Japan, low-amylose milled rice with water or broth or other seasoning is
placed in tin cans, steamed for about 30 min, and sealed and sterilized in a
retort at 112°C for 80 min (54). Canned rice is placed in boiling water for
15 min before serving. Seasoned canned rice is marketed primarily as military
rations and as emergency foods. Intermediate-amylose rice is also used in
canned rice for the military in the Philippines.

Infant Foods
Production of precooked infant rice cereal consists of preparing and cooking a
cereal slurry, which is then dried in a double-drum atmospheric drier, flaked,
 434 JULIANO

and packaged (56). Many of the problems associated with the production of
infant rice cereal can be traced to the starch fraction. Hydrated precooked and
ready-to-eat baby foods must have the right consistency—soft enough to be
swallowed easily but thick enough to feed without spilling. Malt and fungal
a-amylase may be added to control the quantity of liquid required to re-
constitute the dried cereal by partial hydrolysis of the starch.
Rice grits are also used in baby foods to adjust the consistency (57). Low-
amylose rices give stable gels and are very efficient stabilizers, unlike inter-
mediate-amylose rices which show syneresis or separation of rigid gel and
liquid. Rice flour is not a suitable stabilizer for acid products at pH 4.3 or
lower, because of severe thinning due to acid hydrolysis during processing. Free
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

fatty acids protect the starch amylose from liquefaction.

Convenience Rice Foods

Precooked rice is used for rice-based convenience food products, wherein non-
rice ingredients are packed separately and mixed only during heating. Wild rice
(Zizania aquatica) mixed with milled rice is popular in the U.S. Wild rice is
not an Oryza species and is closer to oats. Its characteristic flavor is enhanced
by curing (short-term wet storage) with active fermentation followed by parch-
ing (drying from 35-50% moisture to 7-12% with gelatinization) (58). Retort
rice in Japan is made by hermetically sealing cooked nonwaxy and waxy rice
in laminated plastic or aluminum-laminated plastic pouches, and pasteurizing
at 120°C (54). Steamed waxy rice with red beans accounts for 80% of retort
rice in Japan. An aluminum-laminated plastic film pouch is wanned directly
in hot water for 10-15 min, whereas plastic pouches may be punctured and
heated in a microwave oven for 1-2 min.

Expanded Rice Products

Popped and Puffed Rices
Popped and puffed rice are traditional breakfast cereals and snack foods (54,
59). In India, Nepal, and Japan, raw rice is traditionally popped by heating
rough rice (13-17% moisture) at about 240°C within 30-35 sec, 275°C for
40-45 sec, or in an oil bath at 215-230°C (54,59,60). The hull contributes to
pressure retention before popping, because brown rice produces a lower
popping percentage than rough rice. Good popping varieties have a tight hull,
significant clearance between hull and brown rice, and, freshly harvested, are
free of grain fissures. Although waxy rices give high volume expansion, three
Nepalese varieties used for popped rice also have high amylose and intermediate
GT(61).
 RICE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING 435

Puffed- and flaked-rice products are popular snack foods (54). The process
consists of steeping rough rice in cold or warm water, toasting the steeped
grain, usually in hot sand, at about 250°C to parboil for 40-60 sec, tempering
for a few minutes, and flattening with either a wooden mortar and pestle or an
edge-runner (62). Nonwaxy rice is used in India and Bangladesh, but waxy rice
is used in the Philippines (63).
Flaked or beaten rice (brown rice) and parboiled milled rice may be con-
verted to puffed rice by heating in hot air or roasting in hot sand (54). With
normal parboiled milled rice, puffed volume was directly proportional to
severity of parboiling (equilibrium water content of steeped grain) and was
highest for waxy rice (64). However, with increasing temperature and period of
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

roasting rough rice, high-amylose rice (specifically 27%) gave the maximum
puffed volume on roasting of beaten rice (65). Presumably the minimal
retrogradation of parboiled starch in sand roasting allowed the expansion of
nonwaxy starch in contrast to normal parboiled rice.

Dry Breakfast Cereals and Snack Foods

In the U.S., dry rice breakfast cereals include rice flakes, oven-, gun-, or
extruder-puffed rice, shredded-rice cereal, and multigrain cereals (56). They
are of the ready-to-eat type, where rice starch has texture-modifying properties
and rice also imparts its own special flavor. Among the important properties
is "bowl life," or the ability to retain its texture and crispness in milk while
being eaten. Moisture-proof packaging is critical for optimum shelf life. While
low-amylose, low-GT rices are used for breakfast cereals in the U.S., inter-
mediate- and high-amylose rices are used in the Philippines, provided the degree
of cooking is similarly controlled to obtain an acceptable puffed volume from
the grain (54).
Gun puffing of raw milled rice preheated with steam has been duplicated by
extrusion cooking (54). Aged rice is preferred. Molded, caramelized, puffed
nonwaxy and waxy rice is a common snack in the Philippines. Okoshi is a
typical Japanese rice cake made of puffed broken rice mixed and molded with
millet jelly, sugar, and flavoring (54). "Puffrice Cracker" uses brown rice,
mainly immature grains, moistened to about 30%, passed through an extruder
where it is cooked 10 sec at 100°C, and extruded as a sheet at a die tempera-
ture of 140°C (54). The sheet is then cut into plate-size pieces, dried, and
packed.

Extrusion-Cooked Products
Extrusion cooking has been used in preparing snack foods. It is also used to
prepare precooked, rice-based baby foods, because the extruded product does
 436 JULIANO

not require much additional drying before packaging (54). However, optimum
conditions for extrusion cooking differ among extruders and are affected by
the particle size of dry-milled flour, moisture content of batter, and extrusion
temperature and pressure. Starch granules are completely gelatinized, but
spherical protein bodies in the protein masses maintain their structure (66).
For flours extruded at 15% moisture at 150°C, some (11-13%) decrease in
lysine content is noted which corresponds to 3-5% lower true protein
digestibility and biological value, and 7-8% lower NPU in growing rats (67).
The viscosity in water and 0.2 N KOH dropped drastically. Mung bean and
milk showed a greater decrease in lysine content during extrusion cooking with
rice to the extent that the lysine content dropped from 6.1 to 3.3 g/16 g N
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

for a rice-mung bean-milk formulation (67).

Rice Dishes, Breads, and Cakes

Rice Dishes and Puddings
Specific rice types are used for various rice dishes. Waxy rices are commonly
used for sweets and desserts. Low-amylose rices are used for Spanish paella
and Italian risotto because of the cohesive nature of the cooked rice.
Low-amylose, short-grain rice is used in preparing rice pudding in the U.S.,
Europe, China, etc. (68). The rice is cooked in boiling water, strained, and
mixed with milk before the completion of cooking. Egg yolks, sugar, vanilla,
and light cream are added together with a variety of fruit combinations. The
Japanese rice pudding uiro consists of waxy rice flour, corn starch, sugar,
water, and flavoring mixed and steamed for 60 min at 100°C with sweet bean
curd, green tea, coffee, cherries, and other fruits (54).

Rice Breads
A 100% rice-flour, yeast-leavened bread has been successfully developed con-
sisting of 100 parts rice flour, 75 parts water, 7.5 parts sugar, 6 parts oil, 3
parts fresh compressed yeast, 3 parts hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, and 2
parts salt (69). Although all nonwaxy rices produce breads of equivalent ap-
pearance, only low-amylose, low-GT rices gave soft-texture bread crumb. Inter-
mediate-amylose, intermediate-GT rices gave sandy, dry-crumb characteristics.
However, among low-GT rices, low-amylose rice gave lower loaf volume than
intermediate- and high-amylose rices (7). Wet-milled flour gave improved
texture over dry-milled flour.
Rice flour, in addition to sorghum (54), has also been used in making
Pakistani bread similar to roti, the flat unleavened bread commonly made from
 RICE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING 437

wheat flour. The desired bread similar to wheat chapatti is puffed, semilight,
flexible, uniformly round and firm, but not rough. Red rices, such as Dwarf
Red Gunja, are preferred in some villages in Sind Pakistan for rice bread.
IRRI6 (IR6-159-2 or Mehran 69) also produced better bread than IR8, which
remains soft longer. Rice flour may be added in a proportion of up to 15% to
wheat flour. The addition of 21% rice in chapatti results in still acceptable but
difficult-to-slice bread.

Rice Cakes

An all-rice-flour layer cake formula consists of 100 parts rice flour, 80 parts
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

sugar, 80 parts water, 15 parts oil, and 5-7 parts double-acting baking powder
(69). Again, flours from low-amylose, low-GT rices are preferred for the
formula; intermediate-amylose, intermediate-GT rices gave sandy, dry texture.
Because a high level of sugar markedly increases GT, low-GT rices in 50%
sucrose had 80°C GT, but intermediate-GT rices had 92°C GT. Even when
sucrose level was reduced to have 80°C GT for the intermediate-GT rice,
volume and contour of the cakes improved but sandy texture remained.
Hydrating the rice flour by intense mixing of the flour and water and holding
of the hydrated mixture improved the texture and volume of the cake.
Baked Japanese cakes include senbei and arare (54,68). Senbei is a cracker-
like snack made of nonwaxy rice flour baked at 200-260°C. Arare is cracker
made from waxy rice. Arare expands more during baking, produces a soft
texture, and can be easily dissolved in the mouth. Senbei is harder and rougher.
Dryland rices give lower expanded volume of arare than wetland rices (71).
Similar dry cakes are traditionally prepared in the Philippines {puto seko) and
in China (xianggao).
Janapese rice cake or paste (mochi) is traditionally prepared from waxy
milled rice by washing, steaming at 100°C for about 15 min to a 40% moisture
content, grinding (kneading or mortar and pestle), packing in plastic film,
pasteurizing 20 min at 80°C, and cooling (54). Recently, gelatinized waxy rice
flour has been manufactured directly by extrusion cooking and has multi-
purpose applications including mochi. Mochi is usually cut into pieces,
toasted, and seasoned with soy sauce or wrapped in dried laver, and eaten as
a snack. Preferred waxy rices have a starch final GT of 66-69°C (72,73).
Wet-milled waxy or nonwaxy rice flour may be kneaded with water and con-
verted to sweetened rice cake (nenkau in China or puto in the Philippines)
by adding sugar and other ingredients before steaming (54). A yeast-fermented
rice cake is produced in the Philippines for which aged, intermediate-amylose
rice yielded the greatest volume expansion and optimum softness of steamed
cake (74). Overnight fermentation provides carbon dioxide and flavor.
 438 JULIANO

Rice Flours and Starch

Rice Flours
Dry-milled, waxy and nonwaxy rice flours are available in Japan and other
countries together with pregelatinized flours (54,69). Wet-milled rice flour
usually produces a finer textured product than dry-milled rice flour, such as in
rice cakes and desserts and sweets, because of the reduction of milled rice into
discrete starch granules 3-9 jum in size, with damaged starch removed during
filtration or centrifugation.
The white bran produced from the overmilling of nonwaxy milled rice for
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

sake manufacture is relatively rich in protein and suitable for the preparation of
infant food (75).

Rice Starch
Rice starch production involves mainly wet milling of broken rice with 0.3-
0.5% NaOH to remove protein (76). Steeping of brokens in an alkali solution
for 24 hr is followed by wet milling in pin mills, hammermills, or stone-mill
disintegrators with the alkali solution. After storing the batter for 10-24 hr,
fiber is removed by passing through screens and the starch is collected by
centrifugation, washed with water, and dried. Protein in the effluent is
recovered by neutralization and used as an animal feed supplement. In the
EEC, about 8,800 t of broken rice is processed to about 7,000 t starch in
5-6 plants in four countries: Belgium, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands
(77). Rice starch is used exclusively in the human food section, largely for baby
food. Egypt and Syria also produce rice starch, but Japan and the U.S. are
no longer in production because of the prohibitive cost of rice.

Rice Noodles

Rice noodle (Chinese meiri) is the principal form of processed rice product
consumed in Southeast Asia. It is served during birthdays and anniversaries to
symbolize long life (54). Noodles may be fried, mixed with meat, or used in
soups. Noodles prepared from cereals without gluten, such as rice, require some
gelatinized starch to act as a binder in place of gluten. They may either be
extruded or sheeted.
Traditionally, extruded noodles (bihon, bijon, bifun, or vermicelli) are pre-
pared from high-amylose milled rice or brokens by wet milling steeped milled
rice, kneading into balls, surface-gelatinizing kneaded flour balls in boiling
water bath, remixing, extruding through hydraulic press with die, subjecting
extruded noodles to heat treatment for surface gelatinization, soaking in cold
 RICE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING 439

water, and drying in racks (54). Freshly milled rice is preferred to minimize
lipid rancidity. Although extruded noodles are not gelatinized in Western
processes, boiling the extruded noodles improves the boiling-water stability
of the noodles. The rice undergoes considerable starch degradation during
processing as indexed by gel consistency and viscosity (75). The hard gel
consistency of high-amylose rices is preferred for extruded noodles for maxi-
mum stability of noodles in boiling water. Low-amylose local rices cannot
replace imported high-amylose rice for extruded noodles in Japan (54).
Rice grits (dry-milled) and wet-milled flour are starting materials for the
preparation of sheeted or flat noodles (54). The traditional Thai process uses
wet-milled flour batter placed in a noodle-making machine consisting of a
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

trough with a smooth sealed horizontal drum dipping up to halfway in the

rice batter. The smooth drum is then slowly rotated, and the adhering milk
layer is scraped by a stainless steel sheet at a 45° angle and allowed to flow
onto a taut cotton conveyor into a steam tunnel for gelatinization. The
gelatinized sheet (about 1 mm thick) then passes through driers via conveyor
belts and through a cutter. The partially dried plates are placed on frames to
be further dried and cut into noodle strips with a paper cutter before final
drying. The rice undergoes very minimal shear in the process and maintains
its gel viscosity. Low-amylose, dry-milled Japanese rice grits with a 100-
150 Mm fraction gave satisfactory sheeted Japanese noodles (79), which are
sold at 33-40% moisture just like wheat noodle or udon.

Fermented Rice Foods

Idli (rice pudding) and dosai (rice cake) are prepared in India from a mixture
of rice and black gram (Phaseolus mungo), about 3:1 by weight, typically as
a breakfast food. Parboiled milled rice and decorticated black gram are washed,
soaked 5-10 hr in 1.5-2.2 times by weight of water, and wet-milled separately
to give coarse (0.6 mm) rice flour and smooth gelatinous gram paste (80). The
flours are mixed together with 0.8% salt, and the thick batter is fermented
overnight, steamed, and served hot. Ingredients added to idli for flavor are
cashew nut, ghee, pepper, ginger, sour buttermilk, and yeast. Dosai usually
contains less black gram and is usually fried, not steamed. Batter quality of
idli is attributed to the globulin protein and the arabinogalactan of black gram
(81). The globulin helps in raising the dough, but arabinogalactan stabilizes the
foam network even at steaming temperatures, contributing to the porosity of
the steamed idli. Parboiled high-amylose rices are suitable for idli. The rice
batter probably contributes also to gas retention as in fermented rice cake.
Other fermented rice products are Sierra rice (amarillo or requemado) from
Latin America, angkak (anka, red rice), and waxy rice wines (80,82,83).
 440 JULIANO

Sierra rice is derived from moist rough rice fermented by the microorganisms
with which it is contaminated, with heating up to 50-70°C. The grain be-
comes yellow to brown, and the grain is precooked and predigested. Angkak
may be produced by Monascus purpureus mold on cooked rice at 35%
moisture, pH 6.5, at room temperature (84), and is used as a coloring agent for
food such as fermented fish (80).

Rice Wines and Beer Adjunct

Rice Wines
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

Various fermented, waxy rice wines are prepared by fermenting steamed waxy
milled rice with fungi and yeast starter (80,82,83,85). A sweet product is
produced first, which then becomes alcoholic as fermentation progresses. The
liquid is removed by decantation. Examples are Chinese lao-chao, Thai
khaomak, Indonesian tape ketan, and Philippine tapuy. Indian shonti annam
uses cooked nonwaxy rice. Starters are readily available in the market.
Rice is the sole cereal source in rice wine such as sake (75). The raw ma-
terial is highly milled rice (to remove 25-30% by weight of brown rice) with
a low amylose and low GT and with a white core for ease of swelling, cook-
ing, and penetration by mycelia of Aspergillus oryzae. Overmilling results
in lower (5-6%) protein content and only 0.1% nonstarch lipids and 0.7% fat-
by-hydrolysis (starch lipids) and lower K and P content. Steamed rice is inocu-
lated with koji, a culture of Aspergillus oryzae grown on steam rice and seed
mash. Sake yeast is grown on koji and steamed rice containing 70 ml lactic
acid/100 liter water at 12°C. Three more additions of materials are made to
maintain fermentation. Sugars liberated by A. oryzae enzymes from rice are
fermented by yeast and the level of sugars regulates the rate of fermentation
by yeast. An ethanol content of up to 20% is tolerated by the sake yeast. After
fermentation, ethanol is added to adjust the final ethanol level to 20-22%.
The mash is filtered, clarified, pasteurized, and matured or aged for 3-8
months. It is then blended, adjusted to 15-16% ethanol content, filtered
through activated carbon, bottled, and pasteurized.
Steaming denatures rice protein (24), making it resistant to the action of
acid proteases. One of the main flavor components of sake is isoamyl acetate
(86). Isoamyl alcohol may be derived by assimilation and metabolism by
yeast of leucine from rice protein hydrolysis, followed by acetic acid esterifica-
tion. Recent developments in sake production are the use of lipase during
steeping of rice and dehydration of steamed rice with ethanol (both of which
reduce lipid content), the use of raw rice, and the use of saccharified rice bran.
Treating rice with the insecticide methyl bromide results in methylation of
rice proteins. In. sake mash fermentation, these proteins are decomposed to
 RICE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING 441

form methyl methionine, which divides spontaneously into homoserine and

dimethyl sulfide while sake is aged (87). Dimethyl sulfide gives an off-flavor to
sake.

Beer Adjunct
Broken rice, together with corn grits, is an adjunct in beer manufacture (75).
Rice is preferable because of its lower protein and lipid content (<1.5%).
Broken rice is obtained from regular milling of brown rice in most countries
except in Japan, where broken rice is milled from broken brown rice (rice is
stored as brown rice in Japan). Broken rice must be free of bran contamination.
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

Low-GT, low-amylose rices are used because intermediate-GT, intermediate-

amylose rices are relatively resistant to starch liquefaction. Complete liquefac-
tion is critical, and faster gelatinized low-GT starch of low amylose content is
probably hydrolyzed much faster by malt enzymes during mashing. The starch
can be gelatinized at temperatures below 70°C and requires less cooling before
malt addition. Enzymes are rapidly inactivated at 70°C.
A summary of the food and beverages prepared from rice and the usual or
preferred amylose type of milled rice for each product is given in Table 3.

Table 3. Rice Food and Beverage Products Prepared from Milled Rice and the
Various Amylose Types Usually Used for Their Processing

Nonwaxy Amylose Type

Product Waxy Low Intermediate High

Rice noodles, extruded +

Rice noodles, sheeted + +
Parboiled rice + + +
Quick-cooking rices + + + +
Canned rice + + +
Desserts and sweets + +
Puddings and frozen sauces + +
Infant foods + +
Dry breakfast cereals + +
Popped rice + +
Puffed rices + + +
Rice cakes +a +a +
Rice crackers + + +
Rice breads +a +
Rice wines + +
Beer adjunct +a
a
Low GT desirable.
 442 JULIANO

Environmental factors, particularly temperature during ripening, probably

affect grain starch properties. High temperature independently decreases
amylose content and increases starch GT, while low temperature increases
amylose content and decreases starch GT (88-90).

SUMMARY

Milled rice consists of 90% starch, 8% protein, and less than 1% each crude ash,
crude fiber, and crude fat. Factors affecting milling quality are variety,
maturity, dormancy, fissured and chalky grains, stack burning, aging, and par-
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

boiling. Starch properties affecting cooking and eating quality are amylose
content and, within the same amylose class, starch final gelatinization tempera-
ture and gel consistency. Nutritional value of milled rice is determined by
protein content because of its high lysine content and the absence of anti-
nutrition factors.
Fresh, highly milled rice is preferred in processed rice products to minimize
nonstarch, lipid oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity. Varietal differences in
starch properties and cooked rice texture are taken advantage of in preparing
quick-cooking rice, cooked rice, popped and puffed rices, rice noodles, infant,
breakfast, and snack foods, cakes, pudding and breads, and fermented rice
foods and beverages.

REFERENCES
1. D. F. Houston, Ed., "Rice Chemistry and Technology," Am. Assoc. Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, Minn., 1972.
2. E. V. Araullo, D. B. de Padua, and M. Graham, Eds., "Rice Postharvest Technology,"
Int. Dev. Res. Cent., Ottawa, 1976.
3. International Rice Research Institute, "Proceedings of a Workshop on Chemical Aspects
of Rice Grain Quality," Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines, 1979.
4. B. S. Luh, Ed., "Rice Production and Utilization," AVI, Westport, Conn., 1980.
5. B. O. Juliano, Ed., "Rice Chemistry and Technology," rev. ed., Am. Assoc. Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1985.
6. K. Tanaka, T. Yoshida, K. Asada, and Z. Kasai, Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 155, 136
(1973).
7. A. R. del Rosario, V. P. Briones, A. J. Vidal, and B. O. Juliano, Cereal Chem., 45, 225
(1968).
8. D. B. Bechtel and Y. Pomeranz, Am. J. Bot., 64, 966 (1977).
9. Y. M. Indudhara Swamy and K. R. Bhattacharya, J. Food Proc. Eng., 3, 29 (1979).
10. E. P. Navasero, L. C. Baun, and B. O. Juliano, Phytochem., 14, 1899 (1975).
11. G. A. Martires, Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Santo Tomas, Manila, 1975.
12. B. O. Eggum, B. O. Juliano, C. P. Villareal, and C. M. Perez, Qual. Plant. Plant Foods
Hum. Nutr., 34, 261 (1984).
 RICE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING 443

13. O. R. Kunze and C. W. Hall, Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Engr., 21, 361 (1965).
14. T. Srinivas, M. K. Bhashyam, M. K. Mune Gowda, and H. S. R. Desikachar, Indian J.
Agric. Sci., 48, 424 (1978).
15. Y. M. Indudhara Swamy and K. R. Bhattacharya, J. Food Sci. Technol., 19, 125
(1982).
16. K. R. Bhattacharya, in "Rice Chemistry and Technology," revised ed., B. O. Juliano,
Ed., Am. Assoc. Cereal Chemist, St. Paul, Minn., 1985.
17. B. O. Juliano, in "Proceedings of a Workshop on Chemical Aspects of Rice Grain
Quality," International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines, 1979,
p. 69.
18. B. O. Juliano, C. M. Perez, A. B. Blakeney, D. T. Castillo, N. Kongseree, B. Laignelet,
E. T. Lapis, V. V. S. Murty, C. M. Paule, and B. D. Webb, Starke, 33, 157 (1981).
19. K. Tanaka, T. Sugimoto, M. Ogawa, and Z. Kasai, Agric. Biol. Chem., 44, 1633 (1980).
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

20. Y. Sano, Theoret. Appl. Genet., 68, 467 (1984).

21. International Rice Research Institute, "Annual Report for 1984," Los Baños, Laguna,
Philippines, 1985.
22. N. H. Choudhury and B. O. Juliano, Phytochem., 19, 1385 (1980).
23. B. O. Juliano and M. S. Goddard, Qual. Plant. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. (in press).
24. Y. Tanaka, A. P. Resurreccion, B. O. Juliano, and D. B. Bechtel, Agric. Biol. Chem.,
42, 2015(1978).
25. W. R. Morrison, J. Sci. Food Agric., 29, 365 (1978).
26. C. C. Maniñgat and B. O. Juliano, Phytochem., 21, 2509 (1982).
27. C. G. Pascual and B. O. Juliano, Phytochem., 22, 151 (1983).
28. R. M. Villareal, A. P. Resurreccion, L. B. Suzuki, and B. O. Juliano, Starke, 28, 88
(1976).
29. C. M. Perez and B. O. Juliano, in "Documentation of the GASCA Seminar Paddy
Deterioration in the Humid Tropics," Baguio, 1981, German Agency for Technical
Cooperation (GTZ), Eschborn, Germany, 1982, p. 180.
30. S. N. Raghavendra Rao and B. O. Juliano, J. Agric. Food Chem., 18, 289 (1970).
31. K. R. Bhattacharya, H. S. R. Desikachar, and V. Subrahmanyan, Indian J. Technol., 2,
378 (1964).
32. F. L. Normand, J. T. Hogan, and H. J. Deobald, Rice J., 67(13), 7 (1964).
33. T. Tsugita, T. Ohta, and H. Kato, Agric. Biol. Chem., 47, 543 (1983).
34. A. M. del Mundo and B. O. Juliano, J. Texture Stud., 12, 107 (1981).
35. L. J. Unnevehr, B. O. Juliano, and C. M. Perez, International Rice Research Institute
(Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines), Res. Paper Ser. No. 116 (1985), 20 pp.
36. R. G. Buttery, L. C. Ling, B. O. Juliano, and J. G. Turnbaugh, J. Agric. Food Chem.,
31, 823 (1983).
37. R. G. Buttery, B. O. Juliano, and L. C. Ling, Chem. Ind. London, 478 (1983).
38. B. O. Juliano, L. U. Oñate, and A. M. del Mundo, Food Technol., 19, 1006 (1965).
39. B. O. Juliano and C. M. Perez, J. Texture Stud., 14, 235 (1983).
40. B. O. Juliano and C. M. Perez, Food Chem. (accepted for publication).
41. W. C. MacLean, Jr., G. L. Klein, G. Lopez de Romaña, E. Massa, and G. G. Graham,
J. Nutr., 108, 1740 (1978).
42. B. V. Roxas, C. LI. Intengan, and B. O. Juliano, J. Nutr., 109, 832 (1979).
43. M. Autret, J. Périssé, F. Sizaret, and M. Cresta, Nutr. Newslett. FAO, 6(4), 1 (1968).
44. B. O. Eggum, B. O. Juliano, and C. C. Maniñgat, Qual. Plant. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr.,
32, 371 (1982).
45. M. I. C. Santiago, B. V. Roxas, C. LI. Intengan, and B. O. Juliano, Qual. Plant. Plant
Foods Hum. Nutr., 34, 15 (1984).
 444 JULIANO

46. B. O. Eggum, A. P. Resurreccion, and B. O. Juliano, Nutr. Rep. Int., 16, 649 (1977).
47. International Rice Research Institute, "Annual Report for 1983," Los Baños, Laguna,
Philippines, 1984, p. 69.
48. Y. Obata and H. Tanaka, Agric. Biol. Chem., 29, 191 (1965).
49. S. Moritaka and K. Yasumatsu, Eiyo To Shokuryo, 25, 59 (1972).
50. S. Sato, M. Tadenuma, T. Oba, Y. Takahashi, and K. Koike, Nippon Jozo Kyokai
Zasshi, 71, 387 (1976).
51. K. Takahashi, T. Ohba, M. Takagi, S. Sato, and Y. Namba, Hakko Kogaku Zasshi,
57, 148 (1979).
52. R. L. Roberts, in "Rice Chemistry and Technology," D. F. Houston, Ed., Am. Assoc.
Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1972, p. 381.
53. B. S. Luh, R. L. Roberts, and C.-F. Li, in "Rice: Production and Utilization," B. S.
Luh, Ed., AVI, Westport, Conn., 1980, p. 566.
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

54. B. O. Juliano and J. Sakurai, in "Rice Chemistry and Technology," revised ed., B. O.
Juliano, Ed., Am. Assoc. Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1985.
55. E. E. Burns and D. L. Gerdes, in "Rice Chemistry and Technology," revised ed., B. O.
Juliano, Ed., Am. Assoc. Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1985.
56. S. F. Brockington and V. J. Kelly, in "Rice Chemistry and Technology," D. F.
Houston, Ed., Am. Assoc. Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1972, p. 400.
57. V. J. Kelly, in "Rice Chemistry and Technology," B. O. Juliano, Ed., Am. Assoc.
Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1985.
58. D. B. Lund, R. C. Lindsay, D. A. Stuiber, C. E. Johnson, and E. H. Marth, Cereal
Foods World, 20, 150 (1975).
59. T. Srinivas and H. S. R. Desikachar, J. Sci. Food Agric., 24, 883 (1973).
60. International Rice Research Institute, in "Annual Report for 1975," Los Bafios,
Laguna, Philippines, 1976, p. 83.
61. International Rice Research Institute, in "Annual Report for 1983," Los Baños,
Laguna, Philippines, 1984, p. 21.
62. R. Shankara, T. K. Ananthachar, H. V. Narasimha, H. Krishnamurthy, and H. S. R.
Desikachar, J. Food Sci. Technol., 21, 121 (1984).
63. A. A. Antonio and B. O. Juliano, Philipp. Agric., 58, 17 (1974).
64. A. A. Antonio and B. O. Juliano, J. Food Sci., 38, 915 (1973).
65. R. Chinnaswamy and K. R. Bhattacharya, J. Cereal Sci., 2, 273 (1984).
66. M. B. de Mosqueda, C. M. Perez, R. R. del Rosario, B. O. Juliano, and D. B. Bechtel,
Food Chem., 19 (in press, 1986).
67. B. O. Eggum, B. O. Juliano, M. G. B. Ibabao, and C. M. Perez, Food Chem., 19 (in
press, 1986).
68. C.-F. Li and B. S. Luh, in "Rice: Production and Utilization," B. S. Luh, Ed., AVI,
Westport, Conn., 1980, p. 690.
69. M. M. Bean and K. D. Nishita, in "Rice Chemistry and Technology," revised ed., B. O.
Juliano, Ed., Am. Assoc. Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn, 1985.
70. International Rice Research Institute, in "Annual Report for 1975," Los Baños,
Laguna, Philippines, 1976, p. 83.
71. H. Yanase, I. Endo, N. Shibuya, and K. Ohtsubo, Shokury o Kenkyusho Kenkyu
Hokoku, 41, 39 (1982).
72. E. P. Palmiano and B. O. Juliano, Agric. Biol. Chem., 36, 157 (1972).
73. H. Yanase, I. Endo, and S. Chikubu, Shokuryo Kenkyusho Kenkyu Hokoku, 40, 8
(1982).
74. A. A. Perdon and B. O. Juliano, Stärke, 27, 196 (1975).
 RICE PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING 445

75. K. Yoshizawa and S. Kishi, in "Rice Chemistry and Technology," revised ed., B. O.
Juliano, Ed., Am. Assoc. Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1985.
76. B. O. Juliano, in "Starch Chemistry and Technology," 2nd ed., R. L. Whistler, J. N.
BeMiller, and E. F. Paschall, Eds., Academic Press, Orlando, 1984, p. 507.
77. W. Kempf, Stärke, 36, 333 (1984).
78. A. K. Khandker, M. B. de Mosqueda, R. R. del Rosario, and B. O. Juliano, ASEAN
Food J. (submitted for publication).
79. S. Saito, Denpun Kagaku, 27, 295 (1980).
80. C. W. Hesseltine, J. Am. Oil Chemists' Soc., 56, 367 (1979).
81. N. S. Susheelamma and M. V. L. Rao, J. Food Sci., 44, 1309 (1979).
82. A. G. van Veen, in "Rice Chemistry and Technology," D. F. Houston, Ed., Am. Assoc.
Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1972, p. 428.
83. H.-H. Wang, in "Rice: Production and Utilization," B. S. Luh, Ed., AVI, Westport,
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 09:25 12 August 2014

Conn., 1980, p. 650.

84. E. I. Dizon and P. C. Sanchez, Philipp. Agric., 67, 25 (1984).
85. S. Saono, F. G. Winarno, and D. Kardjati, Eds., "Proc. Techn. Seminar, Traditional
Food Fermentation as Industrial Resources in ASCA Countries," Medan, Indonesia,
1981, Indonesian Inst. Sci., Jakarta, 1982.
86. T. Ishikawa and K. Yoshizawa, Agric. Biol. Chem., 43, 45 (1979).
87. K. Kitamoto, T. Ohba, and Y. Namba, Agric. Biol. Chem., 45, 1713 (1981).
88. Z. Nikuni, S. Hizukuri, K. Kumagai, H. Hasegawa, T. Moriwaki, T. Fukui, K. Doi,
S. Nara, and L. Maeda, Mem. Inst. Sci. Ind. Res. Osaka Univ., 26, 1 (1969).
89. A. P. Resurreccion, T. Hara, B. O. Juliano, and S. Yoshida, Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 23,
109 (1977).
90. M. Asaoka, K. Okuno, Y. Sugimoto, J. Kawakami, and H. Fuwa, Stärke, 36, 189
(1984).