Genetics Lecture ❖ Interphase (18-24 hrs)

Midterm Notes (Chapters 3-4) G1 phase - Gap 1; ~10 hrs

S phase - DNA synthesis; ~9 hrs
G2 phase - Gap 2; ~4 hrs
CHAPTER 3. Chromosomal Basis of Heredity
❖ Mitosis Proper (0.5-2 hrs)
3 Important Events in Chromosomes

1. The number of chromosomes in a nucleus of each

somatic cell in a species is fixed.

❖ G1 phase
- growth
Amoeba = 12 Mango = 40 Chimps = 48 Horse = 64 - cellular contents are duplicated
Mosquito = 6 Dog = 78 Cat = 38 Elephant = 56
❖ S phase (S stands for synthesis of DNA)
- DNA replicates
- makes histones
2. The chromosomes in the nuclei of somatic cells usually
- to ensure that each chromosomal DNA is replicated
present in pairs.
once and only once per cycle
3. The gametes contain only one set of chromosomes
❖ G2 phase
(haploid). => Mendel’s Law of Segregation
- cell "double checks" duplicated DNA

Colors => loci (location of genes)

Cell Cycle
 Prophase

❖ Duplicated chromosomes are prepared.

❖ Nuclear membrane breaks down providing interaction
between spindle & chromosomes
❖ Marks prometaphase

Metaphase

❖ Chromosomes align at the equator

3 types of microtubules:

➢ Astral - from centrosome

➢ Kinetochore - attached to chromosome
➢ Polar - from centrosome past the chromosomes

Eukaryotic Chromosome
Mitosis
❖ Centromere – central element of kinetochore
- is a precise process of nuclear division that ensures that
❖ Kinetochore
each of two daughter cells receives a diploid complement of
– complex DNA & proteins to which the spindle fibers
chromosomes identical with the diploid complement of the
attach
parent cell.
- protects our chromosomes
1. Each chromosome is already present as a duplicated
structure at the beginning of nuclear division. (The duplication
of each chromosome coincides with the replication of the DNA
molecule contained within it.)

2. Each chromosome divides longitudinally into identical

halves that become separated from each other.

3. The separated chromosome halves move in opposite

directions, and each becomes included in one of the two
daughter nuclei that are formed.
Anaphase Spermatogenesis (millions of sperm cells – a day)

❖ Sister chromatids split apart and move toward opposite ❖ Spermatogonium (2n) – mitosis
poles ❖ Primary spermatocyte (2n)
- Meiosis I
❖ 2 secondary spermatocytes (n)
- Meiosis II
❖ 4 spermatids (n) without flagellum
❖ 4 sperm cells (n) with flagellum

Telophase
Oogenesis (1 egg – 28 days)
❖ Chromosomes are near their respective poles
❖ Cleavage furrow (animal cell) or cell plate (plant cell) ❖ Oogonium (2n) – mitosis
deepens (cytokinesis) ❖ Primary oocyte (2n)
❖ Daughter cells return to interphase soon - Meiosis I
❖ 1 secondary oocyte polar body (n each)
- Meiosis II
❖ 1 egg + 3 polar bodies (n each)

Meiosis
- is a mode of cell division in which cells are created that
contain only one member of each pair of chromosomes
present in the premeiotic cell.

1. Prior to the first nuclear division, the members of each pair

of chromosomes become closely associated along their length
(part A). The chromosomes that pair with each other are said
to be homologous chromosomes.

2. In the first nuclear division, the homologous chromosomes

are separated from each other, one member of each pair going
to opposite poles of the spindle (part B).

3. The second nuclear division loosely resembles a mitotic

division, but there is no DNA replication. The net effect of the
two divisions in meiosis is the creation of four haploid
daughter nuclei, each containing the equivalent of a single
sister chromatid from each pair of homologous chromosomes
(part E).

Meiosis I = reductional (2n -> n)

Meiosis II = equational (n -> n)

Meiosis results in gametes that differ genetically.

 ❖ Diakinesis ("moving apart”)
- parts not connected by chiasmata in homologous
chromosomes move apart.
- chromosomes attain their maximum condensation.
- spindle is formed.

Prophase I

❖ Leptotene ("thin thread") Metaphase I

- chromosomes become visible
❖ Zygotene ("paired thread") ❖ Genes on different chromosomes assort independently
- homologous chromosomes associate laterally with one because non-homologous chromosomes align randomly at
another (synapsis) the cell's equator.
❖ Pachytene ("thick thread”) ❖ Independent assortment of genes
- chromosomes continue to shorten & thicken
- crossing-over starts
❖ Diplotene ("double thread”)
- chromosomes are joined by chiasmata (cross-section)
- crossing-over becomes apparent.

Key Concepts on Crossing Over

❖ Crossing-over takes place in prophase I, after the

chromosomes have replicated.
❖ Crossing-over -a physical exchange between parental
chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
❖ The exchange process consists of the breaking and the ❖ Two probable arrangements of chromosomes
rejoining of two chromatids resulting in the reciprocal
exchange of equal and corresponding segments between
them.
 Anaphase I

❖ The physical separation of homologous chromosomes is the

physical basis of Mendel’s Law of Segregation
❖ The centromeres of the sister chromatids are stuck together
tightly and behave as a single unit, owing to the presence of a
protein “glue” that holds them together

Telophase I

❖ Depending on the species, either a nuclear envelope briefly

forms around each group of chromosomes or the
chromosomes enter the second meiotic division after only a
limited uncoiling. Chromatin - aggregate of DNA & proteins

Interkinesis (between MI and MII)

❖ short-lived
❖ no chromosome replication

Nucleosome - basic structural unit of chromatin

❖ Histone 1 binds to linker DNA

❖ Histones 2A, 2B, H3, H4 (2 molecules each)
➢ Small (100-200 amino acids)
➢ 20-30% lys & arg
➢ (+) charged => attraction to (-) DNA
➢ to structurally organize the chromosomes

Chromatin Fibers

❖ differ in position in different cell types & development

time in the nucleus.
❖ chromosome territories are correlated with gene
densities.

Life Cycle of a Corn

❖ Sporophyte - 2n; corn plant undergoes meiosis to form

spores
❖ Spores – undergo mitosis to form a gametophyte
❖ Gametophyte - n
produces gametes by mitosis of a haploid nucleus
❖ Fusion of gametes - form a zygote (2n) that will form a
sporophyte
Human Chromosomes 18 and 19 Normal Lengths of Telomeres

❖ Chr 18: periphery, green, few genes Human Cell Type Telomere Length
❖ Chr 19: interior, red, rich in genes Eggs, sperm ~ 20 kb
Neonatal cells ~ 15 kb
Adult cells ~ 10 kb
Heterochromatin is rich in satellite DNA and low in gene Senescent cells ~ 5 kb
content

❖ with satellite DNA – highly repetitive, in the introns Telomere Formation in Tetrahymena protozoan
(noncoding)
❖ good genetic/molecular markers

Telomerase – adds tandem repeats of 3’ of DNA

Guide RNA – template for telomere synthesis and elongation

Humans: 5’-TTAGGG-3’

Heterochromatin
Stress and telomere shortening: insights from cellular
❖ regions of chromatin that are compact and heavily stained mechanisms
in interphase
Lin, J., & Epel, E. S. (2022) doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2021.101507
❖ lesser genes

Euchromatin

❖ the rest of the chromatin, which becomes visible only

after chromosome condensation in mitosis or meiosis
❖ more genes and more crossing over occur

Centromere and Telomere

❖ Centromere – central element of kinetochore

➢ DNA & proteins to which the spindle fibers attach
❖ Telomere - stability of the chromosome tips
➢ Telomerase – enzyme that restores DNA ends
Shortening of telomere => due to stress
Progeria (Hutchinson-Gilford Syndrome) Hemophilia A: X-linked recessive inheritance

❖ short telomeres at birth

❖ telomere maintenance disease
❖ cells undergo premature senescence
❖ 1 in 8 million
❖ Symptoms of accelerated aging:
➢ Balding
➢ heart disease, stroke
➢ "old" skin
➢ facial changes

Human Chromosomes

X chromosome

- carries 1,098 functional genes; many genes are functional but

unrelated to sexual differentiation

Y chromosome Carrier – appears normal but carries the recessive allele

- carries few genes (~128 genes) and defines masculinity in

males

The XX-XY type of chromosomal sex determination is found in

mammals, including human beings, in many insects, and in
other animals, as well as in some flowering plants.

Y Chromosome in Drosophila

- almost heterochromatic; heavily stained

Characteristics of X-linked inheritance in human pedigree

❖ Affected males who reproduce have normal sons; he

transmits his X chromosome only to his daughters.
❖ The daughter is a carrier if her dad had hemophilia.

❖ Any rare X-linked recessive trait, the affected are almost

male. XY => only one X
Sex is determined by sex chromosomes ❖ Females carrying the X- linked recessive allele are
almost heterozygous & are not affected (carrier).
❖ In some reptiles and fish:
➢ XX - male (homogametic sex)
➢ XY - female (heterogametic sex)
❖ In birds, butterflies, and moths:
➢ ZZ - male
➢ WZ – female
❖ Barred-feathered chickens:
➢ ZZ – male
➢ WZ – female
➢ W - dominant barring gene in the X chromosome
❖ A carrier woman married a hemophilia man will have Jerome Lejeune
normal and affected sons in the ratio 1:1.
❖ Discovered the genetic cause of down syndrome
❖ Catholic; good friend of Saint Pope John Paul II
❖ Jerome Lejeune Foundation - saved many abortions
❖ strong advocate for pro life

Sex-limited traits - Expressed in only 1 sex although genes

are present in both

❖ Women:
Breast development
Milk production
❖ Horns in male bull elk
None in female cow elk
❖ Male elephant seals - bigger & fighter
❖ Female: smaller - does not fight

Sex-influenced Traits

❖ autosomal and influenced by sex

❖ male - takes 1 recessive allele to show the trait
❖ female - takes 2 recessive alleles to show the trait
Ex: baldness

Nondisjunction – proof of chromosome theory

❖ Approximately 15% of all recognized pregnancies in

human beings terminate in spontaneous abortion, and in
about half of all spontaneous abortions, the fetus has a
major chromosome abnormality.
❖ These data imply a huge fetal wastage, but this serves the
important biological function of eliminating many fetuses
that would be grossly abnormal in their physical and
mental development because of major chromosomal
abnormalities.
❖ A missing copy of a chromosome (monosomy) usually
results in more harmful effects than an extra copy of the
All chromosomes move to one side = (n+1) and (n-1) —> nondisjunction same chromosome (trisomy).
 Human Disorders Due to Chromosomal Alterations

Down Syndrome Edward Syndrome

❖ nondisjunction of chromosome 21 in meiosis ❖ Edward's Syndrome also known as Trisomy 18 (T18) or

- mental retardation Trisomy E.
- 1 out 750 ❖ 2nd most common disorder after down syndrome
- risk is 6% in Moms at 45 yrs. old - Mental deficiency
- Growth retardation
- Prominent occiput with elongated head
- Webbing of the neck
- Short sternum
- Micrognathia

All individuals with down syndrome look alike (common facial

expressions) Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes

❖ Normal Meiosis in Male

• Interphase (2n)
Cri-du-chat Syndrome (Partial Monosomy)
- After synapsis & chromosome doubling
❖ Due to deletion of genetic material on the small arm (p) of • Meiosis | (n)
chromosome 5; 1 out of 50K live births • Meiosis Il (n)
❖ Mental retardation, abnormal glottis & larynx;
- Has a small head with unusual facial features
- cat's cry: has a cry that sounds like the mewing of a
distressed cat
❖ Such individuals usually die in infancy or early childhood

❖ XY Nondisjunction in Meiosis I
• Melosis I
• Meiosis II
- nullo-X gamete yields: zygote with 45
chromosomes
- chromosome constitution:45,X
- XY gamete yields: 47, XXY zygote
Turner Syndrome (45, XO or 45,X) Double Y Syndrome (47,XYY)

❖ Underdeveloped female sexual traits ❖ Males undergo normal sexual development and do not
- webbed neck & shoulders exhibit any well-defined syndrome, but tend to be taller
- constricted aorta than average.
- 1 out of 5,000 ❖ Have slightly impaired mental function and were at a high
❖ Affected persons are phenotypically female risk of committing crimes that are mainly nonviolent such
- but are short in stature as theft
- do not exhibit sexual maturation (no regular menstrual - 1 out of 2,000
cycle)

Klinefelter Syndrome (47, XXY)

❖ Phenotypically male with male sex organs, but the testes

are abnormally small and the man is sterile
- increased breast tissue
- other female body characteristics are common
- 1 out of 2,000

Environmental risk factors that may increase meiotic errors

1. radiation

2. smoking

3. alcohol consumption

4. oral contraceptives

5. fertility drugs

6. environmental pollutants

❖ XY Nondisjunction in Meiosis II in Male
• Melosis II
- nullo-X gamete yields: 45,X zygote
- XX gamete yields: 47, XXX zygote
7. pesticides
Bisphenol A (BPA) may increase meiotic errors
❖ subunit of polycarbonate plastic products used as a can
liner in food & in beverages
❖ BPA monomers leach out of the plastic
❖ Increased aneuploidy oocytes in mice, low sperm count &
motility in Chinese factory workers

Aneuploidy frequency in sperm of fertile men

Gordeeva EG, Shileiko LV, Pankratova OS, Kurllo LF. Genetika.

Trisomy X Syndrome (47,XXX) 2011 Jun;47(6):828-35.

❖ Phenotypically normal and fertile female

- mild mental retardation
❖ In mental institution 3.9 per 1,000
- 1 out of 1,000
Nondisjunction ❖ Red-green colorblind people can't recognize the red from
green dots
Calvin Bridges ❖ 5% males red-green colorblind
❖ student of Thomas Hunt Morgan ❖ X-linked inheritance
❖ discovered nondisjunction
❖ Drosophila - unusual XX-XY type
❖ Y chromosome - not male-determining; associated with
maleness

www+ = XXX, red-eyed female, dies

wwY = XXY, white-eyed male

w+ = XO, red-eyed female, sterile (a sex chromosome is

missing ❖ Defects in red vision:
• protanopia - an inability to perceive red
Y = male dies early
• protanomaly - an impaired ability to perceive red
❖ Defects in green perception:
• deuteranopia - an inability to perceive green
Chromosome Theory of Heredity • deuteranomaly - an impaired ability to perceive
green
❖ Genes are contained in the chromosomes

Chi-square Test in Genetics

❖ When is a good fit "good enough"?

❖ Experiment 1.

P: purple x white flowers

F1: 14 plants - purple flowers

6 plants - white flowers

❖ Experiment 2.

F1: 15 plants - purple flowers

5 plants - white flowers

Color Blindness (X-linked)
How do we know when the observed results contradict a
❖ Results from unequal crossing-over particular genetic hypothesis? Are they statistically different?
❖ Rhodopsin - pigment in rod cells of retina; mediates
vision in dim light
❖ Red-green colorblindness- most common
Chi-square formula: Dosage Compensation

❖ unequal dosage in the sexes is corrected either by:

1) increasing the gene activity in X chromosome in males

2) inactivating the X-chromosome in embryos (64- to 128-cell

cleavage) with 2 or > x chromosomes at XIC (X-inactivation
center)
Problem 1.

We will determine the goodness of fit of Mendel's round vs.

wrinkled data to the expected 3:1 ratio. Among the 7,324 seeds
that he observed, 5,474 were round and 1,850 were wrinkled.

Solution:

Expected: 3/4 (7,324) = 5,493 round

1/4 (7,324) = 1,831 wrinkled

Χ2= Σ (Ο-Ε)2/Ε

df = 2 classes of data (round & wrinkled)-1 = 1

Chi-square graph: P value for X2 with df = 1 is: 0.65

X-inactivation Center

❖ XIC - initiates X-inactivation - includes Xist (X-inactivation

specific transcript)
❖ Xist - the only gene transcribed in XIC

❖ Short arm – designated with the letter p (stands for

“petite”)
❖ Long arm - letter q, which stands for “not p.”
❖ Within each arm, the regions are numbered according to
standard conventions.

- ABO blood group locus at 9q34

- the red–green color-blindness genes at Xq28

- the male-determining gene on the Y chromosome, called

SRY (sex-determining region, Y) at Yp11.3
Chromosomes with no centromere, or with two centromeres,
are genetically unstable
❖ Metacentric
- a chromosome with its centromere about in the middle
- arms are of approximately equal length
- each daughter chromosome forms a V shape at
anaphase
❖ Submetacentric
- centromere is somewhat off center
- each daughter chromosome forms a J shape at
anaphase
❖ Acrocentric
- chromosome with the centromere very close to one end
appears I-shaped at anaphase
- the arms are grossly unequal in length; such a
chromosome
Polyploidy
❖ An important phenomenon found frequently in higher
plants.
❖ A species has a genome composed of multiple complete
sets of chromosomes.
❖ Chrysanthemum: monoploid = 9 chromosomes
❖ Diploid = 18
❖ Closely related species = 36 chromosomes => tetraploid
❖ Hexaploid = 54 (6 x 9)
❖ Octopoid = 72 (8 x 9)
❖ The monoploid chromosome set is the basic set of
chromosomes that is multiplied in a polyploid series of
species, such as Chrysanthemum.
❖ The haploid chromosome set is the set of chromosomes
present in a gamete, irrespective of the chromosome
number in the species.

Mary Lyon

❖ originally proposed the dosage compensation by X

Other polyploid plants
inactivation
❖ single-active-X principle - Wheat - Peanuts - Sugar cane

- Oats - Cotton - Apples

Calico Cats - Bananas - Coffee
❖ (2 alleles for coat color in X chromosome)
❖ Female cat – heterozygous orange & black patches with
white spots (calico)--(The white patches are due to an Autopolyploidy
unrelated autosomal dominant mutation)
❖ Male cat - either black or orange allele due to 1 X - all chromosomes in the polyploid species derive from a
chromosome single diploid ancestral species

Allopolyploids
❖ Ginger is a female cat heterozygous for the orange and
black coat color alleles. - the polyploid species have complete sets of chromosomes
❖ Female Calico Cat: from two or more different ancestral species
White patches – autosomal allele S
SS - more white ; Ss - less white
 Sexual Polyploidization

- increase in chromosome # occurs in meiosis by forming

unreduced gametes; two of them may fuse & create a
polyploid zygote

Asexual Polyploidization

- increase in chromosome # occurs in mitosis by

endoreduplication of the complement of chromosomes =>
polyploid

Autopolyploidy in Bananas

Endoreplication - chromosome doubling through an abortive mitotic

division

Evolution of Bread Wheat by Allopolyploidy

Allopolyploidy – hybridization

❖ When pollen germinates on stigma of another species &

sexually fertilizes the ovule, then endoreduplication in the
zygote to yield a hybrid plant in which each chromosome
has a pairing partner in meiosis.
❖ The formation of allopolyploids through hybridization and
endoreduplication is an extremely important process in
plant evolution and plant breeding.
❖ At least half of all naturally occurring polyploids are
allopolyploids.
 CHAPTER 4. Gene Linkage and Genetic Mapping ❖ Genetic Map = linkage map or chromosome map
❖ Map unit (centimorgan, cM)
Gene Linkage = a unit of distance in a genetic map, 1% recombination
- genes located near each other in the same chromosome go in honor of T. H. Morgan
together in inheritance instead of undergoing independent ❖ A genetic distance between 2 genes can be represented
assortment. in:
• 2.5 map units
• 2.5 cM
• 2.5% (percent recombination)
• 0.025 (frequency of recombination)

Genetic Mapping

❖ Crossing-over results in the recombination of genes in

the homologous chromosomes.
❖ Linked genes - are in the same chromosome with
recombination frequencies < 50 %.
❖ >50% - independent assortment

Basis of Genetic Mapping

❖ The probability of crossing-over between two genes

increases as the physical distance between genes along
Mendel’s Law: Independent Assortment
the chromosome becomes larger.
❖ Alleles of one gene can separate during meiosis
independently of alleles of other genes.

Linkage in Meiosis

❖ Genes located in the same chromosome tend to be

associated in inheritance
❖ Ex. White & miniature alleles in X chromosome of a fruit
fly.

Genetic Map

❖ 1913 - was first developed by

Genetic Map ❖ Alfred H. Sturtevant, a student of T. H. Morgan

- a diagram of a chromosome showing the relative positions

of the genes
Why do we construct a genetic map when nowadays every
gene in many organisms is already sequenced as to their
nucleotide bases?

❖ The linear order of genes along a genetic map is

❖ Even with complete gene sequences, studying traits,
The map is based on the idea of linkage (that is, the closer that two genes are to each other
on the chromosome, the greater is the probability that they will be inherited together).
consistent with the conclusion that each gene occupies a
well-defined position, or locus, in the chromosome, with
the alleles of a gene in a heterozygote occupying
corresponding locations in the pair of homologous
chromosomes.
genetic disorders, and evolutionary relationships requires
an understanding of how genes are physically arranged
on chromosomes and how they are inherited together
(genetic linkage).
Two types of gene configuration The degree of linkage is measured by the frequency of
recombination
❖ Trans (or repulsion) configuration

w +M

+W m

• Mutant alleles are in opposite chromosomes.

• w = white-eyed (mutant), += normal wings
• + = normal eye color (red), m = miniature wings
(mutant)
❖ Cis (or coupling) configuration

w m

+W +M

• Mutant alleles are in the same chromosome.

Frequencies of Recombination: cis vs trans

❖ Cross 1: trans
FR for parental = 66.46 %
FR for recombinants = 33.54 %
❖ Cross 2: cis
FR for parental = 62.3 %
FR for recombinants = 37.69 %

Key Concepts

❖ The degree of linkage is measured by the frequency of

recombination.
❖ The frequency of recombination between linked genes is
the same in coupling (cis) as in repulsion (trans)
configuration.
❖ The recombination frequency differs from one gene pair to
the next.

Single Crossover

Very little recombination takes place in heterochromatin

Random Sites of Crossing-over
Key Concepts on Crossing-Over
❖ The sites of crossing-over are random along the length of
a chromosome pair.
❖ Crossing-over outside the region between two genes is
not detectable through recombination.
Frequency of Recombination is used to construct a genetic
map
❖ If one meiotic cell in 50 has a crossover, the frequency of
crossing-over equals 1/50, or 2%.
❖ Yet the frequency of recombination between the genes is
2/200 or 1%.
2% crossing-over corresponds to 1% recombination because
only half of the chromatids in each cell with a crossover are
actually recombinant.
Map Distance: A measure of Crossovers
❖ Map distance between 2 genes = (1/2)
(1 crossover per 50 cells undergoing meiosis) x 100 = 1%
❖ Recombination frequency: r = R / (R+NR)
r=2 / [2+2+(49 x 4)] = 0.01
Map distance = Recombination frequency
❖ Map distance equals recombination frequency when an
interval between genes is so short (< or = 10%
recombination) precluding multiple crossovers.
When does a map distance differ from recombination
frequency?
❖ When double crossovers do not yield recombinant
gametes.
❖ Double crossovers do contribute to the map distance but
do not contribute to recombination frequency. The region
in question should be large enough.
Short adjacent chromosome regions with linked genes
❖ When adjacent chromosome regions separating linked
genes are sufficiently short that multiple crossovers are
not formed, the recombination frequencies (hence, the
map distances) between the genes are additive.
Problem
❖ Genes y (yellow body), rb (ruby eye color), and cv
(shortened wing crossvein) are all found in the X
chromosome of Drosophila. The recombination frequency
between y and rb is 7.5 %, and that between rb and cv is
6.2 %. The observed recombination frequency between y
and cv is 13.7 %. Determine the genetic map of these
genes.
 2. Gene dosage can differ due to Copy-No. Polymorphisms
(CNPs)/Copy No. Variants (CNVs)

❖ Size:1 kb to 1 Mb (1 million bp)

- # of copies of a gene in the genotype of an individual
- Genes - sometimes be present in 1, 3, or >3 copies
- In rare instances - genes are missing altogether.

1. Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)

- a single bp at a nucleotide site may differ from 1 person to

the next

- distributed somewhat uniformly along the chromosomes

SNPs in Human Genome (good molecular markers = for pedigree)

❖ 1 per 1,000 bp (intron)

❖ 1 per 2,000 bp (exon)
❖ SNPs - most common form of genetic differences among
people
❖ "allele" - SNPs need not be in a gene

3. Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) often differ in copy number or

Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) or Microsatellites

- tandemly repeated short DNA sequence

Ex. Repeating sequence of 5'-CTA-3'

Eukaryotic Machinery for Transcription

Genetic Mapping in Human Pedigree Gel Electrophoresis

❖ DNA polymorphisms using STR alleles are used as ❖ to separate DNA of different sizes in an electric field
genetic markers
• Gel electrophoresis Dengue viruses in Aedes aegypti in Cebu city:
1 DNA band (homozygous) ❖ ·DENV-1: 482 bp
2 DNA bands (heterozygous) ❖ DENV-2: 119 bp
❖ DENV-3: 290 bp
❖ DENV-4: 392 bp

Gel Electrophoresis: shorter fragments move faster and

farther than long ones.

Aedes aegypti Microsatellite Map

(red loci - Labiros et al. Edillo, 2022)

How does chi-square test fit into this?

❖ Cross: AB/ab x ab/ab

❖ Hypothesis: 1:1:1:1 ratio
• There is no linkage. There is independent assortment.
Progeny:
AB/ab= 140 ab/ab=135
Ab/ab=110 aB/ab = 115
• Do these genes show evidence of linkage?
Expected = (140 + 135 + 110 + 115) = 125
4

Χ2 = Σ (140-125)2 + (135-125)2 + (110-125)2 + (115-125)2

125 125 125 125

= 1.8 + 0.8 +1.8 +0.8 = 5.2

df = 4-1 = 3
Novel and Broadly Applicable Microsatellite Markersin
Identified Chromosomes of the Philippine Dengue Mosquitoes,
Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)

Labiros D, Catalig AMP, Ymbong RRJ, Sakuntabhai A, Lluisma

AO, Edillo FE. 2022. J Med Entomol. doi: 10.1093/jme/tjab194

Chi square = 5.2 df = 3 p-value = 0.19

There is no linkage; accept the genetic hypothesis