DGC I Final Book

PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF GUIDANCE
AND COUNELLING
DGC-I
POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN GUIDANCE AND

COUNSELLING
(PGDGC)
(Distance Mode)
Perspectives in
Psychology
Centre for Distance and Open Learning
JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA
New Delhi - 110025
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Prof Najma Akhtar
Patron
Vice Chancellor,JMI
Prof. Mohammad Miyan

Hony Advisor,CDOE
Founder Director,CDOE
Prof. Jessy Abraham

Hony. Director CDOE
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Dr Dayal Sandhu, CDOL, Jamia Millia Islamia
COURSE EDITOR
Prof. Daya Panth, Former Head, Department of Psychology, NCERT, New Delhi
LANGUAGE EDITOR
Mr. Abdul Naseeb Khan, Vice Principal, Jamia Senior Secondary School, New Delhi
COURSE WRITERS
Dr. Poonam Sharma, J.V. Jain College, Saharanpur
Block: 1 Introduction, Unit 1: Meaning and Application of Psychology, Unit 2: Methods in Psychology,
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Unit 3: Perspectives in Psychology
Dr. Nisha Singh, IGNOU
Block: 2 Growth & Development, Unit 1: Nature of Growth, Development and Maturation,
Unit 2: Principles of Growth, Stages of Development, Unit 3: Prenatal, Physical, Emotional,

Cognitive and Social Development of Children
Dr. Asma Parveen, Deptt. of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim University
Block: 3 Intelligence and Learning, Unit 1: Concept and Theories of Intelligence, Unit 2: Mental
Retardation and Giftedness, Unit 3: Nature of Learning and Memory, Unit 4: Memory, Unit 5:
Creativity and Giftedness
Dr. Jasim Ahmad, Deptt. of Teacher Training and Non-Formal Education (IASE)
Block: 4 Motivation and Emotion, Unit 1: Motivation and Emotion, Unit 2: Theory of Motivation,
Unit 3: Conflict and Frustration
Dr. Sheema Aleem, Deptt. of Psychology, Jamia Millia Islamia
Block: 5 Personality, Unit 1: Nature and Determinants of Personality, Unit 2 : Theories of Personality:
Types and Trait Theories, Unit 3 : Recent Tends in Understanding Personality : Measurement of
Personality
All rights reserved. Printed and published on behalf of CDOL by Maktaba Jamia Ltd., Jamia Nagar,
New Delhi-110025
October, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-82997-61-0
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
Cover Credits: AnupmaKumari, Faculty of Fine Arts, Jamia Millia Islamia
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Content
Psychological Basis of Guidance and Counselling
Block 1: Introduction
Unit 1: Meaning and Applications of Psychology 7
Unit 2: Methods in Psychology 19
Unit 3: Perspectives in Psychology 33
Block 2: Growth and Development
Unit 1: Nature of Growth, Development and Maturation 54
Unit 2: Principles of Growth, Stages of Development 72
Unit 3: Prenatal, Physical, Emotional, Cognitive and Social
Development of Children 89
Block 3: Intelligence and Learning
Unit 1: Concept and Theories of Learning 108
Unit 2: Mental Retardation and Giftedness 116
Unit 3: Nature of Learning and Memory 131
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Unit 4: Memory 145
Unit 5: Creativity and Giftedness 158
Block 4: Motivation and Emotion
Unit 1: Motivation and Emotion 180
Unit 2: Theory of Motivation 196
Unit 3: Conflict and Frustration 206
Block 5: Personality
Unit 1: Nature and Detemination of Personality 218
Unit 2: Theories of Personality: Types and Trait Theories 227
Unit 3: Recent Trends in Understanding Personality: Measurement
of Personality 234
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PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF
GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
DGC – 1
BLOCK – 1
Introduction
Unit 1: Meaning and Applications of Psychology
Unit 2: Methods in Psychology
Unit 3: Perspectives in Psychology
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POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

PGDGC (Distance Mode)
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Psychology
BLOCK I
This is the first block of Course GC-1: ‘Psychological Basis of Guidance and Counselling’.
The Block is titled ‘Introduction’. There are three units in it. The selection and
organization of the units and the contents therein revolves around the block title. The
units included in it are:-
1. Unit 1: Meaning and Applications of Psychology

2. Unit 2: Methods in Psychology
3. Unit 3: Perspectives in Psychology
The first unit entitled, ‘Meaning and Applications of Psychology’ describes the nature of
psychology as a scientific study of behaviour. It mentions various applications of
psychology to bring about qualitative improvements in the lives of people. The subject
matter of psychology and its main field have been described.
Unit 2 entitled, ‘Research Methods in Psychology’ describes the various methods and
techniques employed by psychologists to collect data on animal and human behaviour
in different situations. Some important methods like Observation, interview, case
history, psychological tests and experiments have been described here.
Unit 3 is entitled, ‘Perspectives in Psychology’ mentions briefly the different

perspectives from which psychologists have approached the study of behaviour and the
assumptions about the causes of behaviour, the methods used for study. The concepts
and the definition of what constitutes behaviour and the way development of
personality has been conceptualised have been discussed.
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UNIT-I MEANING AND APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY
STRUCTURE
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Meaning of Psychology
1.4. Psychology as a Science
1.5 Applications of Psychology
1.6 Core Areas of Psychology
1.7 Emerging Areas of Psychology
1.8 Main Fields of Psychology
1.9 Let us Sum Up
1.10 Unit End Exercises
1.11 Suggested Readings
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of human
behaviour, both observable and not observable. However, it is primarily concerned with
the interaction of human beings with their environment and resulting behaviour, rather
than only the biological or neural processes. Application of such knowledge to
understand various spheres of individual’s daily life for enhancing learning and
performance, and improving quality of human life by counselling, diagnosing treatment
of mental illnesses is the work of psychologists.
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Thus the subject psychology like other natural sciences has two aspects - pure and
applied. The pure psychology, formulates broad principles, generates theories and
techniques for understanding human behaviour while applied branches of psychology
involve use of this knowledge in different spheres. The branches of psychology like
occupational psychology, clinical psychology, crime psychology, industrial psychology,
educational psychology etc. are related to the areas in which knowledge is applied.
The present unit deals with the definition of psychology and its applications.
1.2 OBJECTIVE
After reading this unit you should be able to –
Describe the meaning of psychology.
Describe the main fields of application of psychology.
Make yourself aware of the emerging areas of psychology.
Appreciate how different psychological processes are relevant to our everyday life.
1.3 MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY
The word 'Psychology' comes from the Greek words ‘psyche’ meaning the mind, soul or
spirit and ‘logos’, meaning discourse or to study, thus, the meaning of psychology
originally was the science of self or mind. Though earlier psychology was a part of
philosophy but after renaissance psychology emerged as a science of behaviour.
Behaviour could be as simple as walking, speaking, attending, writing or it could be
complex like learning a language, social attitudes, developing friendships etc. Behaviour
is a wide term that includes observable processes and activities like speaking, playing,
memorizing, solving problems, etc. However behaviour is also invisible like perception,
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thinking, feeling etc. These behaviours cannot be seen directly but through their
manifestation in a range of actions and mannerisms these processes can be recorded
and studied. As a scientific discipline psychology employs application of empirical
methods to the study of human and animal behaviour. It includes the application of this
knowledge to understanding of human problems. Let us see what this means.
1.4.1 PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
Science uses scientific or empirical methods to study natural phenomenon. Psychology

is a science because it follows the empirical method. Empirical method does not
necessarily involve experimental method. Often people confuse experimental and
scientific methods. Empirical or scientific method is based on processes such as
observation, objectivity and precision in measurement. The scientific status of any
discipline is determined by neither its method of investigation nor by its subject matter
or the outcome of research. All sciences use the empirical methods characterized by
experiments or systematic observations which are repeatable and verifiable by others
and lead to similar results.
The letter O, looks like two eyes observing
The scientific approach is very different from forming opinions on the basis of individual
experience or arguing from premises that cannot be tested. Thus, experiments and
observations are at the core of scientific psychology. Psychologists may or may not carry
out experiments, but they definitely make carefully and controlled systematic and
objective observations which others can repeat. They obtain data, often in the form of
quantitative or qualitative measurements, which others can verify. As a science,
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psychology is systematic. Data from experiments and observations are essential, but in
order to make sense of the events and processes, they must be organized in some way
so as to reveal understandable patterns of behaviour. These consistent patterns
revealed by observations and analysis are organized and explained as scientific theories.
As a science psychology also involves study and measurement of behavioural attributes

like ability, attitudes, emotions etc. which are difficult to measure. Psychologists have
developed ways of measuring these qualities through psychological tests which enable
them to assign marks or scores to such attributes. These behaviours are defined in terms
of measurable characteristics on which individuals are rated or they rate themselves.
Even though some behaviour are difficult, but not everything psychological is as difficult,
to measure, such as happiness and friendship. Experiments are often designed so that
we can study psychological events taking place across measures of space and time. For
example, the number of times a person behaves in a certain way in any given situation
can be recorded. The time taken to make a response in one situation or another or by
different individuals can be recorded or the frequency of the response in a fixed time
period could be counted. Let us see the different areas to which psychologists apply the
scientific methods.
Check your progress.
Notes:-
 Write your answers in the space given below.

 Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
(1) Psychology is the science of _________________ behaviour.

(2) Psychology is a science because ___________________
(3) Behaviour includes anything person or animal does that can be
____________________
(4) The applied side of psychology is used to __________________
1.5 APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY
As a science psychology has its applications in solving real life problems. The problems
that are the subject matter of psychology are related to growth, development, learning,
and enhancing educational, emotional, personal and social development, well-being,
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and treatment of mental illnesses, selection, allocation and human resource

development in industry and organizations, etc.
The application of knowledge to practical problems is an art based on acquisition of

knowledge, skill and competence in the different areas of psychology, which are
acquired by study, practice and special experience. The psychotherapist talking to a
worried client, the educational psychologist advising a school board on a new
curriculum, the clinical psychologist supervising group therapy in a state mental
hospital, and the social psychologist trying to lessen tensions between management and
workers in a large industry all are using the competence and experience of the art of
psychology in their specific areas. Just as a physician or engineer develops skills in using
scientific knowledge to solve practical problems, the psychologists have also learnt
through special training, the artistry, or skill of applying psychology. The ability to apply
psychological principles is a hard-won professional skill.
1.6.1 CORE AREAS OF APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Applications of psychology have expanded to diverse areas from pure or basic research
designed to help understand certain processes that are the foundation of complex
human behaviour and develop theories such as psychodynamic and learning theories
while others do applied research, which addresses itself to solving practical problems.
There is much overlap between what the pure and applied researchers do. The core
areas of study include cognition, development, social and physiological basis of
behaviour, comparative psychology and the study of individual differences. The kind of
work done in some of these core areas of psychology is described here:
(a) Cognition
This area deals with the study of development of cognitive abilities such as
attention, perception, memorization, comprehension, etc. Perception relates to our
interpretation of stimuli that we receive from the environment. What makes us
attend to some objects in our environment while others escape our attention. It
takes into account the past experiences stored in our memory. We often experience
difficulty in retaining certain types of material. Psychologists have found that
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accuracy with which we recall events of our lives depends on several things. Why
different people have different views of the same situation. Differences in attitudes
and the changes taking place in our attitudes. Psychologists have studied various
such processes. The applied cognitive psychologists try to use the principles of
attention, perception and memory to solve problems in different areas such as
communication, cognitive enrichment and learning disability.
(b) Development
Psychologists are interested in finding out the changes taking place in behaviour
with age. The growth and development among different individual’s proceed at
different rates while some develop faster during childhood others catch up later;
even same individual’s rate of development differs across different period. The
changes in some individuals are delayed while in others are accelerated, what
factors cause these differences and how the slow developing children could be
accelerated so as to overcome the developmental delay, or how certain abilities
develop earlier among some in comparison with others are questions which concern
the developmental psychologists.
(c) Teaching - Learning
One of the main responsibilities of the society is to educate its children, the
management of learning, imparting skills for life-long learning, instruction in schools
to teach health and safety related procedures in the community, etc. The problem is
to identify influences that enhance and ensure the highest quality of learning with
the greatest possible efficiency. Many public debates have taken place to find out
which teaching methods are most effective, what emphasis needs to be placed on
the teaching of basic skills like reading and mathematics. It is all concerned with
appropriate application of the principles of learning to the fields of instruction.
(d) Social Processes

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The ways in which an individual's thoughts, feelings and behaivour are influenced by
other persons or groups is an area of great significance. The social environment has
powerful influence on individual’s behaviour and his/her perception of the situation.
When you meet someone and talk with him/her for the first time and for a short
duration, chances are that even during this short span of time you tend to make
judgments about a number of characteristics of that person. How people make
impressions about others even when there is very little information available to
them has also been the concern of the social psychologists. They study the
processes of perception about individuals, formation of attitudes and social
relationships and changes in them with time, reducing negative perceptions and
prevention of prejudicial attitudes that cause discrimination between groups, group
relations, tensions and dynamics, social movements.
(e) Individual Differences
Psychologists are also concerned with the study of ways individuals are different
from each other in terms of their abilities, preferences, and personality differences.
This concern has given rise to a number of area of interest viz, intelligence,
personality, abnormality of behaviour, etc. The psychologists have been trying to
identify the varying kinds of intelligences and the way intellectual functioning could
be improved. How personality could be defined and assessed, and the development
of personality with a view to bringing about better adjustment and well being, have
been the concern of psychologists exploring individual differences.
(f) Personnel Selection and Training
Another area of application of psychology is selection and training. People differ

widely in abilities, preferences, knowledge and skills. Taken together, these factors
promote the development of necessary skills and competence for a particular area
of study or occupation. We need a reliable method of measuring present and
potential abilities of individuals. In today's technological society, the ability to match
the unique talents of each person to the requirements of an occupation area and
training for a particular job has advantage for both the individual and society. This
necessity has created an important area of psychology namely personnel selection.
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Psychologists have developed various tools and methods for this. For instance they
use various psychological tests such as aptitude test, intelligence test, interviews,
observations, etc. for assessment.
1.7 EMERGING AREAS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is expanding very fast and its presence is being noticed in almost all walks of
life. With growing complexity of environment the need to apply psychological principles
and methods has been increasing. As a result, many new fields have emerged. Some of
them are as follows:
(i) Sports Psychology
Performance of players is the key to success of one's career but very few of them really
make it up. The training, team spirit, building the stamina and becoming motivated to
perform well requires a variety of psychological inputs. Developing hardiness,
invulnerability and morale are subject matter of psychology. By now almost all the
teams who go for international matches employ a psychologist for advising the team
member and preparing a plan for them to do well in the matches.
(ii) Space and Aviation Psychology
During contemporary period human presence in space has become very prominent.
Space technology is one of the frontier areas of research. The time and space
dimensions of human life in the outer space demand extraordinary preparations in
terms of habits, perceptions and activities. For instance, weightlessness, isolation, lack
of normal stimuli, jet-lag due to differences in day and night timings poses challenges for
adaptation. Therefore, before travelling in spaceships astronauts have to undergo
rigorous training. Many of the readjustments required by them are of psychological
nature. Similarly, high altitude aviation through aircraft also poses many problems in
flying. These areas are now receiving considerable attention from psychologists.
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(iii) Military Psychology
The military is deputed to perform a variety of duties because war is neither desirable
nor does it take place continuously. During peace time military is asked to provide help
to civilians in meeting emergencies (e.g. flood, earth quake, landslide etc.). The internal
security also faces many challenges and military is deployed for maintaining peace
during such situations. The problem of terrorism is increasing and some kind of low
intensity conflict or proxy war is taking place on the nation's borders. The people who
are in the armed forces have to live under difficult circumstances and cope with a
variety of personal, social and environmental problems and hardships. Psychological
knowledge and techniques are used to improve the well-being, health status and coping
skills of the armed forces which are required to meet the challenges of the task
demands.
(iv) Positive Psychology
This is a new area in which positive human concerns such as self efficacy, altruism,
humility, forgiveness, compassion, wisdom and positive emotions are studied. The focus
of positive psychology is on building the strengths of people and empowering them to
act as persons who are productively and contributing to personal as well as societal
growth and well-being.
Another way of describing the work of psychologists is to discuss some of the major
fields of psychology - clinical psychology, counseling psychology, school and educational
psychology, experimental and physiological psychology, industrial and organizational
psychology, social psychology, developmental psychology and community psychology.
Check your Progress –
Notes :
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(1) Match column A with column B
'A' 'B'
1. Physiological psychology (a) Study of individuals at work

place
2. Comparative psychology (b) Explanation of behaviour on the

basis of physiological pressure
3. Social psychology (c) Deals with individual and groups

for solving problems
4. Clinical psychology (d) Area of study close to cognitive

science
5. Industrial psychology (e) Concerned with mental disorder
6. Counseling psychology (f) Study of animal behaviour
(g) Study of human interactions

with other persons
(2) Matching unique talents of individuals with the requirements of jobs is done
in _____________________
(3) _______________ is concerned with the totality of a person.
(4) _______________ studies positive human concerns such as altruism,
forgiveness and humility.
(5) Developing ___________ and ___________ are subject matter dealing with
sports psychology.
1.8 MAIN FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY
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In the last hundred years of its existence the discipline of psychology has expanded in
many directions. An outline of the main fields is given here to provide an idea of the
broad coverage of this subject. This will also allow us to become familiar with the wide
range of activities in which psychologists are involved.
1. Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology tries to understand complex behaviours by study of their

origin and the ways in which they change with time. Psychologists trace the emergence
and developmental sequence of behaviours in order to have a better understanding of
it. Since changes in behaviour occur rapidly in the early years of life, child psychology
comprises a larger part of developmental psychology. But developmental changes also
occur in adolescence, adulthood and old age and so the study of these changes is also a
part of developmental psychology.
2. Cognitive Psychology
This is one of the main branches of psychology concerned with the study of processing
of sensory information obtained from internal and external environment and utilizing it.
Typical areas of concern for this branch include studies of memory, thinking and
problem solving. Within the field of memory a researcher may be concerned with
understanding how the storage of learned material can be facilitated. This area of study
comes close to cognitive science. Similarly, artificial intelligence is a field that involves
the use of computers to stimulate the working of human brains.
3. Experimental and Physiological Psychology
Many psychologists are not primarily engaged in work that applies directly to practical
problems. Instead, these psychologists try to understand the fundamental causes of
behaviour. They do what is sometimes called basic research, studying such fundamental
processes as learning and memory, thinking, sensation and perception, motivation and
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emotion. In other words, the experimental psychology studies how behaviour is

modified and how people retain these modifications, the processing of information in
thinking, how human sensory systems work to allow people to experience what is going
on around them and the factors that urge them on and give direction to behaviour.
Experimental psychology is also concerned with the relationship of the brain and other
biological activity to behaviour; this is physiological psychology. While it is a part of
psychology, physiological psychology is also considered to be part of the broader field of
neurobiology - the study of the nervous system and its functions.
4. Social Psychology
We spend much of our lives in the presence of other people, with whom we interact in a
variety of ways and in different settings. The primary focus of social psychology is on
understanding how individuals are affected by other people. This focus covers a wide
range of possible interests. For example, it includes the study of the ways in which we
perceive other people and how those perceptions affect our behaviour towards them.
Similarly, it involves concerted efforts to understand the determinants of interpersonal
influences and of attitude change. Thus, social psychology might study how perceptual
stereotypes affect interactions or how the decisions of a committee member are
influenced by what others on the committee do or say. Sometimes the interest is on the
mutual influence exerted by individuals in close relationships, such as marriage.
5. Personality Psychology
This field is concerned with the totality of a person. Every one of us has unique
personality that determines adjustment and the way a person behaves. Psychologists
have developed a number of theories of personality and tools for its assessment.
Personality psychologists also study the factors that shape personality development. For
example, some psychologists have tried to study personality types into categories like
extroversion and introversion to understand the individual differences.
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6. School and Educational Psychology
School psychology consists of diagnosing learning difficulties and trying to remedy them.
Using tests and information gained from consultations with the student and his or her
parents, the school psychology tries to pinpoint the problem and suggests action to
correct it. For instance, a school psychologist might suggest that a poor reader be
assigned to a remedial reading class. Other school psychologists are involved in
vocational and other forms of counseling. These are the school counselors.
Educational psychology may include school psychology, but educational psychology as

such is usually involved with more general, less immediate problems than are most
school psychologists or school counselors. Educational psychology is especially
concerned with increasing the efficiency of learning in school by applying their
psychological knowledge about learning and motivation to the curriculum.
7. Counseling Psychology
The work of the counseling psychology is quite similar to that of the clinical psychology.
The difference between them is that counseling psychology generally works with people
who have milder emotional and personal problems. It may use psychotherapy in an
attempt to help with these problems. Counseling psychologists are often consulted by
people with specific questions, such as a choice of career or educational program. In
their practice, counseling psychologists may make extensive use of tests to measure
aptitudes, interests and personality characteristics (See Chapter 13). Counseling
psychology tries to help people who are having problems with family life. These are the
marriage and family counselors.
8. Clinical Psychology
Today clinical psychologists form the largest group of psychological professionals. They
are concerned with the problems of mental disorder. They also work in hospitals with
psychiatrists and other health professionals in the larger community. Clinical
psychologists study the problems of anxiety, depression, mood disorders and chronic
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illnesses (e.g. Schizophrenia, mania, and paranoia). Many clinical psychologists practice
psychotherapy to help people overcome their illnesses.
9. Industrial and Organizational Psychology
The first application of psychology to the problems of industries and organizations was
the use of intelligence and aptitude tests in selecting employees. (See chapter 13.)
Today, many companies use modern versions of such tests in their hiring and placement
programs. Private and public organizations also apply psychology to problems of
management and employee training, to supervision of personnel, to improving
communication within the organization, to counseling employees and to alleviating
industrial strife. The applied psychologists who do this work are sometimes called
personnel psychologists.
This, then, is a subfield of psychology in which psychological principles are applied to

practical problems of work and commerce.
10. Community Psychology
Community psychology uses psychological principles, ideas and points of view to help
solve social problems and to help individuals adapt to their work and living groups.Some
community psychologists are essentially clinical psychologists. They set up programs to
reach people in the community who happen to have behaviour problems, or are likely to
develop them and who are not presently being served by traditional psychotherapeutic
methods. There psychologists are a part of the community mental-health movement.
Community psychology is less directly concerned with the mental health of individuals
and more concerned with bringing ideas from the behavioral sciences to bear on
community problems as hostility among groups in the community, bad relations
between the police and community members, or distress due to a lack of employment
opportunities. We might call it the "social-problem community psychology".
11. Comparative Psychology
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Comparative psychology is concerned with the study of human and animal behaviour
both in natural environment and under laboratory conditions. Such studies help us to
understand how behaviour has evolved from lower to higher level of complexity on the
scale of organisms living on earth. Psychologists working in this area study the
behaviours of rats, cats, chimpanzees, etc. A related field is of socio-biology that tries to
understand behavioral functioning from an evolutionary angle.
1.9 LET US SUM UP
Psychology is defined as the science of human and animal behaviour; it includes the
application of this science to human problems. As a science, psychology is comprised of
systematized knowledge that is gathered by carefully measuring and observing events.
Theories are used to summarize observations and to predict the outcomes of future
observations. Another important aspect of psychology as a science is its use of
measurement (i.e. the assignment of numbers to objects or events according to certain
rules).
As the definition indicates, psychology has an applied side. The application of knowledge
to practical problems is an art - a skill or knack for doing things which is acquired by
study, practice and special experience. The word behaviour in the definition of
psychology refers to anything a person or animal does that can be observed in some
way. Psychological knowledge is applied to various spheres related to everyday life such
as family, education and employment and to the treatment of mental health problems.
Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social
behaviour while also exploring the underlying physiological and neurological processes.
Psychology includes many sub fields of study and applications. Among the sub-fields of
psychology are clinical psychology, counseling psychology, school and educational
psychology, experimental and physiological psychology, industrial and organizational
psychology, social psychology, developmental psychology and community psychology.
1.10 UNIT - END EXERCISES
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1. Explain the scientific nature of psychology. Why is it called the science of

behaivour and not of mind or thoughts or feelings?
2. Describe any four main fields of psychology.
3. Describe any two emerging areas of psychology.
Answers to check your progress –
(1) human and animal

(2) (i) It is a body of systematized knowledge.
(ii) Data are gathered by experiments, observations and measurement.
(3) Observed.
(4) Solve real life problems.
(5) (1) ________ (b)
(2) ________ (f)
(3) ________ (g)
(4) ________ (e)
(5) ________ (a)
(6) ________ (c)
(6) Personnel selection

(7) Perception
(8) Positive psychology
(9) Hardiness, morale
1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS
Ahlawat, N. (2009). Principles of Psychology, Vishwabharati Publications, New Delhi.
Chauhan, S.S. (1991). Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd,
New Delhi.
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Morgan, K., Weisz, Schopler. (1986). Introduction to Pshychology, Tata Mcgraw Hill
Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi.
Smith, H., Nolen, F. Atkinson, L., Hilgard, E. R. (2003). Introduction to Psychology,
Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Canada.
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UNIT - 2 METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
STRUCTURE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Methods of Psychology
2.3.1 Experiments
2.3.2 Observation
2.3.3 Interview (Clinical)
2.3.4 Case-History
2.3.5 Survey
2.3.6 Psychological Tests
2.4 Let us sum up

2.5 Unit End - Exercises
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The first unit was about the definition and applications of psychology. Psychologists
employ various methods and techniques to collect data on animal and human behaviour
in different situations. In this unit, we will describe the important methods in psychology
which are generally used to advance understanding and prediction of the behaviour,
and to find out the solutions of various behavioral problems people experience. These
methods are used to carry out research in the field and laboratory situations. The
findings and principles developed by the researchers enable psychologists to understand
behaviour and factors that underlie behavioural problems. We will describe here some
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important methods such as: survey, observation, interview, case history, psychological
tests and experiments.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you would be able to –
Describe at least three methods used in psychology
Describe the way experiments in psychology are carried out,
Define the psychological tests and their characteristics.
2.3 METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
The methods of educational psychology were developed and improved as psychology

emerged from philosophical discipline as a separate independent discipline dedicated to
the systematic and objective study of behaviour in the present century.
The development of methods could be traced back to conduct of systematic

experimental studies in psychology, which started in 1879 in Germany with the
establishment of first laboratory of psychology by W. Wundt. He studied conscious
experiences and used ‘introspection’ as the sole method of collecting data.
The next important method in psychology was used by Sigmund Freud which was ‘the
techniques of free association and dream analysis’. He collected enormous data from
his patients using these techniques.
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However, during the second half of the twenty first century behaviourists developed
objective and scientific methods in psychology. They discarded both the methods of
introspection and psychoanalysis as subjective approaches to behaviour. The objective
methods of assessment of behaviour like systematic observation and experimental
methods were developed to collect data to study human behaviour. The experimental
method adopted visible behaviour as the subject matter of psychology and objective
observation as the distinctive method of studying behaviour.
Some behaviorists reduced behaviour to a simple Stimulus-Response(S-R) connection.

The explanation of behaviour in terms of simple S-R connection was not accepted by
some of the later behaviourists. They introduced the concept of organismic variables (S-
O-R) to study behaviour. All behaviourists emphasized the importance of experimental
method to study behaviour. Cognitive-Field theorists placed more importance on
observation of behaviour with reference to the over all environment in which the
individual exists. Simultaneously, other methods have emerged with the increasing
interest in developmental studies; rise of the testing movement and with the
introduction of statistics in educational psychology. In recent years, the development of
electronic digital computers has lead researchers to use of new methods of collecting
and analysing data.
Some of the important methods of psychology are described here:
2.3.1 EXPERIMENTS
Experimental method involves study of changes in the behaviour of humans or animals,

occurring as a result of changes in certain specified external conditions. Experimental
method has its own terminology, the changes in the external environment and the
corresponding changes in behaviour under study are labeled as variables. For example,
experimenter is interested in studying the effect of increase in temperature on
temperament – increase of anger and irritation. In this experiment the temperament
and temperature are variables. The experimenter may manipulate one of these two
variables to see its effect on the other. The variable being changed or manipulated by
experimenter is called independent variable, and the other variable which changes
depending on the changes in other variable is called dependent variable. The deliberate
changes introduced in the independent variable are called treatment. Thus the
independent variable in the above case, is temperature which is being changed by
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experimenter and the temperament is the dependent variable. In order to ascertain that
the changes taking place in the dependent variable are occurring as a result of changes
in the independent variable and not just by chance, the experimenter normally employs
control groups. The control group is one which is not exposed to the treatment, while
the other group is called experimental group.
The experimenter uses two groups - one group is exposed to changes in environment or
the treatment, while the other group ‘control-group’ is not exposed to such changes.
Both the groups are kept under observation to spot changes taking place as a result of
changes in the environment or treatment, in contrast to the control-group. The
experimenter is interested in knowing the conditions that cause behavioural changes.
Two main strategies, or experimental designs, are used to control extraneous factors
that may cause changes in independent variable(s). One strategy employs control group
as explained above. In the other, measures of dependent behavior are used before the
variable is introduced, in order to establish a comparative behavioural level against
which the change in behavior, after the intervention or the independent variable has
been presented.
1. Control Group Design - The psychologists use the control-group design in an

experiment where they want to assess the affect of certain treatment on some
behaviour like human learning. For example in an experiment the objective is to test the
hypothesis that performance improves with feedback.
To test the effects of feedback a simple behavioral task is used. For example, while
blindfolded, the people in the experiment are asked to draw a design with one hand.
The experimental group of subjects is given feedback, which is the independent variable
in this experiment. The subjects are told when the design they draw is accurate. The
control group of subjects is given no feedback. Thus, the groups differ in treatment or
the independent variable i.e. the receipt of or absence of the feedback.
Control Group Design

Control group Experimental group
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No independent variable Independent variable
i.e. given no feedback i.e. feedback is given
(Subjects in the control and experimental groups are matched or are chosen randomly)
2. Pre-post Design - Psychologists employ before-and-after, or within-subjects, design in

which the subjects are their own controls. In this method, pre-test of behavior is done
before the independent variable is introduced. The behavior after the addition of the
independent variable can then be compared with the baseline behavior before
independent variable has been introduced. This before-and-after method gives good
control over individual differences among the subjects which might affect the outcome
of the experiment because such individual differences are present both before as well
as, after the independent variable is introduced. If individual-difference factors are held
constant, it can be reasonably concluded that changes in behaviour must be due to the
independent variable.
Pre-post or within Subject Design -
Step I Pre-test on dependent variable
Step II Treatment or introduction of independent variable
Step III Post-test on dependent variable
In order to assess the change in the behaviour, as a result of the treatment or

independent variable it is important to see what happens after the independent variable
has been introduced.
Replication: Another characteristic of the experimental method is that it is highly

objective; the results would be generally same every time it is repeated.
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It is important that different experimenters get the same result when they carry out the
experiment. For this the experimenter has to specify the procedure or the method. For
example we can show the effect of method of learning small chunks vs. large chunks of
information on any material to be learnt, on the memory of the subjects. If such
experiment is performed under similar conditions, it will show any number of times that
small chunks method is better than the large chunk method for memorizing the
material.
The advantages and importance of replication are that their accuracy is established
beyond all reasonable doubts. Experimental findings which cannot be repeated are
generally not very dependable.
The experimental method, though the best method for gathering scientific information,
has its limitations. It cannot always be used, especially if the treatment to be used is
unethical or harmful for the subjects. The other limitation is that its application cannot
be easily generalized beyond laboratory. These are only indicative of the possible
relationships between events and behaviour. Yet another limitation is that it may not be
always feasible as it often interferes with that very thing which it is trying to measure.
Another very important limitation is the experimenter’s effect.
2.3.2 OBSERVATION
Observation is one of the important and basic methods for collecting data in researches
involving real life situations where psychologists are interested in the natural behaviour
as it occurs in response to the outside events e.g. studying effect of using informal
seating arrangement on learning behaviour in classroom. Sometimes it may be the only
possible way to study behaviour particularly among small children. The data is collected
by observation of the overt behaviour of the individual(s) to locate underlying
problem(s) or the pattern(s) of behaviour or to reveal developmental trends of different
types. The overt behaviour is generally the manifestation of the influence of the
environmental conditions within or outside the organism. The study of overt behaviour
provides indirect connections between the different environmental conditions and the
behaviour of the organism. The development of systematic observation as a method of
collecting data has generated a lot of insight in the area of developmental psychology.
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There are many kinds of observations like direct and indirect, natural and artificial,
scheduled and unscheduled, participant and non-participant.
Only two types of observations are described here.
1. Natural Observation: Natural observation involves observation of the specific

behavioral characteristics of children or adults in natural settings. This method ensures
that subjects do not become conscious of the fact that their behaviour is being
observed.
2. Participant Observation: Observation is carried out in such a way that the observer
becomes a part of the group being observed, as the presence of outsider influences the
behaviour of the group. It is important that the one carrying out observation establishes
perfect rapport with subjects to avoid any influence of his/her presence on the
behaviour and activities of the group of children or adolescents. Consciousness of the
presence of observer may cause them to hide their natural behaviour or may increase
desirable behaviour.
Limitations of Observation
(1) Use of observation as a method of study requires that the person making
observation has enough training and has become conversant with the specific behaviour
to be recorded.
(2) Observation yields data about overt behaviour in the specific setting; it does not
allow the psychologists to draw conclusions regarding validity of their observation in
other settings. For example, the behaviours which occur due to presence of certain
conditions that have relevance to the past occurrences or experiences typical to cases
being observed.
(3) Subjectivity of interpretation is another limitation of observation. The observer may

interpret his/her sensations of external stimulus on the basis of his past experiences.
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S/he may be biased in his observations and their interpretations due to his own likes,
dislikes and values, etc.
(4) Observation is subject to two kinds of errors, sampling error and observer's error.
The first error may occur because of inadequacics of selecting appropriate situation to
be observed. The observer's error may be due to the observer’s knowledge and
background about the situation to be observed.
Suggestions for Improving Observation
Observation can become more objective and reliable instrument of collecting data by
following suggestions as given below:
 The observer should immediately make notes on the behaviour observed by

him/her. In order to enhance accuracy observers should plan before hand to
record their observations on the spot. They should not depend on their memory
for observed events because there is every possibility of their perception being
affected by their personal prejudices and biases.
 The observer must in advance understand in clear and definite terms the
objectives of making observation.
 The observer must be provided the time and hour of observation and the
schedule decided upon should be honestly followed. The detailed schedule of
observations be prepared in advance. The method of recording observation
should be made clear.
 Observation requires systematic efforts. It should be systematically planned and
observers be trained in requisite skills, competencies and attitudes. The
investigators must acquaint the observers with the broad field of his research
and the possible challenges.
 The observers may be provided with a schedule of behaviours/qualities to be
checked.
 Using photographs or recording of the events may enhance the quality of
observation.
 The observations made should be detailed, descriptive and accurate. These
should not be evaluative and conclusive. Description should clearly convey the
behaviour to the investigator.
2.3.3 INTERVIEW
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There are a wide variety of situations in which interviews are used, ranging from a short
conversation in which a student's need for information is quickly met, to a long series of
psychotherapeutic interviews. The interviews are used for collecting in-depth
information from the people. For instance the counselor may be interested in finding
out the career concerns, attitudes, home routine etc. of students. The counselor may
interact with a group of students to identify their needs or to give them information as
per their needs. The interview is generally used by the therapists as direct one on one
interaction with their clients. The therapist interacts with the interviewee to enable
him/her to develop insights that may lead to self-realization. The interviews are also
used by the employers to assess certain kinds of personality or skills for selection of
employees. Thus the interview as a method of assessment is employed by psychologists
in many situations involving i) gathering information, ii) giving information, iii) selection
and iv) clinical assessment.
In all these kinds of situations described above the degree of success achieved is directly
related to the ability of the interviewer to develop rapport with the interviewee and
thereby enlist the co-operation of the interviewee. This ability or the skill of the
interviewer involves his/her communication skills-listening without evaluative remarks,
responding with genuineness, warmth, and empathy. These skills are imparted during
training of therapists, counselors and interviewers. In fact the therapists and counselors
have to undergo counseling themselves to become free from biases and complexes of
their own to be able to listen to others and develop empathy.
Interview, as a method of scientific enquiry, needs to be used with caution. The

reliability of data obtained by interview depends on the preparation and skill of the
interviewer. Openness and flexibility on part of the interviewer makes him/her
objective.
2.3.4 THE CASE HISTORY
Individual differences among learners and the influence of past experiences in the
family and environment have led to need for using the case-study approach in guidance.
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Social workers, psychologists and psychiatrists employ case-study method basically to

their practice in understanding of a client's whole personality in relation to life span
development.
Construction of a Case history:
Case history is a partial biography of a particular individual, this involves asking people
to recall relevant experiences from their past. The case history is not an instrument of
evaluation. Rather is it a compilation of all available data on an individual who requires
intensive study and special therapy. For a case history to be valid, all items of
information must be accurate. Not having any reported information about an aspect of
personality is better than having incorrect data if the case history is to serve as an
adequate basis for intelligent evaluation of client needs and appropriate treatment.
When an individual is referred by the school or another community agency to a

psychological clinic for special remedial treatment or rehabilitation, a trained member
of the clinic staff, usually a psychiatric social worker, accumulates and arranges the
various kinds of information needed for clinical study:-
 Identifying data: name, age, sex etc.

 The specific problem condition or situation, including observable symptoms.
 Health history
 Family history
 School Experiences
 Occupational experiences (if an adult)
 Social adjustments
 Examinations
 Physical
 Mental
 Psychological
 Psychophysical
 Educational
This outline can be adapted to meet the needs of the particular client, research study or
situation. The term case history should not be applied loosely to any body of
information about an individual.
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The sources of information can vary in individual cases depending upon the kind of
problem the case (individual) is involved or researcher is exploring. Briefly we can say
that clinical case study method (Case History) helps to understand the behaviour or
development trend and is a very valuable method in suggesting remedial measures for
the rehabilitation of maladjusted cases.
Limitations of Case History:
1. In the preparation of a Case History, the clinician/researcher collects descriptive

account of the individual from his past life and present experiences. The
accounts given by the individual, parents and friends may or may not be true
since all the disadvantages of crude observation and anecdotal report are
involved. Parents, particularly illiterate, hide the defects and problems of their
sons and daughters and exaggerate their qualities, as perceived by them.
2. Complex behaviours are observed under complex conditions, some of them in
the past and in spite of his clinical insight the observer has no guarantee from
his procedure that the events and the uniformities observed are relevant and
crucial ones.
3. The third limitation involves the question of theoretical interpretation of the
data. The clinician sets the stage for his investigation according to the
theoretical position s/he espouses (Freudian, Rogerian etc.) and often has to
make his interpretation after the event of observation. Since his observation is
likely to be coloured by his/her own theoretical preference, and so will be
his/her conclusions.
4. The procedure is largely intuitive and impressionistic. Interpretations may
depend on the aspects of the case that make the bigger impact on the observer
as positive instances.
Check your progress:-
Note:
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Match your answers to those given at the end of the unit.

Q.1 In observation data are collected from the ..................... behaviour of the
organism.
Q.2 ..................... and ..................... are the two types of errors that occur
during observation.
Q.3 Case history involves asking people to recall relevant experiences from
their past to understand clients.
....................................................................................................................................
....
Q.4 The essential feature of an interview

is ..............................................................
Q.5 The objectives of the interview technique are …………………………………
Q.6 Two main approaches of interview

are ...............................................................
2.3.5 SURVEY METHOD
When the researchers are interested in gathering trends on some psychological

attribute or characteristic from a large population, they use survey method to collect
data: For example researcher may be interested in the school going behaviour of
children over the year like, what time they come to school, what activities they engage
in, how many attend the school in a particular season etc. Surveys are conducted among
especially selected sample of people on the basis of some criteria that is of interest to
researcher such as students of government schools as well as, random section of sample
from a large population. Survey is not simply routine gathering of figures and their
analysis but it is as especially planned activity after careful deliberation on the goals and
objectives of research and then developing as well throughout plan of gathering data
and their statistical analysis before reporting the findings.
Survey method is focused not on the individual characteristics but population

characteristics. It is essentially cross sectional. Most common type of research study that
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use survey method are dealing with objective like quality of education as reflected in the
numbers of student passing out at different grade levels, or the voting behaviour of
people, achievement of children in different subject areas etc.
2.3.6 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
The abilities, interests, attitudes, and personality characteristics of different people are
generally adjudged on the basis of interactions with them but in order to be precise,
accurate and sure psychologist use psychological tests.
A psychological test is a carefully selected sample of behaviour related to attributes such

as intelligence, personality, preferences, self-esteem etc. This sampled behaviour is
used, in turn, to elicit the responses and make inferences about the psychological
attributes of the people who have been tested like intelligence, interests, self-esteem,
etc.
Psychological tests are not magical or even very mysterious. They are merely standard
ways of generating samples of people's behaviour. However, assessments of these
behaviour samples are considerably more informative than the assessments based on
random observations of someone's behaviour. Their special value lies in the fact that
they are:
1. Uniform: The procedures of testing, instructions, answer sheets, sequence of

attempting etc. are specified precisely so that different testers will follow the
same steps every time they administer the tests. This means that the test
performances of different people (or of the same person tested at different
times) can be compared directly.
2. Objective: The rules for scoring are spelled out, like the rules for test
administration. Thus, the subjective input of the individual tester is minimized
and the potential impact of personal biases on test scores is kept under control.
3. Interpretable: The good tests are subjected to research revealing
meaningfulness or predictability of the test scores with regard to other
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behaviours/attributes that makes test scores meaningful to the psychologist.

The norms or the scores obtained by a group of people similar in terms of age,
educational, socio-economic background on the test are collated which offers a
comparative picture of the score obtained by an individual. This means clearly
spelling out the probable characteristics of people who tend to be associated
with low or high scores on the test.
Types of Tests
There are a variety of tests being used by psychologists. Achievement Tests: Since
achievement tests focus on specific educational attainments rather than on
psychological attributes per se, they are used more often by educators. Psychologists do
sometimes use achievement tests in their efforts to develop a well-rounded picture of
the people they work with in research or psychotherapy. Psychologists also use other
kinds of tests, tests of ability, personality, interests, aptitude etc.
Ability Tests: Ability tests focus on what people can do when they are at their very best
in performance on it. In other words, ability tests are designed to measure capacity or
potential rather than actual achievement. On the other hand, even the best ability test
can measure no more than what a person does on the test itself. Thus, in one sense,
every test is an achievement test. To get beyond this problem, ability-test constructors
often try to measure skills or knowledge that most of the individuals have had a roughly
equal opportunity to learn. Another approach is to include tasks that are equally
unfamiliar to the individuals to be tested.
Tests of ability are also known as tests of intelligence or tests of aptitude. These two
terms need to be distinguished from one another. Intelligence probably is made up of
many abilities, but the term is most often used to refer to overall capacity for learning
and problem solving. Aptitude usually refers to the ability to learn a particular kind of
skill required in a specific situation.
Personality Tests: Personality refers to an individual’s characteristic ways of thinking,

feeling or behaving. Personality tests are designed to reveal some of these characteristic
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patterns of behaviour. Some personality tests measure attitudes-that is, the way a
person responds emotionally and cognitively to another person, thing or situation. Some
personality tests measure interests -the kind of activities a person would be most
interested in. Still other kinds of personality tests are designed to assess underlying
thought processes, emotional states, or behaviour patterns that are abnormal and may
reflect psychological disorders.
Characteristics of a Good Test:
There are some important characteristics that a test should have if it is to be really
trustworthy and informative. Three of the most important of these characteristics are
reliability, validity and norms.
 Reliability: A good test should be highly reliable. This means that the test should
give similar results even though different individuals administer it and score it.
Different forms of the same test are used and the same person takes the test at
two different times, and a comparison of scores obtained on different occasions
reveals its reliability.
 Validity: A second key characteristic of a good test is validity. The test must
really measure what it has been designed to measure. Validity index is the
correlation between scores obtained on the test with scores on some other
similar characteristic. For example, validity of an intelligence test is the
correlation of scores obtained on this test and the scores on an achievement
test by a group.
 Norms: In addition to reliability and validity, good tests need norms. Norms are
sets of scores obtained by representative groups of people for whom the test is
intended. The scores obtained by these groups provide a basis for interpreting
any individual's score. For example, norms for an intelligence test would
understand the score obtained by a child on this test. If a child’s score
corresponds with score obtained by 60 percent individuals, it shows an average
intelligence.
Usage of Tests:
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While tests are often used in research, they are used much more often in practical
situations where decisions need to be made about people-for example, decisions about
hiring employees or about admission to certain educational programs. Because these
decisions are often quite important to the people involved, tests must be selected and
used with great care. This means that the people who make the decisions must pay
close attention to test content, selection of tests focus must precisely be on the relevant
personal attributes. It also means that only tests with demonstrated reliability and
validity should be used. Finally, tests which meet all these criteria should not be used as
the only criterion for decision making as tests are used to select people for some very
significant life options. Colleges administer ability tests as selection test to choose
candidates on merit.
Employers use ability tests and personality tests, but they often use achievement tests
as well as tests of typing speed, mechanical knowledge, or other job-relevant skills. In
practice, tests are most often used in situations where there are more applicants than
job positions available or to screen out people not having a certain standard of
competence. An organization might require that all of its employees exceed a certain
minimum test score on a skill, and might actually leave positions unfilled if no applicants
meet this minimum standard.
At the other extreme, test scores at the upper end of the scale may call attention to
particularly competent individuals who might otherwise have been overlooked. Often
these are people who do not score well on achievement tests but who have aptitude
that is waiting to be tapped.
Check your progress-
Note:

 Match your answers to those given at the end of the unit.
Q.7 When do we use survey method to collect data?
Q.8 Psychological tests must be
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..................... ..................... .....................
Q.9 Psychologists often use two kinds of tests
..................... .....................
Q.10 A good test should be highly reliable, valid but does not need norms. T/F
Q.11 A variable is an..................... or..................... which can have different values.
Q.12 An independent variable is a condition to see whether it will have an effect on

behaviour. T/F
Q.13 In ..................... design, a normal behaviour is established before the

independent variable is introduced.
2.4 LET US SUM UP
Psychologists use various methods and techniques to collect data to understand and
predict human behaviour. Using the method of systematic observation, researchers
attempt to assess accurately the naturally occurring behaviour. In order to establish
cause (or causes) of a certain behaviour, researchers make a large number of
observations which they can use for inductive-reasoning. Interview is used to collect in-
depth information through direct interaction with the person. There could be
information belonging to past that has bearing on the behaviour, but it is difficult to
observe directly. However, it may be gathered indirectly by reconstructing a case history
from the data (which has been supplied by those conducting Survey for gathering data
from a large population) that reveal trends with regard to individual or population
characteristics. Psychological tests comprise the behaviour samples that are uniform,
objective and interpretable; and they are designed to gauge individual differences with
regard to a normative group, whose scores are used to interpret those differences.
Experimental method is another important method employed which yields information
under controlled conditions about the effects of changes in an independent variable, on
a dependent variable. In a psychological experiment, the independent variable can be
something which is likely to have an impact on the dependent variable which could be
any kind of behaviour.
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2.5 UNIT - END EXERCISE
Q. Make an 'observation of the physical movements of each of ten children,

allowing three minutes of observation for each child. Examine your observations and
organize the physical movements into tentative predefined categories for checklist
observation.
Q. Write notes on -
(i) Case history
(ii) Techniques of clinical interview
Q. Describe the experimental designs to control the extraneous factors while

conducting an experiment?
Q. How can the results from a psychological test be used to make decisions about a
person?
Answers to check your progress –
(i) Overt
(ii) Sampling error, observer's error
(iii) Whole personality
(iv) a dynamic face to face relationship of interviewer and interviewee
(v) (a) Obtaining information
(b) Giving information
(c) Selecting a new employee
(d) Helping in the solution of an adjustment problem.
(vi) (a) Non - directive (client - centered)

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(b) Directive (clinical)
(vii) Uniform, objective, interpretable

(viii) Ability tests, personality tests
(ix) False
(x) Event, condition
(xi) True
(xii) Within – subjects
Chauhan, S.S. (1991). Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd,
New Delhi.
Morgan, C.T., King, R.A., Weisz, J.R. Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to Psychology, Tata
Mcgraw Hill, New Delhi.
Aggarwal, J.C. (1965). Educational Vocational Guidance & Counselling, Doaba House,
Delhi.
Crow & Crow (1962), An Introduction to Guidance, Eurasia Publishing House (P) Ltd, New
Delhi.
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UNIT 3 PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY
STRUCTURE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Meaning of Psychological Perspective
3.4 Psychoanalytical Perspective
3.4.1 Freud
3.4.2 Jung
3.4.3 Adler
3.5 Behavioural Perspective
3.6 Cognitive Perspective
3.7 Humanistic Perspective
3.8 Existential Perspective
3.9 Let us Sum Up
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Psychologists have approached the study of behaviour from many different perspectives
which vary according to the assumptions they make about what constitutes behaviour,
the causes of behaviour, and the methods used for study. You know by now that
behaviour could be anything like thoughts or thinking patterns or learning behaviour or
experiences occurring to the individual. The advancements in psychology and its
growing linkages with other disciplines had given rise to approaches like behaviorist,
cognitive, humanistic psychology, etc. These different perspectives are trying to make
sense out of the causative factors, and relationships that exist between behaviour and
preceding events.
The earlier two units were about the definition of psychology, its applications and
various methods of psychology. In the present unit, we shall understand the various
perspectives of psychology and the basic concepts included in these perspectives.
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3.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to-
 State the different perspectives of psychology.

 Explain the concepts and processes underlying various perspectives.
 Understand the basic concepts involved in each perspective.
3.3 MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES.
Psychological perspective is the approach adapted to study behaviour. It is reflected in

the assumptions about behaviour and development of the individual. The concepts used
to define personality and its development. Psychological perspectives differ in the
behaviour focused upon. Accordingly the methods of study also vary in different
psychological perspectives. The concepts, processes, and the way personality
development is visualized in different perspectives are very different. For instance
behaviorists assume that all behaviour is learned. The methods they employ to study
behaviour are connections, other psychological approaches differ from them.
There are six perspectives which are described here:
3.4 THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE
Sigmund Freud is identified with the psycho-analytic perspective. The basic assumption
of the psychoanalytic perspective is that behaviour stems from processes-meanings,
beliefs, fears and desires that are unconscious but they influence behaviour. Freud
believed that many of the impulse that each of us is born with are innate instincts or
impulses that are forbidden or punished by parents/society during childhood.
Forbidding them merely forces them out of awareness into the unconscious. They may
manifest themselves as emotional problems and symptoms of mental illness or as
socially approved behaviour such as artistic, literary, or creative activity.
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3.4.1 Freud's Perspective:
Basic Concepts of Psychoanalytical Approach
According to Freud, the human organism is a complex energy system which derives its
energy from the food it consumes. Instincts are believed to be the prime determinant of
human behaviour. Two instincts Eros-the love and the self-preservation, and Thantos-
the death instinct, are the ultimate cause of all human activity. The energy created by
biological factors may be transformed to psychic energy. Psychic energy or libido is the
energy behind all the life instincts. The energy libido was regarded as the source of
primary driving force of the personality.
Three parts of psychic structure Id, Ego and Superego are in constant conflict. The
dynamics of personality involves a continuous interaction and clash between id impulses
seeking release and inhibition imposed by the Superego. The individual seeks immediate
gratification of impulses, seeks pleasure and avoids pain in order to reduce tension.
The personality is conceptualized in terms of three major constructs the Id, the Ego and
the Superego. The Id is present from birth. Its prime objective is to channelize psychic
energy to seek pleasure. When it is thwarted, tension is produced. The Id operates on
animal level. It cannot differentiate between good and bad and is ever ready to pleasure
seek. Id is characterized by immediate gratification of needs as they are experienced.
For example, child wants food as hunger is felt and it is satisfied only when fed.
Another concept of Freud’s theory is Ego which distinguishes between subjective reality
of the mind and things in the external environment. Ego develops as a result of
interaction with the environment. The individual cannot satisfy his/her needs as these
are experienced; they try to accommodate the needs of the body, and outer reality. It
operates on the principle of reality. The ego is called the executive of personality. It
often integrates the conflicting demands of Id, the Superego and the external world.
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Explaining the relationship between Ego and the Id, Freud once said, “The relationship
between the Ego and the Id is similar to the relationship between a horse (Id) and its
rider (Ego). While the rider usually determines the direction of the horse, there are
those times when it is the horse who leads the rider."
The third concept is the super Ego. It is the part which internalizes parental influences
and ideals of society through early childhood experiences: It represents the ideal rather
than the real and strives for perfection. It works in accordance with the moral standards
authorized by the agents of society.
In the growing individual the Id tries to take control over the psychic energy and tries to
deploy it to seek pleasure while Ego taking cognizance of the demands of the
environment – the reality, controls its influence and enables delay of gratification of the
pleasures which causes conflict and tension within the individual. This helps the
individual to conform to the demands of the parents, family and society. The infant cries
to demand food, as and when it desires but gradually learns to receive it as per the
scheduled time.
The third concept is the Superego. It is the store-house of the commands and parental
influences and ideals of society internalized during early childhood experiences. It
represents dos and don’ts conveyed by adults. The Superego is not a villain that reins in
the Id and Ego but it is the facilitator that helps a person to stay adjusted and connected
to the social reality. Since it connects with social reality it also facilitates adhering to the
ethical and moral standards of the society.
Freud proposed three levels of consciousness; preconscious is the level which is

available to the consciousness with effort but unconscious are the experiences in the
distant memory. The unconscious memories, experiences and thoughts are those that
have been blocked from consciousness due to their sexual content which is threatening
to the individual. These experiences are repressed using energy. However, sometimes
these repressed experiences force their way into consciousness and cause disturbance
or pathology of personality.
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The various stages of development of personality conceptualized are oral, anal phallic,
latency and genital stage.
These stages as the name suggests are the product of focus of psychic energy on
different areas of the body. During oral phase up to 15 months the energy is
concentrated on deriving pleasure from mouth. Later on pleasure zone shifts to anal
part, this is the age from 1½ years to 3 years when child is toilet trained and his
disciplining starts. Ego development begins during this phase. The parents and other
adults are not as indulgent now. Id impulse or immediate pleasure seeking behaviour
with regard to elimination is regulated. Later about three to five years is the phallic
stage when the child experiences immature sexuality through stimulation of genitals.
This is the most crucial and controversial stage of development in Freud’s theory. The
Oedipal complex, which denotes focus of attention or source of pleasure as closeness to
parents, and is gratifying, and also becomes source of jealousy and rivalry. This stage is
followed by the latency stage in which the child has developed an Ego which balances
the Id and hides the urgency of seeking immediate gratification of needs, rather psychic
energy is directed into meaningful activities. This stage continues till puberty. After this
stage comes the genital stage wherein the Ego has become strong and, it successfully
masters the Id, and has learned to gratify its needs in socially accepted ways.
Methods of study employed by psychoanalysts are analysis of slips of tongue, or errors,

free associations, analysis of dreams, projective tests, etc. Basic premise is that Id is very
persistent in seeking gratification, and its presence is reflected in the errors and slips of
tongue; so psychoanalysts believe that slips and errors must be studied to understand
person. Free association technique involves saying aloud whatever comes to the mind of
the person. The therapist listens to the client very closely. What they say, and do not say
are both important and reveal the unconscious conflicts. Projective tests used by
psychoanalysts present vague and ambiguous stimuli as figures/paintings to the client
and record their response to these stimuli which reveal underlying patterns of behaviour
that are unconscious. Apart from these Freud analyzed Art and cross cultural practices
to understand the functioning of Id, Ego and Superego.
Freud’s perspective was taken forward by many other psychoanalytical theorists.
3.4.2 Jung's Perspective
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Jung a close associate of Freud, was basically a psychoanalyst; however, he differed

from him in many ways, like he did not view 'Libido' or sexual as the only driving force in
life. According to him the conscious ego is just like the concept of ego which includes
conscious aspects of thinking, feeling and remembering. The personal unconscious
consists of the repressed and suppressed experiences of the individual which are
accessible to the conscious. The personal unconscious is highly individualistic in nature.
The collective unconscious concept is unique to him. It consists of the cumulative,
historical and shared experiences which have never been conscious. Every individual is
endowed with the collective unconscious which is storehouse containing man's racial
history as well as his pre human and animal ancestry in the form of inherited neural
patterns. He believed that all people have the same collective unconscious because of
the similarity of born structure and racial experiences. It is impersonal, universal and
archaic. The experiences in the collective unconscious get networked and produce
structures that are called Archetypes. These archetypes are universal ideas (thought
forms) which are inherited from generation to generation. For example, the archetype
of mother is universal idea which is inherited from generation to generation. Some of
the common archetypes mentioned are God, mother, magic, etc.
Two important archetypes are that of anima and animus which represent the existence
of both feminine and masculine characteristics in man and woman. A man has an anima
which constitutes the feminine attributes and the woman has an animus which
represents her masculine side. According to Jung, the development of the archetypes of
anima and animus have attributed to the racial experiences of the sexes with each
other.
Development involves human beings striving to consciously accommodate the

unconscious experiences and trying to fulfill the expectations of the roles they take up in
the society. In this process they acquire a unique character or patterning of personality.
In this context yet another important concept given by Jung is that of The Persona.
Persona is a mask which people wear to meet the social roles and conventions in the
society irrespective of our real personality. The mask or persona represents the roles
that society assigns to a person. The process of development of the personality by the
development of the Ego is called Individuation.
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Jung gave the concept of Complex which he described as the inability to respond or
delays in responding. He has also described two kinds of personality- the extrovert and
introvert. The extroverts are the ones with an orientation toward the external world
while the introverts are those having an inward orientation to the subjective world.
Both are ordinarily present in the personality of an individual but one of them is
dominant and conscious which becomes the basis of classification of personality.
3.4.3 Individual Psychology of Adler
Adler was a psycho-analyst but he did not give importance to the concept of inborn
instincts. He laid stress on social factors in the development of personality. He believed
in the awareness of the individual and the reasons of his actions. Man has the urge to
master his/her environment and develop to higher levels of life. If they fail in attaining
mastery, they develop feelings of failure or inferiority complex. All children experience
feelings of failure and inferiority. They develop an urge to overcome their inferiority
which continues throughout their lives. This striving for superiority is innate but it
manifests itself in various ways in the life of the person. The feeling of inferiority
compels individuals to compensate for their inferiority. The feelings of inferiority help
the individual to improve his circumstances. Some individuals try to hide their inferiority
by posing as superior which is labeled as Superiority Complex
The unique ways individuals adopt to deal with their inferiority results in developing a
unique Life Style. It is an abstraction that includes entire life history every characteristic,
ways of interacting, means of attaining their life goal- their entire life history. Style of life
is the system or the principle by which the individual’s personality functions. It is the
whole that commands the parts. Style of life is Adler's chief idiographic principle which
explains the uniqueness of the person. Everyone has a style of life but no two people
have the same style.
Adler lays emphasis on social interests and relations of an individual. His conception of
social relations includes co-operation, interpersonal identification with a group and
empathy. Social participation of man is the means to help the society to attain
perfection. Social interest, according to Adler, is the latent and inborn characteristic of
man.
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The unitary, consistent, creative self is sovereign in the personality structure. The creative
power of the self is hard to describe. We can see its effects, but we cannot see it. It is
something that intervenes between the stimuli acting upon the person and the responses
the person makes to these stimuli. In essence, the doctrine of a creative self asserts that
humans could develop their own personalities, which is constructed out of the raw
material of heredity and experience. The creative self gives meaning to life, it creates the
goal as well as provides means to the goal. The creative self is the active principle of
human life, and it is not like the concept of soul.
Check your progress:

Note:
 Give the answer to the question in the space given below.
 Match your answer to those given in the end of the unit.
1. The death instinct according to Freud is
called .................................................................
2. .................................. works in accordance with the moral standards of the
society.
3. ………………………….................... originates from metabolic process of the body.
4. Jung has given two kinds of typologies
(i) ..................................... (ii) ......................................
5. Striving for superiority means striving

for ................................................................
6. ....................................................... helps the humans to develop their
personalities.
3.5 BEHAVIOURIST PERSPECTIVE
Behaviourism, also called the learning perspective (where any thought feelings, actions
are behaviour), is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that the
environment determines what we learn and all behaviour is learned. Watson and the
other early behaviourists viewed behaviour to be the dependent on the learning taking
place in the environment. Watson and the other early behaviourists believed that
environment is much more important than heredity in the determination of behaviour.
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Behaviourist believed that study of behaviour aims at prediction and control of

behaviour. Behaviour as such can be described scientifically; the internal physiological
or hypothetical constructs such as the mind need not be used. The subject matter of
psychology is human and animal activity which can be observed and measured in an
objective way. The purpose of psychology is to predict the response to the
environmental characteristics or the stimuli and to control the behaviour of human
beings and animals.
Behaviourist position is that only observable processes such as actions-everything

organisms do-including acting, thinking and feeling- should be regarded as behaviour.
Study of internal, unseen processes and privately observable processes such as,
thinking, feeling, stress and anxiety are against behaviorist philosophy. They translate
these processes into corresponding observable events.
Watson and the other early behaviourists were highly impressed by the work of Pavlov
(1849-1936) on classical conditioning. Pavlov during his work on learning among dogs
observed the behaviour in response to different stimuli. The experiments on learning
among dogs revealed that dogs learned to salivate in response to tone after the tone
and the food were paired for some time. The amount of learning was assessed by the
quantity of salivation produced by the tone. Pavlov's work suggested that learning
involves the formation of an association between a stimulus (e.g., a tone) and a
response (e.g., salivation). Watson assumed that most (or all) learning was of this type.
Based on this work Watson developed his theory that psychology is the study of
behaviour of animal and human beings both. According to him conditioning was the key
to the understanding of behaviour. His famous quote "Give me a dozen healthy infants,
well formed and my own specified world to bring them up in, and I will guarantee to
take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist. I might select
doctor, lawyer, artist, etc.or a beggar and thief regardless of his talents, tendencies,
abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors" shows his ardent belief in
environmental role as against that of innate drives and urges or own consciousness of
the child.
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The principal method of learning in behavioural perspective is conditioning.

Consciousness, if at all exists, is not the subject for scientific study. He rejected
introspection as the method of studying behaviour. The unit of behaviour is reflex or
stimulus response (S-R) connection. Behaviour consists of observable responses
elements and can be successfully analysed by objective scientific method.
There is an immediate response of some sort to every effective stimulus; every response
has some kind of stimulus. There is, thus, a strict cause and effect determinism in
behaviour.
Thorndike was another behaviourist; he formulated the term operant conditioning to

describe the voluntary behaviour. The problem solving behaviour studied in laboratory
led to formulation of the operant conditioning and Law of Effect. Operant is a response
which is emitted to bring about a desirable change in the environment. The desirable
change is the reinforcement. If the operant is followed by the reinforcement it is
strengthened. On the other hand, if it is followed by no or negative reinforcement it is
weakened.
Skinner was another behaviourist who assumed that all behaviour follows laws clearly; it
implies the possibility of behavioural control. All that is required is to manipulate those
conditions that influence or result in a change in behaviour. There can be some
disagreement about whether control necessarily implies understanding or explanation,
but on a purely practical level Skinner prefers to use the term control because its
meaning is clear.
Skinner has consistently argued that behaviour can best be studied by considering how
it is related to antecedent events. This is an argument accepted by many psychologists.
Skinner has also argued that in a functional analysis of behaviour there is no necessity to
talk about mechanisms operating within the organism. Basic concepts of Skinner's
Behavioural Perspective are –
 Behaviour is modifiable as result behaviorists are interested in the control of

behaviour rather than enduring behavioural characteristics.
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 Depending on the genetic chacteristics of the species or individual some behaviour

may be more easily conditioned than others and the process of evolution shapes
the innate behaviour of a species just as an individual's learned behaviour is
shaped by the environment.
 Skinner was primarily concerned with the associations and changes in behaviour
with environmental variation. He used the word operant conditioning to refer to
classical and respondent conditioning. This distinction primarily involves the
difference between responses that are elicited and those that are emitted. As we
have seen, the focus of Skinner's concern is on the operant that is emitted in the
absence of any eliciting stimulus.
 The strength of response increases when the response occurs and is followed by
reinforcement. This peculiarity of this class of responses gives rise to Skinner's use
of the term "operant." An operant is a response that operates on the environment
and changes it. The change in the environment affects the subsequent occurrence
of the response. In operant conditioning, therefore, the reinforcer is not
associated with an eliciting stimulus as it is when respondents are conditioned.
Instead it is associated with the response.
 A person does not always exhibit the same behaviour to the same degree when in
a similar situation, and general recognition of this is the principal reason for the
development of the concept of motivation.
 Skinner employs a set of concepts that might be called dynamic or motivational.
These concepts, similar to the motivational concepts in other theories, are
employed to account for the variability of behaviour in otherwise constant
situations. However, in Skinner's system they occupy a distinct category because
they relate groups of responses to groups of operations, not because they are
equated with energy states, purpose, or any other condition that implies they are
causal antecedents of behaviour.
 Principle of reinforcement or the law of effect by Thorndike was referred to by
Skinner as operant reinforcement theory.
 The conditioning, in which there is no causal relation between the response and
the reinforcer, was termed "superstitious behaviour." This indicates a chance
strengthening of the response may lead to serious consequences sometimes.
Skinner believes that conditioned or secondary reinforcers are of great importance
in the control of human behaviour.
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Note:
 Give the answer to the following question in the space given below.
 Match your answer to those given at the end of the unit.
7. Watson gave more importance to ..................... than heredity in determining
the behaviour.
8. Skinner focuses on ............................... behaviour.
9. Skinnerian behaviourism concerns with respondent, not with operant. T/F
10. Key concept in Skinners behaviourism
is ..................................................................
3.6 COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Cognitive psychology emerged from the work of learning theorists. A number of

theorists like Rotter (1954), Bandura (1986), Kelly (1955) and others have contributed to
different aspects of cognitive interpretation of behaviour. The cognitive perspective
takes into account the mental processes that are hypothesised to underlie behaviour.
This covers a broad range of behaviours related to the working of memory, attention,
perception, knowledge representation, reasoning, creativity and problem solving.
Cognitive psychology is radically different from previous psychological approaches in
that it assumes that all behaviour is not learned in a mechanical way due to conditioning
of behaviour but it is based on insight and schemes or mental sets. It rejects
introspection just like behaviourists, and employs scientific method.
Cognitive approach assumes that mental processes could be understood by objective

observation of what organisms do, by focusing on specific behaviours just as
behaviourists, but interpreting them in terms of underlying mental processes. The
experiments on problem solving and learning revealed that the learners actively process
all the incoming information from the environment, in various ways which is then sorted
out and incorporated in the existing information in the memory, to be transformed and
reorganized.
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The personality in the cognitive perspective stems from the way individual’s mentally
represent information, which influences the efficacy of the behaviour; the more
sophisticated the mental representation of information more effective would be the
behaviour.
Rotter(1982) a learning theorist proposed expectancy and reinforcement as the two

variables that determine the strength of the behaviour potential, meaning the likelihood
of a particular behaviour occurring in a gives situation-for example, staying up all night
to study for an examination. The expectancy will depend on whether the student’s
behaviour brought reinforcement last time in a similar situation (the potency) and
preference for the reinforcement.
Another learning theorist Bandura’s social-cognitive theory (1986, 2000) laid emphasis
on rewards and punishment as external of behaviour in combination the internal
determinants like beliefs, thoughts and expectations. The theory assumes that there is
reciprocal determinism, meaning that not only environment affects behaviour but
behaviour can also affect the environment. The individual's experience of receiving
rewards or punishments influences his or her decisions about a particular course of
action or future behaviour. Most behaviour stems from internal processes of self-
regulation which are based on own past experiences.
Kelly (1955) another cognitive theorist, proposed theory of personal constructs as the
basic units of analysis. The personal constructs are the dimensions that individuals use
to describe themselves and their social worlds. Each individual uses a unique set of
personal constructs in interpreting and predicting events.
Another cognitive theorist, Markus (1999) proposed Self-Schema as structure that

refers to the way individuals perceive, organize, process, and utilize information. The
individual schemas represent those aspects of the individual’s environment on which
s/he lays importance, while ignoring everything else. Schemas also provide the structure
which acts as framework to organize and processes information received.
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Schemas explain differences in personality. They differ from one individual to another,
causing people to process information differently and to behave in different ways.
Schemas are relatively stable over time and therefore result in stable ways of perceiving
and utilizing information.

Note:
11. Cognitive psychology studies the.....................
12. According to Rotter, the strength of behaviour potential is determined by
(i) .................................................... (ii) ..............................................................
13. Bandura's cognitive theory emphasises on .....................

14. ..................... is the cognitive variable that guides the individual's choice of
behaviour.
15. A cognitive structure that helps us perceive, organize, process and utilize
information is a ..................................
3.7 HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
The early theorists connected with Humanistic Psychology are Abraham Maslow and
Carl Rogers. Humanistic perspective is distinguished from both behaviourism and
psychoanalysis in that it assumes that human beings are conscious beings with a free
will to act. The assumptions in humanistic perspective regarding the nature of humans
that they are basically good or at least neutral and are not inherently evil, are in contrast
to the earlier theories that either assume that some of the instincts are bad or anti-
social and must be tamed by training and socialization or do not assign any role to the
will of the person.
The development of personality takes place through maturation and by the unfolding of
the creative power inherent in the human beings. The active efforts of the individual in a
benign environment enable realization of his/her true nature. Maslow believed that
destructiveness and violence, for example, are not innate in humans. They become
destructive when this life force inherent in their nature is denied expression or
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frustrated. Maslow (1968) distinguished between pathological violence and healthy

aggression that arises in response to injustice, prejudice and other social ills.
Maslow’s (1967) theory of human motivation differentiates between basic needs and
meta needs. The basic needs are hunger, affection, security, self-esteem, and meta
needs are those of justice, goodness, beauty, order, unity, and so forth. The basic needs
are deficiency needs where as the meta needs are growth needs. The basic needs are
urgent and receive priority over the meta needs. Meta needs have no hierarchy, all of
them are equally potent and can be easily substituted for one another. The basic needs
as well as meta needs are inherent in human beings; when they are not fulfilled the
person may become sick. The meta pathologies consist of such states as alienation,
anguish, apathy, and cynicism.
Carl Rogers as psychotherapist developed nondirective or client-centered therapy. His

humanistic orientation is reflected in the two constructs-the organism and the Self, that
are of fundamental importance to his theory. He believes human beings to be highly
aware, self-directing and explorer of inner space. To him the organism is the locus of all
experiences. Experience includes everything potentially available to awareness that is
going on within the organism at any given moment. This totality of perceived or
experience constitutes the phenomenal field.
The phenomenal field at any given moment is made up of conscious (symbolized) and
unconscious (unsymbolized) experiences. When experience does not lead to awareness
due to any reason, threat or anxiety, it remains below awareness level, this is called sub-
seption. Unsymbolized experiences are subcepted, though these may influence
behaviour. When experience is not correctly symbolized the individual will behave
inappropriately. However, individuals tend to check their symbolized experiences
against the reality as it is. The testing of reality provides one with dependable
knowledge of the world so that one is able to behave realistically. However, some
perceptions remain untested or are inadequately tested and these untested experiences
may cause one to behave unrealistically and create problems.
What an individual experiences or thinks is reality, is merely a tentative hypothesis

about reality, which may or may not be true. Development involves that individual is
completely open to the data from internal as well as external experiences."
Another Important Concept of Roger’s Theory - ‘The Self’
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A portion of the phenomenal field gradually becomes differentiated. This is the self. Self
or self-concept denotes the organized, consistent conceptual gestalt composed of
perceptions of the characteristics of the 'I' or 'me' to others and to various aspects of
life, together with the values attached to these perceptions. In addition to the self as it is
(the self structure), there is an ideal self which is what the person would like to be.
When the symbolized experiences that constitute the Self faithfully mirror the
experiences of the organism, the person is said to be adjusted, mature and fully
functioning. Such a person accepts the entire range of organismic experiences without
threat or anxiety, he or she is able to think realistically. Incongruence between self and
organism makes individuals feel threatened and anxious. They behave defensively and
their thinking becomes contracted and rigid.
"The organism has one basic tendency and striving – to actualize, maintain and enhance
the experiencing organism" This actualizing tendency is selective, paying attention only
to those aspects of the environment that promise to move the person constructively in
the direction of fulfillment and wholeness. On the one hand, there is a single motivating
force, the self-actualizing drive on the other hand, there is a single goal of life, to
become self-actualized or a whole person.
Rogers adds a new feature to the concept of growth when he observes that the
forward-moving tendency can only operate when the choices are clearly perceived and
adequately symbolized.
He has singled out two needs for special attention, the need for positive regard and the
need for self-regard. Both are learned needs. The former develops in infancy as a
consequence of the baby's being loved and cared for, the latter is established by virtue
of the baby's receiving positive regard from others.
In his last proposition, Rogers point out how important it is for wholesome adjustment
to maintain a continuous examination of one's values. "As the individual perceives and
accepts into his self-structure more of his organismic experiences, he finds that he is
replacing his present value system-based so largely upon introjections which have been
distortedly symbolized – with a continued valuing process". It is called "Person-
centered" and not "organismic-centered. Person is preferred because it has more of a
psychological connotation.
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Note:
1. Humanistic psychology focuses on understanding the ..................
nature of the ..................... experience.
2. Maslow assumed that people have an in born nature that is essentially
good or at least neutral. T/F
3. Maslow differentiates between basic needs
and ............................................
4. Carl Rogers developed ................................................. method of
Psychotherapy.
5. ............................................... is the totality of experience.
6. .............................. between the organism and the self makes the
individual to be adjusted.
3.8 EXISTENTIAL PERSPECTIVE
Jean Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, Friedrich Nietzche and Soren Kierkegaard were
philosophers who laid the foundations of existential philosophy during the period 1930-
1950. Existentialism is a philosophical perspective identified with the existential
philosophers like Heidegger, Jaspers, Kafka, Marcel, Merleau-Ponty and Tillich.
This is not a fully developed school of psychology like psychoanalytical, behaviourist and
others. Existentialists believe that the human beings are challenged by the requirements
of survival in their daily life. They hold the view that life has no inherent meaning,
meaning is constructed. Development of personality lies in constructing a meaningful
life in the midst of existential futility. Authentic human beings are able to live a
meaningful life. An individual is neither the pawn of the environment nor the creature
of instincts, needs and drives. Instead, he or she has the freedom to choose and he or
she alone is responsible for their existence.
Heidegger's 1889-1976 focused on individual as the being-in-the-world.

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Rollo May (1909-1994) believed that individuals can only be understood in terms of
their subjective sense of self. He felt that abnormal behaviour is often just a stratagem
for protecting the centre i.e. the subjective sense of self against perceived threats. The
person may give up on self-growth if he or she feels his centre is threatened and
retreats to the secure, known centre.
May was concerned with people's loss of faith in values. Lack of commitment to values
makes individual feel lonely, empty and loose meaning in life. Ultimately taking
responsibility for ourselves and finding meaning in our lives is the task that fulfills life.
 In the early 1920s. Birswanger defined existential analysis as a phenomenological

analysis of actual human existence. Its aim is the reconstruction of the inner world
of experience.
 In 1946 Madard Boss in association with Martin Heidegger, generated an existential
form of psychology and psychotherapy that he called Daseins analysis (being-in-the-
world).
 The writing of Binswanger and Boss react against other psychological systems. Their
criticism follows:
 There are no cause-effect relationships in human existence. At most, there are only
sequences of behaviours, but it is impermissible to derive causality from sequence.
The existential psychologist replaces the concept of causality by the concept of
motivation. Motivation always presupposes an understanding (or misunderstanding)
of the relation between cause and effect.
 Second firm opposition of existential psychology to the dualism of subject (mind)
and object (body, environment or matter). It is this split, attributed to Descartes,
that results in explaining man's experience and behaviour in terms of environmental
stimuli or bodily states.
 Existential psychology denies that something lies behind phenomena that explain
them or causes their appearance. Explanations of human existence in terms of a
self, of an unconscious, psychic or physical energy or forces such as instincts, brain
waves, drives and archetypes are ruled out. Phenomena are what they are in all of
their immediacy; they are not a result of something else.
 Finally, existential psychology adamantly opposes regarding an individual as a thing
like a stone or a tree. Not only does such a view prevent the psychologist from
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understanding humans in the full light of their existence-in-the-world, but it also

results in the dehumanization of people.
 The basic concepts of existential psychology (Dasein analysis) have been formulated
by Binswanger and Boss. Dasein or Structure of Existence is the fundamental
concept of existential psychology. The structure of human existence is based on this
concept Being-in-the-world or Dasein. Dasein is not a property or attribute of a
person, it is the entire human existence. Dasein is a German word, the meaningful
translation is "to be the there." "The there" refers to the individual as a part of the
world not as an external terrain. It contrasts with Vorhanasein, which characterizes
the existence of nonhuman things.
According to Ludwig Biswanger, an existential psychologist (1958) in order to

understand how existence feels, we need to understand our experiences at three
different levels. The conscious experience has three components: biological or physical
(Umwelt), social or human environmental (Mitwelt) and inner or psychological
experience or the person himself or herself (Eigenwelt). Meaning of these terms are as
under:
 Existence depends on awareness of our physical sensation such as pain, pleasure,

hunger, warmth, cold etc is Umwelt; awareness of our social relations-what we
think and feel as a social creature who exists in a world with other people, our
thoughts and feelings about others and the thoughts and feelings we receive from
them is our experience of Mitwelt Mitwelt. Awareness of the inner workings or our
attempt to understand ourselves i.e. the experience of experience itself is Eigenwelt
or "introspection".
 Existential analysis approaches human existence with the manifold possibilities
humans have for transcending the world in which they exist and for entering a new
world Being-Beyond-the-world (Human Possibilities). Only by actualizing their
potentialities that they can live an authentic life. When they deny or restrict the full
possibilities of their existence, or permit themselves to be dominated by other or by
their environment, then they are living an inauthentic existence. Humans are free to
choose either kind of life.
 The conditions of how humans find themselves in the world that is their Ground of
Existence. If one is born a female the ground of her existence will not be the same
as that of a male. Being a woman defines, in part, the possibilities of her existence. If
she rejects these possibilities, and tries, for instance, to become a man or masculine
then she will have chosen an inauthentic mode of being-in-the-world. The
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punishments for in-authenticity are feelings of guilt. An authentic existence is

designed by recognizing the ground of one's existence: an inauthentic existence
results from shutting oneself off from one's ground.
 World-Design is all-encompassing pattern of an individual's mode of being-in-the-
world. It describes how he or she will react in specific situations and what kinds of
character traits and symptoms they will develop. It makes an imprint on everything
the person does. The borders of the design may be narrow and constricted or they
may be broad and expansive. When the world-design is limited to few categories,
threat is more imminent than when the world-design is more varied. In the latter
case, if a person is threatened in one region, other regions can emerge and offer
him or her safe foothold. In many instances, a person may have more than one
world-design.
Modes of Being-in-the-World
There are different modes of being-in-the-world. Each mode is a way by which Dasein
understands, interprets and expresses itself. The dual mode achieved by two people in
love. "I" and "Thou" become "We." This is the authentic mode of being human. A plural
mode is described by Binswanger as being a world of formal relations, competition and
struggle. An individual who lives to him/herself has chosen a singular mode of existence,
where as one who buries herself in a crowd has chosen the mode of anonymity.
Existentials
Boss differs from Binswanger about being-in-the-world he prefers to explain inherent

characteristics in human existence by existentials. These are explained as under:
- Spatiality of existence is not to be confused with physical space. Openness and

clearness constitute the true nature of spatiality in the human world.
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- Temporality of existence is not clock or calendar time. Nor is it an endless series

of now-points as in physics. Time is always there in the world to be used or
consumed as one wishes. Time is always having time for (or not having time for)
doing something. This "time for" is its chief significance for human being. Time
can be expanded when one says, for example, "I am going to spend next year
going around the world"
- Bodyhood is not limited to what lies within the skin; it extends as far as one's
relationships to the world. The boundaries of the body hood are determined by
the openness of the individual to the world.
- Human existence is never private, except in certain pathological conditions; it is
always a sharing of the world with each other.
- Mood or Attunement influences what one perceives and how one responds. It
depends upon one's mood at that moment. The human beings in the world are
constantly attuned to one mood or another. Moods are potentialities inherent
in every human existence.
Humans are free to choose but choices may not always be wise that is why they suffer
from anxiety, alienation, boredom, compulsions, phobias, delusions and a host of other
disabling disorders? Humans can transcend the wounds to childhood and later insults to
their existence but they can never transcend their guilt. Guilt is an existential and a
fundamental characteristic of Dasein.
Something else that no person can avoid is dread - the dread of Nothingness or what
Barrett calls, to fall into Nothingness means to lose one's being, to become nothing.
Death is the absolute Nothingness but there are other less absolute ways by which non-
Being can invade Being-alienation and isolation from the world.
That life or at least human existence as being in this world ends in death is a fact known
to every one. Boss points out that this knowledge of death leaves humans no choice but
to live in some sort of permanent relationship to death. Human existence might be
called from this vantage point a “being-unto-death”. Mortality Boss says is an existential
"the most thoroughly pervasive and peculiarly human trait of all”.
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Note:
16. Existential psychology denies the dualism of ..........................
and ............................
17. The conscious experience of being alive has three components :
(i)................................ (ii) ................................. (iii) ................................
18. Being in the world or ……………...................... is human existence.

19. The inherent characteristics of being in the world are called ................................
20. ........................................ is the bodily sphere of the fulfilment of human
existence.
3.9 LET US SUM UP
This unit gave information about various perspectives of psychology. Various

perspectives, or points of view about what is important in understanding mental life and
behaviour. Among these perspectives are the behavioural, cognitive, humanistic,
psychoanalytic and existential.
Psycho-analytical perspective first presented by Freud was later reformulated by many

neo-Freudians.
The current behavioural perspective focuses on the observed behaviour of people or

animals and not on their mental processes.
From the cognitive perspective, behaviour and mind are to be understood in terms of
the ways in which information from the environment, received through the senses, is
processed.
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The humanistic perspective emphasizes a person's sense of Self and each individual's
attempts to achieve personal competence and self esteem. The current psychoanalytic
perspective (or, more broadly, the psychodynamic perspective) focuses, as did its
historical forerunner, on the unconscious motives and defense mechanisms which
manifest themselves in mental life and behaviour.
Existential analysis approaches human existence with no other consideration than that
humans are in the world, have a world and have freedom to choose and go beyond the
immediate world of physical existence. Humans are free to choose either kind of life.
3.10 UNIT END EXERCISES
Q. Differentiate between the psychoanalytic perspectives of Freud, Jung and Adler.
Q. Describe the basic concepts of existential perspective.
Q. Briefly describe the Maslow's humanistic & Skinner's behavioural perspectives

of psychology.
Q. Write short note on -
(i) Cognitive Perspective.
(ii) Roger's Humanistic Perspective.
ANSWERS:
1. Thanatos
2. The Super ego
3. Psychic Energy
4. Extrovert, introvert
5. Self actualization
6. Creative Self
7. (i) Pavlov focused on observable stimuli and response
(ii) Pavlov suggested that learning involved the association between a stimulus
and response
8. Environment
9. Modifiable
10. False
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11. Reinforcement
12. Mental processes
13. Expectation, Reinforcement Value
14. Reciprocal Determinism
15. Expectancy
16. Schema
17. Personal, human
18. True
19. Meta needs
20. Non directive / client - centered
21. Phenomenal Field
22. Congruence
23. Mind, Body
24. Umwelt, Mitwelt, Eigenwelt
25. Dasein
26. Existentials
27. Bodyhood
Ahlawat, N., (2009). Principles of Psychology, Vishwabharati Publications, New Delhi.
Chauhan, S.S. (1991). Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi.
Hall, C. S., Lindzey, G. (1985). Theories of Personality, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R., Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to Psychology,
Tata Mcgraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi.
Sarason, I. (1966). Personality - An Objective Approach, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New
York.
Smith, E. E., Hoeksema, N. S., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G. (2003). Atkinson and Hilgard's
Introduction to Psychology, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Canada.
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DGC – 1
BLOCK – 2
Growth & Development
Unit 1: Nature of Growth, Development and Maturation
Unit 2: Principles of Growth, Stages of Development
Unit 3: Prenatal, Physical, Emotional, Cognitive and Social

Development of Children
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BLOCK 2
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
This is the second block of Course GC-1: ‘Psychological Basis of Guidance and
Counselling.’ The Block is titled ‘Growth and Development’. There are three units in it as
given below:
1. Unit 1: Nature of Growth, Development and Maturation

2. Unit 2: Principles of Growth, Stages of Development
3. Unit 3: Prenatal, Physical, Emotional, Cognitive and Social Development of
children
The first unit entitled – ‘Nature of Growth, Development and Maturations’, covers the
meaning and nature of these concepts. The distinction between them is traced as they
tend to be used interchangeably. The concept of developmental task, and the factors
affecting growth and development have been discussed. Two of the most accepted
theories of growth and development have been explained to provide an orientation to
the available literature in the area.
The unit 2 is entitled – ‘Principles of growth, stages of development.’ This unit unravels
the principles underlying the human growth and development. How this knowledge is
beneficial for teachers and counsellors is also discussed in this unit. The life cycle of
human being is broadly divided into four stages – infancy, childhood, adolescence, and
adulthood. The characteristic features of these stages are discussed in detail.
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The unit 3 is entitled – ‘Prenatal, Physical, Emotional, Cognitive and Social Development
of Children.’ In this unit the characteristic features of these various developmental
stages are described. The changes taking place in infancy, childhood and adolescence
are discussed in this unit. The changes and their implication are part of the unit.
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UNIT 1: NATURE OF GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND MATURATION
STRUCTURE
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Human Development
1.3.2 Growth – Meaning and Nature

1.3.2 Development
1.3.3 Maturation
1.4 Factors Influencing Growth and Development
1.5 Developmental Tasks
1.6 Theories of Growth and Development
1.6.1 Erickson: Theory of Psycho–Social Development
1.6.2 Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development
1.7 Let us Sum up
1.8 Unit End Exercise
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Human beings change during the course of their life with respect to their physical,
mental, social or emotional characteristics. The change begins the moment life is
conceived and continues till end. The one celled fertilized egg inside the mother’s womb
gradually and continuously develops into a baby. The process of growth and
development which started in the mother’s womb continues outside. The
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transformation of a single cell into a mature individual occurs as a result of growth and
development. Both these are lifelong processes and are universal in nature. The rate of
development varies among different individuals. For example, all children are born with
different height and weight. Even after birth they may or may not grow at the same
speed. In spite of the individual differences in growth and development, the overall
development takes place in a highly orderly manner (We will study about these
principles in unit-2).
After birth the growth and development in an individual is further facilitated by

maturation and learning. These changes are continuously taking place during the course
of development from a child to adult. The interaction between individual and
environment brings about changes in all aspects of their personality, viz. physical,
cognitive, social and emotional. Transition from one stage of development to another is
brought about by growth and maturation. Though the development is continuous some
periods or stages-infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood are distinguishable in
terms of their characteristic features. The development could be broadly understood in
terms of these four developmental periods. Although some changes due to growth and
maturation are inevitable learning process could accelerate the pace of development in
a child. It is important that we understand the way growth and development is taking
place and the influence of learning and environment in this process. The understanding
of these influences will help us to provide relevant experiences at home and in school to
make learning meaningful.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of growth, development and maturation.

2. Describe the various stages of human growth and development.
3. Explain the main theories of growth and development.
4. Identify the process of growth and development in your environment.
1.3 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

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Growth and development are the fundamental characteristics of living organisms.

Another concept which is quite often used interchangeably is maturation. These terms
are very often used interchangeably but there exists a distinction between them. Inspite
of their being used together often there exists differences among them. As counselors
we must know these differences before understanding the principles and stages of
growth and development. Let us see the meaning of these two terms.
1.3.1 Growth – Meaning and Nature
Growth refers to an increase in size, number, value or strength like a seed grows into a
tree. An embryo grows and develops into a fully functioning adult. In case of human
beings growth involves quantitative changes occurring in the anatomy and physiology
which can be seen or measured. The changes occur due to interaction between
organism’s genetic makeup, and the environment which acts upon it. The extent of
growth viz. size or strength is primarily due to the genetic factors. However, the role of
environmental factors viz. nutrition, exercise, hygiene etc. is also crucial. Growth is not
random or haphazard increase but an orderly step by step process, each step being the
foundation for the next stage of behavior. The human beings in the first five years of life
from prenatal stage show an incredible growth rate which slows down in later years. It
again resumes a fast pace during adolescence and continues till adulthood is attained.
The growth involves changes in body proportions as well as in overall stature and
weight. The rate of growth differs from one part of body to another like after birth the
head grows at a very fast rate than the lower body parts. The gender related organs
develop much later during adolescence when most parts of the body have reached their
full maturity level. The rate of growth also varies amongst individuals.
The growth reaches a peak and then decline sets in all dimensions of individual
personality which is not visible initially. All the organs and functions of human beings are
guided by age-related determinants. Human beings due to their biological inheritance
are endowed with genetic potentialities which would unfold if conducive environment is
available, allowing enough scope for the genetic potentialities to be exhibited in variety
of ways. It is the environment which helps or hinders the development of those
potentialities.
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Growth shows following features:
 Involves physical changes and increase in size, weight, height, etc. of child.
 Is quantitative in nature and in incremental.
 Is objectively observable and is measurable in terms of increase in size, height.
 Weight.
 Rate of growth varies during different stages of life span.
 Rate of growth is rapid during prenatal, infancy and adolescence whereas
slower during childhood and adulthood and slowest during old age.
 Growth rate shows remarkably wide range of individual differences. Two
individuals grow at different rate which is never same.
 Growth rate of different body parts also differs during different life stages.
Sexual organs develop only during adolescence. Head develops much faster
than body parts during infancy.
 Is limited to quantitative changes that occur – physical, organs including internal
organs like bone, muscle, brain etc. Could be measured with tools.
 Growth may or may not result in development. For example a child’s brain may
gain weight (grow) but it does not ensure intellectual development, and s/he
become fat but this growth may not bring any functional improvement
(qualitative change) i.e. development.
 After understanding the concept and nature of growth let us try to understand
the term development.
1.3.2 Development
Development can be described as improved functioning of an individual due to overall

changes in form, shape, structure and functioning brought out by the biological,
cognitive and social processes. It results from interaction between individual and the
environment. It is a more comprehensive term used to describe qualitative changes in a
child that occur along with quantitative changes due to growth. It reflects an increase in
complexity of function and skill. It can be considered as behavioral aspect of growth
leading to development of capacity and skill to adapt to the environment. Development
takes place with age but age alone cannot ensure development. Development is
continuous but certain distinguishable milestones in the process have been identified.
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The age these milestones correspond to are called stages, for example the childhood is
distinguished from infancy. These stages are indicative of distinctive developmental
characteristics.
Nature of Development
 Continuous process beginning from conception to death.

 Encompasses all dimensions of individual’s personality.
 Progressive series of changes in sequential and predictable pattern resulting from
both maturation as well as experience.
 A complex process of integrating multiple structures and functions for an integrated
higher order functioning.
 Results in improved functioning of an individual with reference to complexity of
skill.
 Enables an individual to adapt to his/ her environment.
 May be understood as growth of behavioral efficacy.
 Occurs as a result of interaction and exchanges between the individual and the
environment.
Another term which is used in conjunction with growth and development is maturation.
Let us try to understand it.
1.3.3 Maturation
Maturation refers to the changes occurring due to unfolding of inherited traits with the
passage of time. It is relatively independent of activity, practice or experience.
Maturation is the result of differentiation of cells into different kinds of tissues viz.
muscles, bones, brain, and neurons as well as parallel differentiation in their functions.
This differentiation is responsible for maturation and emergence of the various new
capabilities. For example the way a small child learns to hold head, walks on fours and
then balances on two legs becomes possible due to maturation. The developmental
sequence cannot be different on providing any kind of enrichment or nutrition related
stimulation. A child learns to walk only when legs are mature. Similarly a child cannot
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learn to speak unless the speech organs and associated nervous system has matured.
Therefore, for language development, the maturation of speech organs and nerve
centers of a child are prerequisite. Any amount of training will prove futile unless and
until the child is mature enough to learn.
The shift towards adult like interests in adolescence is not merely due to learning. This is
due to the physical development and maturation of the sexual organs. Development
and maturation occur in tandem with learning. The intellectual abilities result from
working together of the twin processes of maturation of brain and learning taking place
in the stimulating environment. Maturation makes it possible and learning strengthens
it and makes it efficient and effective.
Characteristics of Maturation
 Maturation is coming of age. The biological inheritance is expressed at scheduled

time.
 Unchangeable inner processes of biological growth by which readiness is developed
for different functions in the body. A child may not be able to hold or move a rattle,
though he is attracted to it because his hands are not mature enough for catching
and holding.
 Maturation is limited by hereditary differences which cannot be overcome by
education/environmental stimulation/training.
 It is development of capacity for increasingly complex motor, cognitive, academic,
emotional and social learning and activities. The mature individual is able to perform
complex tasks and manages emotional - social situations without much problem
whereas lack of maturation will see a person struggling to do the same task. A child
can play cricket only after he is mature enough to hold the ball and bat and has eye-
hand coordination.
 Depends on interaction of tissues and organs within young organism leading to
stimulating of other parts and coordination among them to develop new capacities.
 Ceases after adolescence though development continues through out the life cycle.
 Occurs in all dimensions of personality. Therefore, the readiness to learn is present
in all dimensions. This should be kept in mind while organizing the learning
activities.
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In fact, maturation determines the rate and ultimate level of development of child’s
abilities. It is important that the learning for a particular aspect should start only when
the child is mature enough to learn. Forcing the child to learn before the readiness will
not result in success. In fact it will produce a feeling of failure to achieve and will have
an overall negative effect on the self esteem.
The growth, maturation and development are all important for a child to achieve
success in life. Growth and maturation are more of internal factors unfolding at their
own pace for an individual. Development involves qualitative changes in the functioning,
as well as quantitative changes resulting from growth. The pattern of growth and
maturation in human beings is unique and is common to all members of the species. The
rate of these processes exhibits individual differences. However, there are some factors
that may accelerate the process of growth and maturation within the limits set by
biological factors.
The factors that affect growth and development are discussed in next section.
Check your Progress:

Notes:
 Give your answer to each question as instructed.
State whether True or False

i. Growth continues till the onset of adulthood.
ii. Development represents quantitative aspect of change.
iii. Maturation continues throughout life till old age.
iv. Maturation is essential for learning.
Fill in the blanks

i. Interaction of different parts within an organism causing changes
is_______________.
ii. Increase in height and weight of a child is due to ___________________.
iii. __________________helps individual to adapt to his environment.
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1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
We discussed that growth and development are influenced by a variety of factors

present within and without the individual. These may be:
 Internal or hereditary and genetic factors

 External or environmental factors
Let us understand these factors:
1. Internal Factors: There are many biological factors influencing growth and
development which an individual is born with. The biological inheritance received is
an important influence that affects the growth and development of child. If a child
has received genetic make up for a small stature, the child is likely to be of small
stature. Inheritance itself creates conditions for growth and development, if at any
time there is a setback due to lack of nutrition or emotional disturbance, those
aspects may limit his/her future development also.
Some of these factors could be:
a) Characteristics of Parents: As the child receives equal half of the set of

chromosomes from both mother and father, he has a mix of characteristics of
parents. Influence of parents is expressed on height, size of body parts, eye color;
more than on other somatic characteristics.
b) Biological Constitution: The biological constitution of the child also affects the
process of growth and development. The biological constitution refers to the
physiological system-the metabolic rate, hormones, musculature etc. which have
profound effect on growth and development.
c) Race: The different racial groups to which an individual belongs also influence
growth and development. For example African, Asian, Caucasian etc. races have
over a period of time developed characteristics, which are transmitted to future
generations. The color, height, stamina, facial features, as part of their racial
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features as an African or an Asian may get transmitted, and children will exhibit
those features.
d) Growth Potentials: The size of the child at birth is influenced by nutrition available
to the mother during prenatal period and it affects his growth in subsequent years.
The growth potential refers to the capacity of the child to grow and develop. A child
born premature develops into a weaker child than a normal child born after full
pregnancy period of nine months.
2. External Factors: These factors are part of the environment and lie outside the
individual. Though these factors could be manipulated to some extent to promote
healthy growth and development however, success of the intervention depends on
the timing, not necessary that the manipulation would always be successful in
producing desired results.
Some of these factors are given below:
a) Socio-economic level: The socio-economic level has been generally found to be

associated with better growth and development among children. The higher socio-
economic level associated with higher income levels lead to nurturing and healthy
environment, nutrition, and, better care, enrichment and other kinds of support.
The poor socio-economic environments generally prevent fulfillment of basic
needs of children due to poverty and low income which in turn leads to poor
growth and development. There is relationship between the socio-economic
factors and mental illness (http://www.nelmh.org/page_view).
b) Climate: Climate generally affects rate of growth and development through its
direct role in vulnerability to diseases and infections. There is stress due to high
heat in summer or extreme winter or infections prevalent in rainy season which
have adverse effect on growth and development.
c) Cultural Factors: The child rearing practices and the quality and quantity of
feeding/nutrition are largely dependent on cultural habits. Cultural and religious
taboos related to food stuff restrict the type and quantity of food consumption
which affects growth and development among children. In some cultures solid
food is not given to the child for first six months. In view of the fast rate of growth
and development at this time nutritional deficiency may slow down the growth
rate.
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d) Emotional Factors: Broken homes, loss of parent, or emotional trauma etc.

emotional situations have a negative impact on the growth and development of
children. The negative emotions have adverse physiological affect which causes
slow growth or weakening of the immune system. The children would not develop
to an optimum level of their inherent potential.
e) Certain Chronic Diseases also retard the growth and development of children. For
example, asthma leads to respiratory problems and slows down the growth rate in
children.
f) Ordinal Position in Family: The ordinal position of child in the family also affects
his/her the growth and development of child. The first born are stronger in growth
and development than later sibling. This could be due to the reason that more
attention is paid to first born than the second and subsequent children.

Notes:
Give your answer to each question as instructed.
Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
True and False

i. Concept of Developmental Task was given by Havighurst.
ii. Achievement of developmental task is essential for successful transition to
next stage.
iii. Selecting a mate is developmental task of adolescence.
iv. Race of an individual has no effect on his growth & development.
v. Climate also affects the growth and development.
vi. The ordinal position of the child does not affect growth and development.
vii. Characteristics of only one parent either father or mother is reflected in child.
viii. Children who mature late are better adjusted than early maturing ones.
1.5 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
The developmental changes occurring in an individual can be understood with reference

to stages which are distinguishable by the unique dominant characteristic features,
which sets of each stage. Broadly the life span of human beings is divided into four
stages-
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1. Infancy (0-2 years)

2. Childhood (2-12 years)
3. Adolescence (12-20 years)
4. Adulthood (20years and beyond)
Hurlock (1959) had given a more detailed and differentiated classification-
1. Prenatal – before birth.

2. Infancy – 0 to 2 weeks
3. Babyhood – 2 weeks to 2 years
4. Early childhood – 2 years to 6 years
5. Later childhood – 6 years to 10/12 years
6. Preadolescence – 10/12 to 13/14 years
7. Early adolescence – 13/14 to 17 years
8. Late adolescence – 17 to 21 years
9. Early adulthood – 21 to 40 years
10. Middle adulthood – 40 to 60 years
11. Old age or senescence – 60 years and beyond
At every developmental stage across the cultures an individual is expected to learn and
master behavior and skills, which enable him to become an adjusted member of the
society. These are called ‘developmental tasks’. Therefore, developmental tasks are
abilities or competencies which need to be mastered at a certain period in the life of the
individual, successful mastery of those tasks leads to success with later tasks, as well as
to his happiness, while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later tasks
(Havighust, 1953)”. The mastery over these developmental tasks is dependent on three
factors:
1. Physical maturation or readiness to learn like learning to walk. Only when the
muscles are mature enough, a child can learn to walk.
2. Cultural and social pressures like learning to read. In some culture to be able to
read is insisted at early childhood age whereas in other cultures reading is not
insisted upon till later childhood years. This creates pressures on child.
3. Personal values and aspirations of an individual like making choices for
vocations and careers. A child from a family of high achievers is likely to have
higher vocational goals than the child from middle or lower socio-economic
background.
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The age at which the society or the culture expects its member to master the
developmental task is called ‘critical age’ for that particular developmental task. Any
deviation from that creates undue pressure putting stress on the child.
Havighurst (1953) had compiled a list of developmental tasks with reference to

American children which seems to be true for other cultures as well; however the
specific age at which their attainment is expected may vary. It is as follows.
1. Developmental Tasks of Infancy And Early Childhood

Learning to walk.
Learning to take solid foods.
Learning to talk.
Learning to control the elimination of body wastes.
Learning sex differences and sexual modesty.
Achieving physiological stability.
Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality.
Learning to relate oneself to parents, siblings, and other people.
Learning to distinguish right and wrong and developing a conscience.
2. Developmental Tasks Of Middle Childhood

Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism.
Learning to get along with age-mates.
Learning an appropriate sex role.
Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculating.
Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.
Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values.

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Developing attitudes towards social groups and institutions.
3. Developmental Tasks of Adolescence

Accepting one’s physique and accepting a masculine or feminine role.
New relations with age-mates of both sexes.
Emotional independence of parents and other adults.
Achieving assurance of economic independence.
Selecting and preparing for an occupation.
Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence.
Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.
Preparing for marriage and family life.
Building conscious values in harmony with an adequate scientific world-picture.
4. Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

Selecting a mate.
Learning to live with a marriage partner.
Starting a family.
Rearing children.
Managing a home.
Getting started in an occupation.
Taking on civic responsibility.
Finding a congenial social group.
5. Developmental Tasks of Middle Age

Achieving adult civic and social responsibility.
Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living.
Assisting teen-age children to become responsible and happy adults.
Developing adult leisure-time activities.

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Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person.
Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age.
Adjusting to aging parents.
6. Developmental Tasks of Later Maturity

Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health.
Adjusting to retirement and reduced income.
Adjusting to death of spouse.
Establishing an explicit affiliation with age group.
Meeting social and civic obligations.
Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements.
The mastery of these developmental tasks is essential for an individual to be accepted

by the society. The late maturing child exhibits physical immaturity and has problems
establishing social relationships with peers. This failure may also result from lack of
opportunity to progress with the developmental tasks. For example, the children from
broken family are slow at mastering the language or the appropriate vocabulary to be
used in different social situations than those from normal family.
Sometimes this failure is due to lack of motivation on individual’s part to learn or lack of
support in the society. For example in societies that favor youth and devalue age or
elderly the opportunities for social functioning, the motivation to continue to work will
be weakened. Similarly, the beliefs prevailing in the society may motivate people to do
hard work for higher goals or commitment in life or may remain laid back.
The developmental tasks are very important as they serve as:
 Signposts or the expectations that society has from them at a given

developmental stage. The child should be able to master these tasks to be able
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to get adjusted in the society. Parents should provide opportunities and support
to the child to master appropriate developmental task for optimum adjustment.
 They also give a view as to what lies ahead and what is expected at the next
developmental stage. This develops preparedness in the individuals to deal with
the demands of next developmental task.
The knowledge of developmental task also helps parents and teachers to organize the
activities appropriate for that developmental stage. The mismatch between experiences
and task can be reduced to minimum. For example a child who has already learned the
social skills required for adolescent stage will find adjustment easier when he actually
reaches adolescence.
1.6 THEORIES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
As we already know development involves quantitative as well as qualitative changes in

one’s structure and functioning. This is a lifelong, universal process and has attracted
the attention of psychologists for extensive study. Every dimension of personality has
attracted eminent psychologists to study the developmental process and stages.
Therefore, they have put forth various theories tracing the developmental processes at
different developmental stages. These studies have been done in each and every
dimension of individual’s personality. We will study two of the important ones here
which have almost universal acceptability.
1.6.1 Erickson: Theory of Psycho-Social Development
Erickson proposed that development of individual results from his interaction with his
social environment. From the birth onwards, a child faces specific pressures or conflict
(also called crisis) in his social development. The individual tries to resolve these crises in
the personal life by reacting psychologically in his own way as per his circumstances.
These demands grow increasingly complex and at different age or period in life new
crisis appear. The successful resolution of the crisis leads to positive future behaviour
whereas failure to resolve crisis develops negativity in behavior. Erickson identified eight
such crises in life arising at different age these are:
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Crisis or conflicts Age
1. Trust vs. Mistrust Birth to 1 ½ years.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 1 ½ years to 3 years.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt 3 to 6 years.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority 6 to 12 years.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Adolescence (12 to 20
years).
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Early adulthood (20 -
45years).
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Middle adulthood (45 –
65 years).
8. Ego integrity vs. Despair Late adulthood (65
years onwards).
The above table mentions the type of crises which needs to be resolved during a
particular period in one’s life. It also enlists the positive qualities one acquires as s/he
moves on in life viz., trust, independence, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy,
generativity and ego integrity. Development of positive behaviour leads to a fulfilled
personality and social development. On the other hand failure to overcome these crises
may result in development of mistrust, shame, doubt, guilt feeling, inferiority, role
confusion, isolation, stagnation and despair which brings about maladjustment and
strife.
The active interaction with social environment and modes of adjustment helps in
resolving crises during different stages of life. In fact one stage evolves into other
through the whole life cycle and build up on each other. If an issue or crises is not
resolved it gets carried over to next stage. A brief explanation of stages as given by
Erickson is given here:
Stage 1- Period of Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 ½ Years)
The child is completely dependent on mother or caretaker for all the needs. If the needs
like food, security are satisfied by the elders the child learns to trust the social
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environment, whereas if these needs are negated a mistrust towards social

environment develops.
Stage 2 - Period of Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 ½ to 3 years)
The mature sensory- motor skills and language ability encourages the child to explore
environment. As the environment may contain probable risks, the parents deny this
exploration instead of allowing the child to explore under supervision. The denial of
freedom or failure to manipulate environment, without support produces feelings of
shame and doubt in the child about his/her own ability. When parents give adequate
freedom, children develop sense of autonomy and are able to develop a sense of
independence.
Stage 3 – Period of Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years)
Trust and autonomy enables the child to take initiative in exploring his/her
environment. If this initiative which is expressed through ceaseless curiosity and
questioning is not encouraged by parents the child develops sense of shame and guilt.
Such children get scared to take initiative which is an important quality to grow and
develop as an adult. The guilt feeling will develop hesitation, indecision during
individual’s social interaction which affects his/her adjustments and social relationships
at home and in the school.
Stage 4 – Period of Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years)
The child enters a school during this period. If his/her achievement in school is
considered inferior by parents and teachers in relation to his/her peers and s/he is
rebuked for it, s/he will develop a sense of inferiority and inability to make adjustments
due to mistrust and guilt. The successful experiences in school and other social
situations will motivate him to work harder and the child will develop into a hard
working, productive individual.
Stage 5 - Period of Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 20 years)
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This period coincides with adolescence and the search for identity is very critical during
this period. This is in reference to the changes in physical appearance at this age as well
as pressures from elders to take decision with reference to future. Who am I? What am I
supposed to do? etc. are the self related questions in his mind. If teachers and parents
help them to resolve these questions by facilitating recognition of their ability, and
provide help and guidance in professional development then confidence develops and
identity is achieved. Failure to do so results in role confusion.
Stage 6 - Period of Intimacy vs. Isolation (20 to 45 years)
At this stage individual tends to develop a sense of intimacy or commitment for a close
relationship with another person. If s/he meets a person whom s/he can identify with
and confide in then a sense of commitment, intimacy develops. If s/he is not able to find
a soul mate then a feeling of isolation persists.
Stage 7 - Period of Generativity vs. Stagnation (45 to 65 years)
A need for guiding others, engaging in new creative endeavors is felt at this stage. If s/he
gets opportunity to be able to satisfy this need, to be helpful in guiding next generation
at home or in profession s/he looks at it as merger of self with others in the society. If
this crisis is not resolved, there is tendency to become selfish or egoistic and a sense of
stagnation and inactivity results which is both individual as well as social loss.
Stage 8 - Period of Ego-integrity vs. Despair (65 years and onwards)
Ego-integrity refers to integration of successful resolutions of previous crises in the

course of one’s life. When one reflects at past and is satisfied s/he feels a sense of ego-
integrity and is at peace whereas if looking back at past shows non resolution of earlier
issues is there, this leads to despair and helplessness for having failed in life.
It was, therefore, suggested by Erickson that an individual has to strike a balance

between conflicting needs to be able to develop into socially well adjusted personality.
1.6.2 Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development

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Piaget proposed the theory of intellectual development where he postulated that

changes and development of one’s cognitive structure are brought about by interaction
with one’s physical and social environment. This task of constant organization of mental
structure is an individual phenomenon so we see wide variation among children
regarding their cognitive development. In spite of wide individual differences all children
pass through four stages in their cognitive development journey. These stages are:
Stage 1 – Sensory-Motor Stage (Birth to Two Years)
This stage is characterized by development of sensory and motor skills. Therefore, it is

limited to direct sensory and motor interaction with the environment. The language
development is rudimentary, with development of maturation for learning language is
taking place. By the end of this stage a child has developed sense organs and basic
motor skills. She also learns of object permanence which means that objects continue to
exist even when s/he cannot see or experience them.
Stage 2 – Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7 Years)
A child learns to replace direct experiences with mental images. The language
development also facilitates the thinking process. His/her thinking is also characterized
by other symbolic representations or images of things in environment. The child does
not show development of two main cognitive characteristics- reversibility and
conversation.
 Reversibility is ability to see the relationship in reverse direction as well. If Ram

has a brother called Shyam, the child will not be able to reverse that Shyam also
has a brother called Ram.
 Conservation is the ability to see an object as permanent even though its length,
width or shape changes. If same amount of water is poured in taller container
then s/he will say that the taller container will have more water. A child is not
able to conserve continuous quantities. His/her logic is intuitive and full of
contradictions.
Stage 3 – Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)
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The cognitive functioning of the child shows the principal of conservation and
reversibility. The conceptual and logical thinking also develops but it is with reference to
concrete objects. S/he is able to understand the interrelatedness of principles, is able to
carry out and solve problems which are concrete. S/he can operate symbolically for
those concepts for which s/he had experiences at concrete level. Thinking is also
systematic and logical within the concrete level. S/he is unable to think in abstract
terms.
Stage 4 – Formal Operational Stage (12 – 15 Years)
The thinking at this stage reaches a sophisticated level of abstract reasoning and logical
thinking. His/her reasoning becomes qualitatively advanced–hypothetico-deductive
reasoning. S/he is able to form hypothesis and deduce results. Here s/he is able to
imagine things that do not exist and this widens his/her intellectual horizon. The higher
level cognitive abilities of synthesis, evaluation, etc. are evident at this stage. Hypothesis
formation leads to complex problem solving skills. A child at this stage can build up
multiple hypotheses and a number of alternate solutions; verify all possible solutions in
systematic and logical way and generalize and arrive at abstract rules that cover many
specific situations. Thus this stage makes the attainment of mental maturity in an
individual.

Notes:
Answer the following questions by choosing the right option:
1. According to Piaget, most elementary school children between the ages of

seven and eleven are in the ______stage of cognitive development
a) Formal operational
b) Concrete operational
c) Preoperational
d) Sensori- motor
2. Which one of the personality crisis postulated by Erickson is faced by

elementary school students?
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a) Identity vs. inferiority

b) Industry vs. isolation
c) Industry vs. inferiority
d) Identity vs. isolation
3. An infant searches for a ball that has fallen behind the bed and is out of view.
This behavior suggests the acquisition of
a) Concrete operations
b) Equilibration
c) Reversibility
d) Object permanence
4. Match the following stages of cognitive development with the brief on right
hand.
a) Formal operational stage i) Learning occurs largely through
trial-and-error
b) Concrete operational stage ii) Mental symbols can be used to
represent objects
c) Preoperational stage iii) Reversible mental operations are
developed
d) Sensorimotor stage iv) Abstract thinking is possible and
problems can be solved
systematically.
1.7 LET US SUM UP
Human being change, during the course of their life in all dimensions of their personality-
physical, mental, social, emotional, etc. The collected processes which transform a single
cell into a mature individual are termed as growth and development. These are lifelong
processes and are universal in nature. The velocity of these processes varies from
individual to individual. In spite of the individual differences in growth and development
the principles guiding it remain the same. Growth and development is the fundamental
characteristics of living organisms. Growth is used to designate all the quantitative
changes brought about in the structure and function of human anatomy and physiology.
Development refers to progressive series of qualitative changes that occurs along with
quantitative changes due to growth. It reflects an increase in complexity of function and
skill progression. Maturation refers to the changes as result of unfolding and ripening of
inherited traits. It is relatively independent of activity, practice or experience. It is the
unchangeable inner process of growth by which readiness is developed in any part of the
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body. A child may not be able to hold a rattle, though he is attracted to it because his
hands are not mature enough for catching and holding. The processes of growth and
development are affected by many factors. These factors may be broadly categorized
into:- a) Internal i.e. Hereditary and Genetic factors are those factors which lie within the
individual. b) External - Environmental factors are those factors which lie without i.e.
outside the individual.
A developmental task is a “task which arises at or about a certain period in the life of the
individual, successful achievement of which leads to happiness and to success with later
tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later tasks.”
(Havighus,1953). The mastery over these developmental tasks is dependent on three
factors-Physical maturation; cultural and social pressures; and Personal values and
aspirations of an individual. Many theories of growth and development are proposed.
Two universally acceptable ones are Erickson’s theory of Psycho-social development and
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Erickson has identified eight such crisis in life
arising at different age which need to be successfully resolved. Piaget proposed the
theory of cognitive development where he postulated that changes and development in
one’s cognitive structure are brought about by interaction with one’s physical and social
environment
1.8 UNIT END EXERCISE
1. Differentiate between Growth, Development and Maturation with the help of

examples.
2. How will the knowledge of developmental task be helpful for a teacher in the
classroom teaching?
3. What changes can be made in environmental factors to make development
reach its optimum? Discuss with help of examples.
4. Why is it important to resolve crisis of a particular stage to go to next stage in
Erickson’s theory of Psycho-social development?
ANSWERS
Check your Progress -1
1. State whether True or False
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i) True
ii) False
iii) False
iv) True
2. Fill in the blanks
i. Maturation
ii. Growth
iii. Development
iv. Maturation
1. State whether True and False
i. True
ii. True
iii. False
iv. False
v. True
vi. False
vii. False
viii. False
1. b) Concrete operational
2. c) Industry vs. inferiority
3. d) Object permanence
4. Match the following (stages of cognitive development with the brief ):
a) Formal operational stage i) Abstract thinking is possible and

problems can be solved
systematically
b) Concrete operational stage iii) Reversible mental operations are

developed
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c) Preoperational stage ii) Mental symbols can be used to

represent objects
d) Sensorimotor stage i) Learning occurs through trial and

error
Baron, R.A. (1998). Psychology (4th Edn.), Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Berk, L.E. (1997). Child Development (4th Edn.), Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Garett, H.E. (1969). Educational Psychology, Eurasia Publishing House, New Delhi.
Havighurst, R.J. (1953). Human Development and Education, LongMan, New York.
Hurlock, E.B. (1959). Developmental Psychology. Tata Mcgraw Hill Publishing Company,
Bombay.
Hudgius, B.B., Phye, G.D, Schau, C.G., Theisan, G.L., Ames, C., Ames, R., (1983).
Educational Psychology,
F.E. Peacock Publishers Inc., Illinois.
Mangal, S.K. (2002). Advanced Educational Psychology, PHI Private Ltd., New Delhi.
Salvin, R.E. (1991). Educational Psychology. Theory into Practice. Prentice Hall Internal
Inc., New Jersey.
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UNIT 2: PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH, STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
STRUCTURE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Human Growth and Development
2.3.1 Principles of Human Growth and Development
2.3.1.1 Principles of Continuity
2.3.1.2 Principle of uniform pattern in growth sequence
2.3.1.3 Principle of general to specific
2.3.1.4 Principle of integration
2.3.1.5 Principle of non-uniform growth rate
2.3.1.6 Principle of individual differences
2.3.1.7 Principle of interaction between organism and environment
2.3.1.8 Principle of interrelation between different dimensions of
individual’s growth and development
2.3.2 Educational Implications of Principles of Growth and Development
missing
2.4 Stages of Growth and Development
2.4.1 Infancy
2.4.2 Early Childhood
2.4.3 Later Childhood
2.4.4 Adolescence
2.5 Lets Sum Up
2.1 INTRODUCTION
As discussed in Unit 1 development refers to the changes that an individual undergoes

during his lifetime. These changes do not occur in a haphazard manner; rather these are
orderly and predictable. In spite of individual differences among people there is an
underlying similarity across all individuals. The similarity of development is visible beyond
the apparent uniqueness of individual and the resultant individual differences. Thus
growth and development, though is an individual phenomenon, unique to a child, it
follows certain general principles common to all. These are known as principles of growth
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and development. In this unit we will study the principles of growth and development in
human beings.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you should be able to:
 Explain the principles of growth and development.

 Describe the various stages of human growth and development.
 State the factors affecting human growth and development
 Describe the characteristics of each stage of human growth and development.
 Mention the educational implications of growth and development.
2.3 HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The pattern of growth and development and its rate varies in all species. In human
beings the pattern and rate of development during various stages follow certain
principles. The study of these principles would enable us to understand the age at which
the readiness for different kinds of learning occurs which leads to behavioral changes.
This will help in planning appropriate learning experiences for them. If the experiences
are unrealistic and inappropriate, considering the readiness for leaning certain type of
tasks/behaviour, it will cause frustration in child as well as teacher or parents. For
example teaching a child to write alphabets before s/he has developed motor
coordination is unrealistic expectation. Knowledge of development principles helps the
adults to guide the child’s learning in a meaningful way.
2.3.1 Principles of Human Growth and Development
The human growth and development though shows apparent variations, yet it follows
certain underlying principles common to all human beings. These principal are given
here
2.3.1.1 Principle of Continuity

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Growth and Development is a continuous process from conception till death. All
behavior changing are made possible due to continuous growth. Though the growth is
continuous, the resulting behavioural changes appear discontinuous, this is due to the
gradual changes that are taking place in the different body parts. As these changes
accumulate these is apparent change in the behaviour which may appear discontinuous
for example the child suddenly stands and takes few steps or adolescents suddenly
develop secondary sexual characteristics. Though we talk of stages of development they
are not sudden changes occurring among children with age; growth in a child is
continuous, beginning from almost unrecognizable cell to mature adult over a period of
time. Development continues even after that. Thus, growth in childhood paves the way
for growth in later childhood which further acts as foundation for adolescent years and
so on. The growth rate in infancy, early childhood and adolescence is much faster than
in later childhood. The growth occurs till the adulthood is reached, though development
continues and steps only at the time of death.
2.3.1.2 Uniform Pattern in Growth Sequence
Growth and Development show an orderly and sequential character. Each species
follows a pattern which is unique to it. This pattern is same for all members of the
species though rate of growth may vary. In human beings for example a child first learns
to turn laterally then tilts so as to lie on its stomach. He learns to sit, stand, walk and
then runs. Physical and cognitive growth and psycho-social development follow a
uniform pattern with respect to different characteristics during different developmental
stages of life span. This orderly sequence of growth and development follow two
principals –
(a) Cephalo-caudal sequence which refers to – growth and development always

occurs in longitudinal axis starting from head towards foot. The growth of head
will always precede growth of lower body parts like legs. This is the reason why
a child first gains control over his head movements then arms movements and
then legs movements.
(b) In Proximodistal pattern i.e. from central axis towards extremities. The parts of
body near central axis grow and develop before those parts that are away from
central axis i.e. extremities. The arm control in children precedes the finger
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control. The muscles near central axis grow earlier than small muscles
controlling fingers.
2.3.1.3 General to Specific
Growth and development proceed from general or gross motor development to specific
to or fine motor functions. The general activity precedes the specific activity and specific
responses in all areas of development. This happens due to maturation of the muscles
which control gross movement like moving legs and arms. Gradually the child develops
finer muscles and subsequently the coordination of various muscles, as a result s/he is
able to perform finer movements. For example, a child first grabs a ball using his whole
hand and gradually begins to use thumbs and fingers to pick the ball. Similarly when
new born baby cries, the whole body vibrates. However, as the child matures the crying
involves only his vocal cords, facial muscles and eyes. In cognitive development general
concepts are learned prior to the discriminates. Similarly, emotional expressions also
proceed from general to specific. A child learns to call all four legged animals as dog and
later differentiates between cat, dog, cow, and buffalo. In early infancy emotion is an
undifferentiated excitement. Gradually, delight, distress, fear, anger begin to be
distinguished and further distinctions are achieved and expressed in varying quantities
and intensities.
These changes in generalized development to acquire specific capabilities are very

important as they show a progressive increase in growth and development in
personality.
2.3.1.4 Integration
Another process of growth and development which goes hand in hand, and is
complementary to differentiation is integration. In fact, as growth occurs in succession
to differentiation and integration in a series, the different parts that are differentiated
from the original tissue are combined or coordinated to form a whole. It is this whole
which further differentiates into more specialized tissues. This continuous cycle of
growth, differentiation and integration brings about development. Later when growth
slows down integration of various activities/skills is attempted by individuals. The
specific responses due to differentiation are combined to form an integrated whole.
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Playing or riding bicycle seems one activity to us but in reality it is a highly integrated
response pattern. There are simple skills involved which are linked to form overall
common response. A skilled bicycle rider will have well coordinated physical
movements, balancing act, as well as thoughts and perception to reach destination
using by cycle. A novice will show lack of balance and coordination in his movements,
may not accurately judge his direction and timings. Thus a simple activity of riding
bicycle is in fact an integrated response of several tissues, muscles, brain capacities and
learning.
Similarly complex intellectual functions like thinking and reasoning are integration of
simple activities like perceiving, imagining remembering etc. Growth and development
is in fact combination of differentiation and integration wherein these occur
alternatively or simultaneously.
2.3.1.5 Non-uniform Growth Rate
The rate of growth is rapid during prenatal stage and during infancy. However it
continues even when it appears to have slow down. The growth rate slows down but
development and differentiation continues. The rate of growth varies in different
dimensions of personality, as well as in different stages of life. Therefore, it appears to
be in spurts or fits with almost no visible change at times to sudden spurt at another.
For example sudden, shooting of height, social interest, and intellectual curiosity during
adolescence are due to the underlying development which has not been visible. The
sudden growth during infancy and early childhood gives way to slow rate during later
childhood. Then sudden increase in growth rate during adolescence is followed by
slowing down and cessation of growth during adulthood, though development
continues throughout the life.
2.3.1.6 Individual Differences
The principle lays emphasis on the uniqueness of an individual. Even though

development is continuous from infancy to maturity and follows the above principal yet
every single individual maintains its own growth rate which is different from other
individuals. This growth rate is unique to the individual, rapid or slow as the case may be
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and is typical to the person which results in his/her uniqueness. This rate of growth may
continue for life. A child who is maturing early will continue to be like that in all life
stages. A child who is large, tall for his age will continue to be so in all his/her later
development during life stages. This principle has significance for teachers in dealing
with students. The classroom activities should be planned and transacted keeping the
individual differences in mind. Every child is unique with regard to all aspects of his/her
development. This has implications for education that it should be planned and
implemented in a manner that each one learns as per his or her abilities and choice.
2.3.1.7 Interaction between Organism and Environment
The processes of growth and development involve active interaction between the
internal factors and the external factors in the environment. At any stage in life the
external factors work upon internal constitution that has been ensured by the genetic
endowments that mould a child’s personality in ways dictated by the interplay of these
two. It is not possible to indicate as to what proportion internal/hereditary and
environment contribute to growth of individual but the two works together from the
conception to determine the growth and development of a child. The teachers have to
pay attention to this process of interaction between individual and environment to
ensure their optimism development. A teacher cannot manipulate the internal factors
but can by provide physical, social, emotional enriching environment for optimum
growth and development of a child.
2.3.1.8 Interrelation between Different Dimensions of Individual’s Growth and

Development
The growth and development taking place in any one dimension of individual
personality affects development in other dimension as well. For instance a healthy body
paves way for development of healthy mind and stable emotional and social
development. Inadequate mental growth and development will affect physical growth
as well as social and emotional development. This is precisely why schools should focus
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on all round growth and development of child rather than overemphasis on mental
development and neglect physical, emotional and social growth and development. A
teacher should ensure that teaching learning activities should develop all dimensions of
child’s personality.

Notes:
 Give your answer as instructed in each question.
i) Fill in the blanks
v. The human growth and development is _________ through the life span.
vi. The direction of growth and development is __________and _________.
vii. A child will show gross motor movements ___________finer motor actions.
viii. Children grow at ____________rate towards maturity.
ix. Growth and development is result of interaction between
________________.
ii) State whether true or false
1. All the dimensions grow independently.
2. There is gender difference in the rate of growth.
3. The rate of growth is uniform in human beings.
4. Development involves only integration of the all the activities of an individual.
2.3.1.9 Educational Implications of Principles of Growth and Development
The principles of Growth and Development discussed above help us to understand the
patterns of growth and development in a child. They provide insight for planning
educational experiences in accordance with the developmental level attained. As a
teacher you may have realistic expectations based on the physical, mental, societal or
emotional developmental needs and characteristics of children at a particular stage of
life. Some of these insights are:
 As development is a continuous ongoing process, the teacher may focus on the

efforts of the child rather than achievement of the goal. The teacher could keep
making efforts for optimal development of child’s personality.
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 Teacher may keep in mind that individuals differ therefore each child could be best
guided keeping in view his/her strengths and weaknesses while teaching in class.
 As a teacher knowledge of the growth and development pattern at each life stage
will help to plan the educational experiences according to the developmental stage.
 The knowledge of interrelatedness of all dimensions of growth and development
would enable you to plan learning experiences in all for dimensions of personality.
 The growth and development is result of interaction between heredity and
environment. Therefore, as a teacher you may facilitate maximum development,
within the genetic makeup by providing stimulating learning experiences. The
enrichment and variety of environment experience will help child to realize full
potential whereas lack of it will lead to stunted growth and development.

Notes:
 Give your answer as instructed to each question.
1) How will you apply the knowledge of the principles of growth and development
in education?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2.4 STAGES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The life starts at conception in womb of the mother where the growth and development
occurs for about nine months. After this period which is known as pre-natal period the
child is born or s/he comes out of the womb. This event is birth and marks the beginning
of the postnatal period. For all practical purposes the chronological age of child starts
from birth. Of all the mammals, the human child is least mature and helpless at birth
and needs a lot of external support to grow and develop to survive, adjust to his/her
surroundings and gain control over it. As discussed in previous section, it undergoes
progressive and sequential changes due to the dynamic interaction between inherited
characteristics and environment. The growth and development though is gradual and
continuous process but for the sake of understanding expression of typical behavioral
characteristics over time the psychologists have divided the life cycle into five different
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stages of life, and have identified specific changes that may be expected during each
stage. Each stage of development has its own typical characteristics which may or may
not be carried forward to the next stage. Most of the literatures show life span after
birth divided into four broad stages – Infancy (birth to 2 years), childhood (2 to 10-12
years), Adolescence (12-18 years) and Adulthood (after 19 years).
Though the transition from one stage to next is gradual, different age groups have been
earmarked to identify developmental stages. Each one of these stages are roughly
extended over definite period of years and is further divided into sub-stages for the sake
of convenience of understanding the change taking place.
Stages of Human Growth and Development
Stages of Age Group Educational
Development Stage
1. Infancy 0-2 years
2. Childhood
a) Early Childhood 2-6 years Pre-primary
b) Later Childhood 6-12 years Primary
3. Adolescence 12-18 years

a) Pre-adolescence 12-14 years Upper-primary
b) Post-Adolescence 14-18 years Sec. and Ser. Sec.
4. Adulthood 18-60 years

a) Young 18-40
b) Mature 40-60
5. Old Age Over 60 years
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Each developmental stage is characterized by a set of unique and distinguishable

characteristics. Though, there are variations across individuals (as already mentioned in
previous section), the broad characteristic features marking each developmental stage
could be identified. Therefore, each stage has its own associated concerns to be
addressed and taken care of by the growing person. As a teacher or counselor it will be
beneficial to understand the typical features of each stage to evolve strategies of
nurturing /stimulating a child to achieve mastery over the developmental tasks. Each
stage has its unique set of adjustment problems as well, which need to be addressed for
successful completion of that stage. Some problems are handled by the growing
individual him/herself whereas for others help and guidance from teachers, counselor, if
the problems are too many or if there is lack of supportive environment may be
necessary.
The broad stages of development in the life of individual are discussed here:
2.4.1 Infancy
As discussed above, you are aware that the period between birth and two years is
termed infancy. Infants in first two weeks are called neonates and have wrinkled and
blotchy red skin, puffed up and red face and a large head which is approximately one
fourth of the body. The child sleeps for long hours and gets up only when he is hungry or
uncomfortable. This is the period where lot of growth and development of internal
organs as well as external organs is happening. The infant grows at a very fast rate. They
are able to recognize mother’s touch and develop need for it. A sense of security and
trust is associated with the mother’s touch. If this need is satisfied there is no conflict
but if this is not met there may be difficulties in development. During the initial months
we can see development of emotions and reaction. By 6 th - 10th month – jealousy can be
spotted in infant, and by 10-12 months, love, anger, sympathy, are distinguishable.
As discussed in previous section, the infant slowly develops gross motor skills involving
large muscles used in moving one’s arms and legs. The motor ability develops from head
towards toe. The infant first learns to control head movements and then this muscular
control progressively moves down the body from shoulders, arms, abdomen, and legs to
feet. Following the principle of central axis the shoulder and trunk movements will
precede arm moments and last will be movements of wrist and fingers. The first motor
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actions are global as the infant first learns control of central body parts. For example to
catch a ball the baby will turn completely and will extend full arm and it is only later
towards end of the developmental stage that specific activities of hands and fingers
occur. This stage is also known as sensori-motor stage where there is strengthening of
senses and motor activities. The growth and development in sensory organs and motor
or the muscular activities is achieved in infancy.
Cognitive development at this stage, according to Piaget (1964) is mostly about the
increase in the capability of the infant to align the sensations to actions, that is, why this
stage is known as sensori-motor stage. Initially the infants possess only reflexes which
are random. Later at about 12-14 months, they are able to execute actions based on
their own need to seek sensations i.e. there is intentional action. The cognitive
development involves ability to progressively make actions focused at specific goals.
The social development at this stage is limited to the recognition of family members and
the immediate environment. This is due to the fact that the infant is not much mobile in
the beginning and is exposed to only close family members and home. Also the parents
are protective of the infant. This makes available only a closed social group for
interaction. With the development of sensori-motor capabilities the child is able to
construct concepts, although very rudimentary, based on the perceptions and
integration of the information received from memory. After developing the ability to
walk the child explores his/her surrounding. The child develops from a stage where he is
not able to recognize anyone and he reaches a stage where he establishes a social circle
with few members from his environment.
Check your Progress 3

Notes:
State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F)
1. The human growth and development rate is uniform through the life span.
2. All children grow tall at the same age.
3. Infants in the first two months are called neonates.
4. An infant can walk before he can hold a ball.
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5. Infancy shows growth and development of senses and motor activities.
2.4.2 Early Childhood
The stage between two to six years of age is referred to as early childhood. The rate of
growth and development is rapid in all areas of development. The physical growth is
marked by faster growth in legs and trunk than the heads. This results in a more
proportionate body/ head ratio than infancy. Physical development also exhibits an
increased control over gross and fine motor movements. Gross movements are like
walking and running and finer movements are like finger movements involving more
dexterity and precision. They are able to tie shoes, zip, and use crayon, etc. on their
own. The gross motor skills outpace the finer motor skills. Children who are good at
running may not be so good at tying shoe laces. Also as their visual perception lags
behind and thus they are not able to handle working with small objects. This is the
reason why large print books, large brushes, crayons, are used for preschoolers. Thus
physical development is manifested in improved motor skills involving everyday
environment.
As discussed in Unit 1, the early childhood stage corresponds with preoperational stage
of cognitive development (Piaget’s theory of cognitive development). At this stage the
child begins to use mental symbols, thoughts and concepts and there is an expansion of
cognitive abilities to understand and interact with the world. They are curious and try to
understand information about environment and use it as per the situations. They are
able to deal with concepts at elementary level for reasoning, drawing inferences and
problem-solving. The concepts of shape, size, time, number are developed during early
childhood. The child’s thinking and understanding of world is egocentric which is that it
is centered on only one perspective i.e. their owner. It is impossible to understand
situation from any other view point. That is why a child can concentrate on only one
attribute at a time like color, shape and weight.
According to Piaget, language development begins at the end of infancy and accelerates
during early childhood. The children develop understanding of an almost infinite
number of words, sentences, hold conversation and know about written language by
the end of this stage. Language development involves both verbal and written
communication. The child begins by using ‘telegraphic speech’ (2-3 years) in which
nouns and verbs are used to convey the meaning as in telegraphs.
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Chomsky (1968) emphasized in transformational grammar theory that language is

transformed into ideas before being added in memory and then it is reformed into, may
be different forms when recalled like a sentence. For example, ‘Robin went to market to
buy books’ may be reformed ‘To buy books, Robin went to market’. Reading and writing
skills are also developed but researchers point out that this is highly influenced by the
interaction with outer environment. The richer the stimulation from environments the
better will be the language development.
In the beginning of early childhood children learn self control and ability to cooperate
and express themselves. According to Erickson during the second stage of ‘sense of
autonomy vs. a sense of shame and doubt,’ development of self control is very
important as it provides a sense of self esteem.
By the close of early childhood years a child shows initiative for various activities. If they
are given opportunity to exercise initiative, they will be assertive and confident whereas
over control or restriction will lead to lack of self confidence, pessimism and fear of
error.
This stage is also known as temperamental stage with predominance of emotions like
fear, anger and jealousy. The fear at the age of 2-3 years are from concrete objects
while by 6 years it is caused by distant or imaginary objects like ghosts, dragon etc.
Anger and temper tantrums are common whenever they are denied or there is delay in
getting what they want. Jealousy is another emotion as they want to be the centre of all
attention and this emotion is at peak at 3-4 years. Comparison among children should
be avoided by parents so that jealousy does not get promoted.
Children learn to play in groups by the end of early childhood years, with peer group
gaining importance now. Cooperative play dominates the later early childhood years in
comparison to solitary play at the age of 2 years. Early childhood also establishes gender
identification in a child. This is influenced by environment when parents select gender
appropriate toys for their child. Gender identification is a part of early identification
process where a young child recognizes his or her gender and then stereotyped
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behavioral patterns emerge to fit it. Though today the female and male roles in our
society are not rigidly demarcated as they were previously.

Notes:
Fill in the blanks
1. Children at early childhood are also known as ________.
2. Erickson’s theory classifies this stage to resolve crises of sense of ________vs.
sense of ________.
3. Chomsky theory of language development is called____________.
4. At the age of 2-3 years the speech of child is called ____________.
5. Children like to play with ________.
2.4.2 Later Childhood
During the later childhood years (6-12 of age), the physical growth slows down in
comparison with early childhood. Instead of further gain in height, weight, size, etc.
there is development of muscles all over the body which facilitates development of their
motor abilities. A child is now capable of fine motor coordination and can work with
greater dexterity and sophistication than during early childhood period. The
physiological and neurological system develops which brings with it enhancement of
stamina, eyesight, attention and memory.
There are significant changes in intellectual, social and emotional capabilities in this
phase. The children move from preoperational or the stage of self centeredness in
mental process to concrete operational stage when the thought becomes reality
oriented (Piaget, 1954). The word ‘concrete’ refers to things which exist in physical
reality. In this stage children are able to think in terms of real objects, and not abstract
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level. They are able to focus on more than one attribute of an object like color, size,
shape at one go. Thus classification of things can be done on more than one attributes
– size, weight at the same time. According to Piaget there is shift in the thought process
from egocentrism of early childhood to more objective and reality in later childhood.
The children are now able to take into account others perspective any because of this
their actions are more effective. The intellectual capabilities are developed through
information processing using newly acquired principles of reversibility or permanence of
objects. This principle of reversibility refers to based thinking understanding that objects
exist even when they are not visible. This has improved effect on their problem solving
abilities and they are able to interact with their environment in a more meaningful
manner.
Social development is reflected in growing importance of peer group and moving away
from the influence of family which helps children to explore their relationships with
others. Children in later childhood tend to segregate according to gender. The gender
identity becomes visible in the choice of friends and preference for the same gender
groups. The gender-role identity is strengthened at this stage with the acquisition of
socially approved mannerisms, attitudes and values. The expression of likes and dislikes
of boys and girls is clearly different by now. Acceptance and recognition by peers is a
major issue during later childhood. The same sex groups stick together and the group
exercises a lot of control over the growing child. Group loyalty often becomes cause of
conflict with parents.
The acceptability among groups also influences the emotional development of the child.
By the end of later childhood while approaching adolescence years the social groups of
children becomes much smaller and may include persons of other gender also.
The children by the end of childhood due to their better cognitive, social and emotional
skills, develop an understanding of the importance of rules and norms that were earlier
being followed due to fear of punishment. They are now competent to view the
importance of relationship with other people and realize the golden rule that being
good is important for its own sake, rather than to avoid punishment.
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Emotional problem may relate to social, physical or cognitive aspect. Not being accepted
by peer, not having best friend, not doing well in school, being punished, etc. Then
easily getting hurt which may cause anger, frustration, jealousy and guilt in them.
The teacher and school become important influences at this stage as they spend quite a
substantial time in schools. Schools should arrange for all round – physical, cognitive,
social, emotional and ethical development of the child by providing opportunities for all
kinds of activities that promote holistic development. The schools focus too much on
cognitive aspects, however, provisions of physical activities and participation in games,
sports of various kinds is important for them. Experiential activities that enhance
emotional and social development like dramatics, role plays, and social activities are
also as crucial for their healthy development. The skills developed during these years
will lay foundation for future growth and development. While planning curricula, and
teaching in classroom (all aspects of holistic development rather than only cognitive
development should be kept in mind.
As group is important to the individual at this stage, cooperation and group methods of
learning should be used in classroom teaching for facilitating growth and development.

Notes:
1)Write down the five characteristics of Later Childhood.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
2.4.3 Adolescence
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This age is often referred to as period of transition from childhood to adulthood. It is

also referred to as period of great upheaval, stresses and strains due to increased
sensitivities and conflicts within the self and with other individual in the family, peers,
and in school. The period is marked by onset of puberty wherein development of
primary and secondary sexual characteristics occur. The physical changes in this period
are as rapid as in infancy and early childhood years. There is a sharp increase in height
and weight during early adolescent years. The girls show this growth spurt two years
earlier than boys. This spurt continues for about two years and by the end of
adolescence the individual reaches 98% of the final height. By the end of adolescence
98% of physical growth had taken place though development continues for the whole
life. Puberty brings rapid changes in reproductive organs which mark the beginning of
sexual maturity and leads to marked increase in sex drive as well. Puberty also brings
physical differences in appearances in boys and girls. This has a profound impact on
their social and emotional development. They are highly sensitive to their physical
appearance; larger the difference between their own self image and that of the role
models, the higher will be the anxiety and the lower will be the self-esteem.
The changes during puberty coincide with profound cognitive development. A

remarkable expansion in capacity and style of information processing and thinking is
characteristic of this stage. The thinking and perception is no longer limited to
immediate concrete things but can be done at abstract level. This is the formal
operation stage of Piaget’s theory wherein high level abstract thinking becomes possible
and opens whole new world of possibilities. The awareness, imagination, judgment,
insight - all is seen in adolescent’s way of thinking. The hypothetico-deductive reasoning
is characteristic of this stage i.e. they can use information to suggest alternatives and
arrive at their outcome/results before actual action, which forms an important basis of
problem solving skills. An enhanced capability for accumulation of knowledge about a
range of issues in the society involves them in developing their own ideas on probable
solutions. They have increased ability to plan and execute ideas. The higher order
abilities like analysis, synthesis, and evaluation though are possible but these are yet to
mature and become realistic with environment stimulation. They do a lot of reflection
and self examination on issues but their thinking is too idealistic.
As all dimensions of personality are linked to each other, the physical and cognitive
aspects affect social and emotional development of adolescents. The self-identity is
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dependent on physical appearance and cognitive abilities. Identity is both in terms of

sexual and social aspects. Sexual identity includes expressions of sexual needs and
acceptance or rejection of sex roles. The potential changes lead to new interest in
sexuality which has to be integrated with other aspect of personality as well. In early
adolescent years the relationship with opposite gender are restricted to participation in
mixed groups. In later years they try to develop friendship with opposite gender on
individual basis. The peer group is of same gender during early adolescence while cross-
gender friendship is more common in middle and later years.
Another aspect is appearance of reflectivity i.e. to think about what is going on in their
mind and to examine oneself. Adolescents reflect at their own behavior and are prone
to be dissatisfied with their own selves. They also reflect on social issues and get angry
seeing the contradictions in the practice and preaching such as the practice of
discrimination in spite of constitutional and moral, as well as religious values of equality.
Erickson calls this stage of identify diffusion i.e. not being sure of one’s identity. This is
also the stage of seeking autonomy from authority figures and conformity with their
peer group. The opinion of peer group is always there as he/she tries to establish
his/her own identity. Personal identity results from occupational goals, as well as
personal ideology related to societal, culture, religious issues. The pressures of achieving
success or lack of it may develop into emotional maladjustment. Identity is person’s
sense of placement within the world and valuing oneself. Self-esteem is linked with this
valuation. It influences everything a person does. Identity is not fixed, it is continually
shaped and reshaped by experiences that broaden a persons’ vision. Adolescent’s ability
to a broad based identity free from narrow religious, social and occupational identity.

Notes:
1. An individual reaches 98% of his height by the end of adolescence.
2. Puberty occurs after two years of adolescence.
3. Adolescents can make hypothesis while solving problems.
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4. Erikson calls adolescence a stage of sex typing.

5. Adolescents like to reflect on their own behavior.
2.5 LETS SUM UP
Growth and development refer to the changes in an individual during his life time. The
pattern of growth and development is common to all individual of the species. There are
certain common underlying principles of growth and development. These are the
principles of continuity; uniformity in developmental pattern; general to specific;
differentiation and integration; differential rate of growth; individual differences;
interaction between organism and interrelatedness of all aspects of growth and
development. There are many factors affecting the human growth and development.
They are broadly divided into internal factors and the external factors. The study of
these principles helps in the organization of educational activities for the children. Most
of the literature shows that human development is divided into four broad stages –
Infancy (birth to 2 years), Childhood (2 to 10-12 years), Adolescence (12-18 years) and
Adulthood (after 19 years). Though transition from one stage to next is gradual,
psychologists have assigned age groups to each developmental stage. Each of this stage
is said to extend over definite period of years and is further divided into sub-stages for
sake of convenience of studying. There are developmental characteristics which are
unique to that stage. The rate of growth and development is fast in infancy and early
childhood and adolescence and slow in later childhood which is also called latency
period. Adolescence is a period of stress and storm.
2.6 UNIT END EXCERCISES
1. Taking examples from your own childhood trace the developmental characteristics
of that age.
2. As a teacher and counselor how will you use the knowledge of principles of growth
and development for planning your classroom teaching?
3. Adolescence is a period of storm and stress. Do you agree with this statement of
Stanley Hall? Substantiate your answer with suitable examples.
ANSWERS
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i) Fill in the blanks
x. Continuous
xi. Cephalo-caudal and proximo-distal
xii. Before
xiii. Uniform
xiv. Maturation and experiences
ii) State whether true or false
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. False
1) You can apply the knowledge for following reason:
(i) Organizing teaching-learning for students
(ii) Keep trying till success is attained as development is ongoing process
(iii) Rich experience for optimum development
1. False
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True
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Fill in the blanks
1. Preschoolers
2. Autonomy vs. shame & doubt
3. Transformational grammar theory
4. Telegraphic
5. In groups
The five characteristics of later childhood are:-
i. Intellectual thinking is at concrete operational stage

ii. Enhancement of stamina, attention and eyesight
iii. Sex role identity is strengthened
iv. It is gang age
v. Growth is slower than other stages
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True
Baron, R.A. (1998). Psychology (4th Edn.), Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Berk, L.E. (1997). Child Development (4th Edn.), Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Chomsky, N. (1968). Language an Mind, Harcourt, Brace & World, New York.
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Garett, H.E. (1969). Educational Psychology, Eurasia Publishing House, New Delhi.
Haviglurst, R.J. (1953). Human Development and Education, LongMan, New York.
Hurlock, E.B. (1959). Developmental Psychology, Tata Mcgraw Hill Publishing Company,
Bombay.
Hudgius, B.B., Phye, G.D., Schau, C.G., Theisan, G.L., Ames, C., Ames, R. (1983).
Educational Psychology, F. E. Peacock Publishers Inc, Illinois.
Mangal, S.K. (2002). Advanced Educational Psychology, PHI Private Ltd, New Delhi.
Salvin, R.E. (1991). Educational Psychology: Theory into Practice, Prentice Hall Internal,
Inc., New Jersey.
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UNIT 3: PRENATAL, PHYSICAL, EMOTIONAL, COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL

DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
STRUCTURE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Stages of human development

3.4 Physical Development
3.4.1 Prenatal
3.4.2 Infancy
3.4.3 Childhood
3.4.4 Adolescence
3.5 Cognitive Development
3.5.1 Infancy
3.5.2 Childhood
3.5.3 Adolescence
3.6 Social Development
3.6.1 Infancy
3.6.2 Childhood
3.6.3 Adolescence
3.7 Emotional Development
3.7.1 Infancy
3.7.2 Childhood
3.7.3 Adolescence
3.8 Let us Sum Up
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3.1 INTRODUCTION
Human beings show different characteristic features at different times in their life span
which are called stages of development for the sake of convenience to study the
changes taking place as was mentioned in the earlier unit. These life stages are:
prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. The changes occur
throughout these stages, though the rate and quantum of change may vary with regard
to the stage, individual characteristics and environmental conditions. The development
among human beings occurs in their physical, emotional, cognitive and social spheres.
Physical development relates to changes in the body- whether internal or external,
emotional refers to the state of excitement in the body as a reaction to different
situations; cognitive refer to changes related to thinking, perception, learning, etc.
whereas social refers to changes in individual in the way they relate to the other people.
The development is not random rather it is characterized by orderly, sequential changes
in an individual as a result of interaction between maturation and experiences.
The characteristics displayed during these stages are different therefore, it is important
for the parents and schools to know about them so that they may organize experiences
for the optimum development of children right from their birth. Teachers being an
important influence on education of learner, they need to understand the development
of these characteristics in children across different stages. This will empower and enable
parents and teachers to organize learning activities in accordance with the
developmental milestones and facilitate the flowering of their potential in different
domains of development. In this unit the changes in physical, emotional, cognitive and
social aspects are being highlighted.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit the learner will be able to:
 State the stages of development.

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 Explain the physical, emotional, cognitive and social development taking place
during the various stages of child development.
 Differentiate among the characteristic features of each developmental stage.
 Appreciate the interrelatedness of various domains of development.
 Discuss the implications of development during these stages of for teachers.
3.3 STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The prominent stages of human development that could be distinguished are as below:
 Pre-natal (conception to birth)

 Infancy (birth to 2 years)
 Childhood (2-12 years)
 Adolescence (12-18 /20 years)
 Adult ( 20 yrs to 60 yrs)
 Old Age (60 yrs and beyond)
The developments in different dimensions across these stages are described below:
3.4. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
This aspect of development includes all the bodily changes both quantitative as well as
qualitative. This is the most visible dimension of human personality and affects all other
dimensions. The changes in physical dimension are internal as well as external. The
purpose of physical development varies kinds across life stages discussed here:
3.4.1 Prenatal
The physical growth during prenatal period is fastest, it includes:
 Anatomical growth – growth of skeletal system – bones

 Physiological growth – growth of internal organs into heart, lungs, brain
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The physical development encompasses motor development which refers to the growth
and development of bodily organs like limbs and muscles that help in movement, and
enhance functional efficiency. The other aspects of development like cognitive,
emotional and social development are dependent on the physical development. During
the later period of prenatal stage the fetus grows in other areas like brain. The
development of the fetus (as discussed in unit 2 principles of growth and development)
starts from head towards tail direction also called cephalo-caudal and from central axis
towards peripheral also called proximo-distal.
3.4.2 Infancy
This is one of the two periods of rapid growth during the life span-the other being
adolescence. The growth is rapid in first six months after that it slows down and by
second year it is much slower. The weight increase in infancy is due to increase in fat
tissues. At birth average child weighs 7 pounds and is approximately 19 inches tall. Boys
on the whole are larger and heavier than girls. The muscles, bone, skin etc. are soft and
start taking form after birth.
The head of the new born is one-fourth of his body length as compared to an adult
whose head is one seventh of his total body length. The neck is small covered with skin
wrinkles, eyes are mature but eye muscles are weak, nose is small and mouth is also
small due to narrow lips. In the trunk the shoulders are narrow whereas abdomen is
large and bulging. The arms and legs are short in proportion to body length. Hands and
feet are very small and the child has very little control. The body movements are not
under voluntary control and, therefore, not coordinated and goal directed. Movements
in infancy are gross which include general movement of whole body whenever sensory
stimulus is applied to any part of the body. Specific activities of infants include the
reflexes of the body like, knee jerks, sneezing, sucking activities in limited area of body.
There is increase in height and the body proportion changes with head becoming less
enormous compared to trunk. The arms and hands increase in 60 to 75% whereas for
legs it is 40% (refer to principle of cephalo-caudal development in unit 2). The number
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of bones and their size increase, though they are still soft and spongy. This is why infants
can get into strangest of positions. You must have seen infants sucking their toe instead
of thumb which is a difficult posture for later stages. Adequate care should be taken
regarding their posture as bones may misshape. Infants get their eight pairs of
temporary teeth. Teething is an important part of physical development as it affects the
nutritional intake of child. Nervous system too exhibits rapid growth with three-fourth
of adult brain weight being attained by the second year of growth and development.
Both cerebrum and cerebellum show rapid growth. Sense organs show rapid growth and
development, characteristic of this stage, and coordination among all sense organs
starts emerging, gradually. Muscle control follows the developmental principle (unit 2)
i.e. head control first and leg being the last. Also the shoulder muscles acquire control
before the finger and the wrist muscles. Physiological pattern of sleep, eating and
elimination become regular by the end of second year, as development in other aspects
had taken place.
3.4.3 Childhood
The growth rate slows down during the childhood. Growth pattern in height and weight
varies from individual to individual. At this stage the sense organs, the skin, eyes, brain,
etc. are developing and maturing and a greater control over them is progressively
achieved.
The teeth develop towards the end of this period. The bones are strengthened giving
more definite shape and posture to the child. The child looks slimmer than in infancy
due to dual effect of the decreasing body fat and growing of limbs. The limbs start
looking slimmer. The facial chubbiness due to baby fat also gets dissolved giving the
child a leaner look.
During early childhood head and brain grow rapidly. During the middle childhood i.e.
towards end of early childhood and beginning of later childhood, there is significant
increase in size and weight mainly due to increase in skeletal and muscular system. This
period is also marked by progressive mastery over motor control and coordination
amongst various body parts, sense organs, etc. There is increased control of gross and
fine motor activities. Gross motor skills include running, jumping, hopping and finer
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motor skills - using fingers and thumb. That is why in this period the children take
interest in activities like solving jigsaw puzzle, building blocks, and manipulating objects,
etc. which require precision and dexterity. During this stage children begin to show
preference for one side of body and may develop right-handedness or left handedness.
The later childhood is marked by more of muscular development than skeletal

development. There is gradual emergence of permanent teeth. Acquisition of fine motor
skills, greater coordination of muscles, development and maturation of sense organs
makes possible greater exposure and manipulation of things in their environment, and
widens their horizon of activities. The childhood stage makes a child more coordinated,
matured and resistant to fatigue and diseases in general. The girls show a growth spurt
in lengthening of arms and legs earlier than boys. That is the reason why girls are
heavier, taller and more mature than boys towards the end of childhood and before
onset of puberty.
3.4.4 Adolescence
Adolescence stage is characterized by a series of physiological changes that mark the

beginning of puberty. During this stage the second spurt of physical growth and
development is generally seen. The spurt in stature/height precedes that of weight. The
muscular growth occurs around 12-15 years for girls and 15-16 years for boys. This
growth spurt slows down towards the later adolescence period.
The evolutionary purpose of puberty is to make individual capable of reproduction. Thus

the appearance of primary and secondary sexual characteristics is the most
distinguishable aspect of this stage. The hormonal changes are responsible for both
internal as well as outward changes. In boys the appearance of hair on face and other
body parts, change in the voice are the secondary sexual characteristics, while in girls
the appearance of body hair, breasts, widening of hips are the secondary sexual
characteristics. The growth and development of human reproductive organs leads to
many changes in individual with reference to gender. The immature child is transformed
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into a reproductively capable being. These changes have profound effect on the growth
and development of adolescents especially their outward appearance. The primary and
secondary characteristics along with changes in bodily proportion around this time
make them appear more like adults. Average age of pubertal changes in girls is,
approximately one and half to two year before the average age for boys. These changes
have profound effect on the appearance of the adolescents and it also affects other
dimensions of their personality like social and emotional behaviour.

Notes:
Fill in the blanks
xv. The prenatal period is from __________________ to ______________________.
xvi. The two periods of rapid growth and development are _____________and
_____________.
xvii.A child shows emergence of permanent teeth during
____________________Childhood.
xviii. Onset of Adolescence is marked
by____________________________________.
xix. Gonads develop in ___________________________________stage.
Match the following
Column A Column B
Gross motor skill Jigsaw puzzle
Finer motor skill Bulging abdomen
Infancy Lengthening of limbs
Early childhood Running
Permanent teeth
3.5 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognition refers to mental processes like perception, reasoning, problem solving,

thinking, language, etc. which help an individual to understand the world around and
make adjustments. Cognitive domain covers abilities and skills like intelligence, language
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development, thinking, creative and critical problem solving, learning, comprehension,

study and information processing strategies, etc.
Among the theories used to explain the development of the cognitive domain, the most
acceptable and widely applicable is the theory of cognitive development put forward by
Piaget (1953). Piaget believed that children pass through four broad stages of cognitive
development as under:
 Sensory-motor (0-2 yrs)

 Preoperational (2-7 years)
o Pre-conceptual (2-4 years)
o Intuitive thought (4-7 years)
 Concrete Operational(7-11 years)
 Formal Operational (11-15 years)
3.5.1 Infancy
The stage coincides with the sensory-motor stage of Piaget’s theory. When reflexes lead
to a consequence the infant acquires Schemes. In this stage the infant explores the
world through their senses and motor activities. From birth till one month infants
possess reflexes which facilitate interaction with environment. At the age of 2-4 months
there is coordination of schemes i.e. two or more related scheme will integrate. At
about 4-8 months, the infant develops the concept of object permanence, space, time,
and distinction between self and the outside world. At 8- 12 month’s the infant starts
creating symbolic meaning of events and experiences in the environment. By the second
year i.e. about 12-24 months, the infants starts understanding concept of causality i.e.
the action could be repeated to make some event occur again and again.
The development of senses and motor skills enables the child to explore the outside
world. Speech development starts with three pre-speech forms crying, babbling and
gestures. The infant comprehends the meaning of what others are saying much before
he can put his own thoughts and feelings into words. While communicating, until the
infant is about 18 months old, words must be reinforced with gestures for conveying the
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meaning. The infant learns to speak by imitation using trial and error process.
Vocabulary develops fast but is largely dependent on the environment – the richer the
environmental stimulation better will be the vocabulary of the infant. One word
sentences like saying ‘ball’ to convey ‘ give me the ball’ are used by the end of infancy.
3.5.2 Childhood
The childhood stage covers two of the Piaget’s stages of cognitive development – pre-
operational and concrete operational stage. Operations refer to the thinking process
involved in an action. It is the symbolic representation of the action. The early childhood
years of about 2-7 years are at pre operational level, which is characterized by
development of language, reasoning, intuition, and elementary concept formation.
Symbolic representation of outside events and experiences is important landmark of
this stage. The child is egocentric and perceives the world from only his perspective.
Animism i.e. believing that inanimate things also have lives like an animate thing is also
a characteristic feature of their cognitive functioning. They are not yet able to
generalize reasoning, they can transfer reasoning from one specific event to another
which is also termed as Transductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning (general to
particular) and inductive reasoning (particular to general) is that possible can only . If
two things are alike in one way, they will be alike in all ways is the transductive
reasoning present in children during early childhood years. The development of
concepts i.e organizing information into meaningful generalizations begins in early
childhood. Principle of conservation i.e. comprehensive that the quantity of matter does
not change even though there are changes in shape, size, length is not yet achieved. If
the same amount of water is poured in taller tumbler the child will say that the taller
glass has more water as they are able to concentrate on one attribute only. The
reversibility in thinking is yet to be developed. For example if X is greater than Y then
whether Y is smaller than X cannot be judged by them at this stage of development. The
decision making at this age is based on intuition than logical thinking. Therefore, his
thinking and decision is still illogical and full of contradictions.
This is also stage of ‘pretend’ and ‘make believe’. The child is not able to differentiate
between fantasy and reality. A child may pretend a stick to be a horse and go through
the motion of riding the horse as if the action is real. At this stage the child believes all
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that adults tell him/her, therefore parents should take care not to tell children say that
stories that may but fear is their mind or un danger them.
The later childhood period (7-11 years) coincides with the Piaget’s ‘stage of concrete
operations’. At this stage, the child shows development of logical thinking. The
characteristic development is attainment of concepts of:
(a) Conservation of mass and volume the quantity of some substance stays same
regardless of its shape, number, length;
(b) Reversibility - mentally able to trace back reasoning and classification or
categorization on the basis of attributes.
The most prominent characteristic of this stage is that all mental operations are
restricted to concrete objects only. The child is able to comprehend what s/he can see
and manipulate. For example, to teach the concept of a cell, model of cell is must be
shown needed for concept clarification. Similarly, to teach properties of light,
experiment to demonstrate how light travels in straight line must be done. In social
sciences also the more the expressive to experiences with real life or charts and models
the more effective will be the learning. Abstract situations and thinking are still beyond
the cognitive domain of the child. This is precisely the reason why teaching-learning at
this stage should be done using concrete objects like real life objects, charts, models,
field visits. Teaching the child at abstract thinking level will not be effective at this stage.
3.5.3 Adolescence (12-13 onwards)
The formal operational stage of Piaget coincides with adolescence period roughly about
(11 years and above) and is characterized by abstract thinking and this opens up the
possibilities beyond. The logical thinking is not restricted to concrete objects as happen
childhood years but goes beyond. The thinking is characterized by hypothetico-
deductive thinking, i.e. the ability to form hypothesis and verify the same using
deductive logic. This opens up the possibilities to solve problems through logical
reasoning ability. Inductive thinking is the generalization from observation of particular
situations to new situations. For example, one observes that leaves of different trees are
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green. It can be generalized through inductive reasoning that all leaves are green in
colour. The children develop ability to reflect on things and are able to analyze the
situations. The higher order cognitive skills emerge during the adolescence stage. By this
time children are able to do analysis, synthesis and evaluate different aspects of issues
that they are faced with, whether academic or personal. It is important to remember
that the adolescents need experience of exercising their capability in different situation.
Therefore, rich learning experiences are needed for the adolescents to be able to
exercise and sharpen these abilities. The ability of meta-cognition or self observation is a
significant development at this stage. The teachers should ensure that they provide
opportunities to exercise these skills.

Notes:
 Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
Fill in the blanks

1. The infancy stage coincides with ____________ stage of Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development.
2. The preoperational stage is divided into _________________and _____________.
3. Intuitive reasoning is found in ______________________operational stage.
4. Animism is characteristic of ____________________________stage.
5. The characteristic feature of thinking at adolescence is _____________________.
State whether true or false:

1. Transductive reasoning is characteristic of adolescent stage.
2. The senses and motor coordination are achieved during infancy.
3. The concept of reversibility and conservation appear during early childhood stage.
4. Concrete operational stage begins at 6years of age.
3.6 Social Development
Human beings are social by nature; hence the social development is an important
concern of child development. Socialization of the children enables them to initiate with
family, friends, society. The way socialization proceeds during different stages follows.
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3.6.1 Infancy
Studies have shown that social adjustment of children remains consistent as they grow
older, thus for being a healthy foundation is very important. Since social behaviour is
learned. Experiences should be planned by parents and teachers for children that
facilitate their social development can take place. The opportunities that social contacts
provide are important for socialization of a child. Social deprivation between the age of
6 weeks to six month is detrimental for development of pre social attitudes which affect
the socialization. Between 2-3 months, the infant starts showing interest in people. By
4-5 months make adjustments to being picked up. By the time 6-7 months, an infant is
able to distinguish between friends and strangers. The child is generally happy and
secure in the company of family and friends as expressed by facial and verbal
expressions. By 8-9 months the child starts imitating speech. By first year he is able to
understand brief comments, gestures and instruction to refrain from activities like when
adults say ‘No-No’, the child looks up and stops whatever he/she is doing. In the middle
of the second year, ‘negativism’ in form of stubborn resistance to requests and demands
from others appears. The child learns to say no and this is done through silence as well
as physical resistance. However, if an infant is well taken care of and feels rescued
during childhood, he/she learns to cooperate with adults in number of simple routine
activities.
According to Erickson’s theory psycho-social development of an individual, right from

birth, is put under specific pressures or conflicts (crises) due to specific demands at
different ages of life span. These crises are resolved by reacting psychologically in their
own ways in which child is reared depending on circumstances. The issue or crises to be
resolved at infancy stage is ‘Trust vs. Mistrust’. As an infant is totally dependent on
mother or caretaker – the kind of warmth given develops the feeling of trust and
mistrust towards mother and ultimately to environment. Infant towards the end of
second year enters the Erickson’s second stage ‘The period of autonomy vs. shame and
doubt’ (1 ½ yrs to 3 yrs). The infant with his mobility is developing ability to move about
and this may pose risks. Infant wants to explore and handle the world around in his own
independent way. If the parents or significant others do not allow him to explore the
surrounding by being over protective, harsh or restrictive, he would develop doubt
towards his ability and is ultimately embarrassed in front of others.
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3.6.2 Childhood
Erickson’s second stage of ‘The period of autonomy vs. shame and doubt’ continues in
early childhood (till 3 years). A balance between conflicting needs of social environment
to acquire a sense of autonomy vs. sense of shame and doubt has to be maintained. This
is important as healthy sense of doubt will help child to assess his limits. Also
development of shame helps him to develop sense of right and wrong. Next Erickson’s
stage spanning early childhood years is ‘period of initiative vs. quit’.
A trusting and independent child begins to take initiative in his environment and explore
everything he can lay his eyes or hands on. If this initiative is discouraged by the parents
and others in social environment the child develops sense of guilt leading to hesitation,
indecisions and lack of initiative. This has long term implication in later life. A child can
be helped and protected by supervision of his activities by adults and encouraging him
to evaluate projects vis-a-vis his abilities.
The later childhood covers the ‘period of industry vs. inferiority’ (6-12 years) which
refers to the school years where there is an increased demand from school and parents
to perform. If a child is not able to do his work at school and home to the satisfaction,
parents, make comparison with his peers and this leads to feeling of inferiority.
If he is able to manage all tasks the parents and others are happy and he develops a
sense of achievement. Role of teacher and parents is important to develop positive
attitude towards success and failure. Failures should be looked upon as opportunity to
learn more.
Childhood is also known as ‘group age’ or the ‘gang age’ as there occurs widening of his
friend circle. Socialization is fast at this stage with feeling of cooperation, sacrifice for
friends at the best. The parental or adult supervision is decreasing slowly. The group
instinct is prominent at this stage with most of time spend in playing and exploring the
world. The children at this stage try to conform to group/gang norms and that is why it
is very important that they are in good neighborhood/company. Play becomes the most
important medium to develop social relations. Solitary play of infancy and early
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childhood is replaced by group play and group association becomes very important.
Through play the child learns to cooperate as well as compete. Team spirit, leadership,
right balance between cooperation which is joint effort towards a goal and competition
which is individual efforts towards a goal is developed through play at this stage.
3.6.3 Adolescence
It falls under Erickson’s fifth stage of ‘identity vs. role confusion (12-20 years). A child
having achieved trust, autonomy, initiative and industry enters a search for his identity.
As all the dimensions of personality are interrelated, the growth spurt in physical and
cognitive functioning affects their sense of self. This search is compounded by sudden
increase in social demands concerning their roles and responsibilities. The success in
early crises resolution and enough support from teacher and parents helps adolescent
to attain a sense of identity. Any failure to resolve crises at earlier stages may lead to
role confusion and lack of self identity. Role confusion may also lead to impulsive
behavior, over identification with villains and clowns or wrong people. The identity
resolution is very crucial for success in life as an adult. The journey of career, family and
society will only succeed if an adolescent develops a appropriate sense of identity. They
pay great attention to how other people view them, experiment with roles and act or
feelings and express their beliefs and opinions. The adolescent years show an increase in
demand for autonomy, for self-determination and, therefore, teachers and parents have
to restrain from over advising them. At the same time there is an urge to seek
conformity with peer group. The breakaway from family influence is reflected in need
for autonomy and conformity to peer. Peers are the focus of adolescents. The peer
group action and opinions influences the adolescent’s own search for identity. This is
precisely the reason why good peer group can take a adolescent towards higher goals
whereas wrong company can misguide the adolescent in identity search.
Another important dimension is interpersonal relationships during adolescent as given

by Sullivan (1953) in his interpersonal theory of Psychiatry. According to him human
behavior is shaped by attempts to maintain comfortable relationships with significant
others in our lives. We often act to avoid anxiety and as the social circle expands, social
skills to manage this comfort are needed. Security of relationship is the most important
human need, and governs and motivates social behavior and its development. During
adolescence two needs – need for intimacy and sexual gratification arise. Intimacy with
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same sex peers as well as peers from opposite sex is felt. Adolescents who do not mix
these needs are more successful. The need for intimacy is to have friendship and should
not be mixed up with sexual gratification.
Check your Progress-3

Notes:
True and False

1. The deprivation between the ages of six weeks to six months affect pattern of
socialization.
2. During childhood the children love to play in mixed sex groups..
3. Negativism is characteristic of early adolescence stage.
4. Trust vs. mistrust is conflict resolution of early childhood stage.
5. Human behavior is shaped by attempts to maintain comfortable relationship with
significant others.
Match the following

Column A Column B
Negativism Early Childhood
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Infancy
Gang Age Adolescence
Identity Diffusion Adult
Later Childhood
3.7 Emotional Development
Emotion is described as a state of excitement, state of agitation, disturbance of

equilibrium. They are also called as affective domain of personality. They are the guiding
force behind actions of an individual. Positive emotions can help the individual to scale
great heights whereas the negative emotions can mar the attainment of normal
developmental tasks.
3.7.1 Infancy
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Emotions are present at infancy as simple almost completely undifferentiated form. The
differentiation occurs as the infant grows. From general excitement two major emotions
distress and delight develop during infancy. Later more emotions like anger, fear,
curiosity, joy, affection develop which an infant demonstrates in course of his
interaction with outside world. Anger is towards obstruction in his movements. Also the
inability to convey his desires and needs to others due to lack of language ability is
source of anger in infants. It results in kicking or raising arm / legs or crying. Fear is
another emotion though at infant stage they are more protected than later stages in
life. Fear of animals, dark places, animals and of being alone remains. The fear factor is
due to suddenness and strangeness of stimuli. As the familiarity with the world around
occurs the fear factor disappears. That is the reason why after six month the child starts
to avoid strangers and this stage is called ‘the shy age’ which is age of infantile
fearfullness. Curiosity is another emotion which helps infant to explore the world with
strengthening sensory motor capabilities. Joy and affection in infancy in initial months
(2-3) is linked in physical well being. Infant shows joy when tickled, playing with others,
when he is able to overcome difficulty in some activity. It is expressed in smile and
laughter. Infants affection usually develops in relation to people and secondarily to
things. The expression is through hugging, kissing. During the second year infant also
includes himself and his toys into his circle of affection and one can see them hugging,
kissing their toys. They become ‘love objects’ which substitute for human objects of
affection. Emotional deprivation at the stage adversely affects physical and
psychological well being of the child. The need is for stable affection from significant
other, if loss of parent is compensated by substitute, the deprivation is filled in.
3.7.2 Childhood
As the child grows the intensity and range of emotions expands. Love, hatred, jealousy
join the bandwagon of emotion repository during the childhood stage. The expression of
emotions is refined at this stage as compared to infancy due to maturation and training.
Anger at this age is due to non fulfillment of needs and desires and ‘temper tantrums’
are characterized by crying, screaming, stumping, victory, jumping, stiff body, walking
with break. They reach peak at 3-4 years and gives way to sulking, brooding, whining in
later childhood. The number and severity of fear decreases as children grow older. This
is due to the familiarity with more things so that strangeness is removed. As fear
decreases it gives way to anxiety which is a painful uneasiness of mind concerning
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impending or anticipated ill. Children from insecure homes feel uneasy which leads to ‘a
free floating’ anxiety in which child will ultimately withdraw and become timid to avoid
threats to his security. Jealousy is aroused when parents shift their attention to
someone else – younger siblings or give more privilege to older siblings. Young children
are often jealous of their father because of development of proprietary attitude towards
mother. This jealousy sometime makes child to revert to infantile behavior of
naughtiness, thumb sucking, bed wetting, refusing to eat, etc.
Joy and affection are important emotions to develop positive attitude towards life.
Physical well-being, teasing others or situation where he feels superior are source of joy.
You will remember that childhood is the age where sense of inferiority has to be
overcome (Erickson). So situation where he feels superior, like achievement, develops
emotion of joy. The expression of joy is more matured now than infancy. Affection and
love seems to be two way affairs. Over affection or lack of emotion both hamper the
emotional development of a child.
3.7.3 Adolescence
Emotional development makes its peak during the adolescence years. At this stage the
emotions are heightened and the effect is of much higher intensity than the childhood
years. A whole range of emotions show emotional swings and there appears to be
revival of temper tantrums. Adolescents have volatile emotions and get touchy,
perturbed, restless at mere existence of excitement. Love and commitment are some of
the emotions which they explore at real level as well as at imaginative level. There is a
strong emotional need for commitment for a larger, nobler cause for which even laying
their lives become justified. This emotion for commitment should be channelized
towards positive direction by teachers. The religious and fanatic groups cash on this
sentiment to enroll youngsters in their organization. The most dangerous of these are
the terrorist organizations who try to brainwash and use this emotion for misguided
goals. This is also period of heightened sexuality where they feel need for intimacy. In
early period of adolescence the need for intimacy and love is for the person of same sex
which is later directed to person of opposite sex. The change is natural as sex instinct
ripens. This tremendous love impulse should not be left to itself for them to get involved
into merely social relationship but should be directed towards love and commitment for
great men which leads to phenomenon of ‘hero-worship’. Adolescents especially boys
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have his passion for hero worship. This will also help in development of moral conduct.
The behavior of hero we love and think about will naturally be reproduced or imitated in
our own behavior. Adolescents cannot be goaded or pushed towards values or morals
but can be persuaded towards them through the emotions of love/ hero-worship. The
adolescents are more open to love and commitment for larger goals and, therefore,
teachers should arrange for opportunities for directing these emotions. The adolescents
have rich imagination and reading interest. They show love for poetry, music, literature.
Therefore, these should be used to develop in them right values, virtues for the
development of society and nation. They show emotional swings as well as extremes of
the same emotions. He may appear aggressive and then shy at times, excessively
affectionate then suddenly detached and cool at other times. Emotions are intensified
at this stage. Moderation should be taught to them through examples and channelizing
rather than preaching which has just the opposite effect.

Notes:
True and False
1. The infancy is also known as shy age.
2. Temper tantrums are present only in adolescence stage.
3. In adolescence stage hero worship is a passion among boys.
4. Jealousy in childhood will make him revert to infantile behavior.
5. The growth of emotions in adolescence stage is smooth and incremental.
Fill in the blanks

1. An infant shows anger when
___________________________________________.
2. In infancy the toys are considered as _________________ which substitute the
human objects of affection.
3. The severity and number of fears __________________________ with age.
4. Adolescents feel the need for intimacy with ________________________.
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3.8 LET US SUM UP
Human beings show different characteristic features at different time in their life span
which are called stages of development for the sake of categorization and study. The
prominent and broad division of human development into various stages is a) Pre-natal
(conception to birth), b) Infancy (birth to 2 years), c) Childhood (2-12 years), d)
Adolescence (12-18 /20 years), e) Adult (20 years to 60 years) and f) Old Age (60 years
and beyond).
Prenatal stage begins from conception till the birth of the child and lays the foundation
of future growth. The growth rate is fast in infancy and slows down during the
childhood. During early childhood head and brain grow more rapidly. During childhood
years there is progressive mastery over motor control and coordination amongst various
body parts, sense organs, etc. The later years of childhood show more of muscular
development than skeletal development. Puberty marks the onset of adolescence age; it
is a series of physiological changes that transforms the immature child to a
reproductively capable being. Thus the appearances of primary and secondary sexual
features are the most distinguished aspect of this stage. Cognitive development involves
the level of intelligence, language development, thinking abilities – creative and critical,
problem solving skills. Piaget believed that children pass through four broad stages in
their cognitive development a) Sensory-motor (0-2 years)-infancy, b) Preoperational (2-7
years)-early childhood, c) Concrete operational (7-11 years)-late childhood and d)
Formal Operational (11-15 years)-Adolescence.
Studies have shown that social development of children remains consistent as they
grow older, thus the foundation is very important. The social characteristic is not innate
but has to be learned and, therefore, enough experience should be arranged so that
optimum development can take place. Childhood is also known as ‘group age’ or the
‘gang age’ with socialization, fast at this stage with development of feeling of
cooperation, sacrifice for friends at the best. Emotions develop from general excitement
to two major emotions of distress and delight during infancy. Later more emotions like
anger, fear, curiosity, joy, affection develop. Childhood shows maturity of these
emotions. Adolescence shows development of important dimension of love and
commitment.
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1. How is Piagetian concept of cognitive development helpful for a teacher in the

classroom?
2. Illustrate with example that all the dimension of growth of personality grow in
interrelated manner.
3. Differentiate between cognitive development at concrete-operational and
formal operational stage.
4. Why do we need to study the growth and development in children?
ANSWERS
Fill in the blanks
xx. Conception to Birth

xxi. Infancy to Adolescence
xxii.Later
xxiii. Puberty
xxiv. Adolescent
Match the following
Column A Column B
Gross motor skill Running
Finer motor skill Jigsaw puzzle
Infancy Bulging abdomen
Early childhood Lengthening of limbs
Fill in the blanks

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1. Sensory Motor
2. Preconceptual and intuitive
3. Preoperational stage
4. Early childhood
5. Hypothetic – deductive reasoning
State whether true or false
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. False
True and False
1. True
2. False
3. False
4. False
5. True
Match the following
Column A Column B
Negativism Infancy
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Early Childhood
Gang age Later Childhood
Identity Diffusion Adolescence
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State whether True and False
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. False
Fill in the blanks
1. His needs are not met

2. Love objects
3. Decreases
4. Member of opposite sex
Baron, R.A. (1998). Psychology (4th edn.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Berk, L.E. (1997). Child Development (4th edn) Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Garett, H.E. (1969). Educational Psychology – New Delhi: Eurasia Publishing House
Haviglurst, R.J. (1953) – Human Development and Education. New Yourk: LongMan
Hurlock, E.B. (1959) – Developmental Psychology. Bombay : Tata Mcgraw Hill Publishing
Company.
Hudgius B.B, Phye, G.D; Schau, C.G; Theisan; G.L. Ames, C; Ames, R. (1983). Educational
Psychology. Illinois: F.E. Peacock Publishers Inc.
Mangal, S.K. (2002). Advanced Educational Psychology, New Delhi: PHI Private Ltd.
Piaget, J., (1953). The Origin of intelligence in the Child. New Fetter Lane, New York:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Salvin, R.E. (1991). Educational Psychology. Theory into Practice. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall Internal, Inc.
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DGC – 1
BLOCK – 3
Intelligence and Learning
Unit 1: Concept and Theories of Intelligence
Unit 2: Mental retardation and Giftedness
Unit 3: Nature of Learning and Memory
Unit 4: Memory
Unit 5: Creativity and Giftedness
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BLOCK 3
INTELLIGENCE AND LEARNING
Block Introduction
This is the third block of the Course GC GC-1: Psychological Basis of Guidance and
Counselling. There are 5 Units in it which are as below:
Unit 1: Concept and Theories of Intelligence
Unit 2: Mental Retardation and Giftedness
Unit 3: Nature of Learning and Memory
Unit 4: Memory
Unit 5: Creativity and Giftedness
The first unit is Concept and Theories of Intelligence. In this unit the concept and
theories of intelligence are discussed. The theories that have been given are: two
factors, multiple factors and hierarchical factors theories of intelligence. The major focus
of the unit is orientating you to understand these concepts and theories, and apply
them in the appropriate contexts.
The second unit is Mental Retardation and Giftedness. One of the major aims of this
unit is to help the students understand the range of intelligence from lowest end of
mental retardation to the uppermost range and its relationship with giftedness. Both
the concepts have been discussed in detail. The diagnosis and levels of mental
retardation are also given. The unit also explains the organic and socio-cultural causes of
mental retardation.
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Third unit is Nature of Learning and Memory. The concepts of learning and memory are
inter-related. So it is important for students to understand the nature of these concepts
and the determinants of learning. This unit also describes classical and instrumental
conditioning with their principles. The purpose of this unit is to help the students to
understand process of learning. It further deals with learning disabilities of children.
The fourth unit is Memory. It discusses the concept of memory and the three processes
of encoding, storage and retrieval related to it. Relationships between sensory memory,
short term memory and long term memory have also been discussed. Recall, recognition
and the methods employed for measurement of memory are described. This unit also
provides information about different aspects and theories of forgetting.
The fifth unit is Creativity and Giftedness. In this unit characteristics of creative people
and different stages of creative thinking are described in detail. It further discusses the
family characteristics of gifted children. Motivation, social and emotional lives, and
cognitive profiles of gifted children have also been discussed. The association between
the creativity and giftedness has also been discussed. The unit also provides a
perspective on the concept and taxonomies of individual differences with regard to
these concepts.
UNIT 1 CONCEPT AND THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Concepts of Intelligence
1.3.1 Definitions of Intelligence
1.3.2 Assessing Intelligence
1.4 Individual Differences in Intelligence
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1.5 Gender Differences in Intelligence
1.6 Theories of Intelligence
1.6.1 Two Factor Theory
1.6.2 Multiple Factor Theories
1.6.3 Hierarchical Theory
1.7 Let us sum up
1.8 Unit-end Exercise
1.10 Answer Key
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Individuals face different types of social, behavioral and personal adjustment problems
in their life which pose a challenge to their well-being. Intelligence helps an individual to
cope effectively with these problems. Intelligence is the ability to learn and interact with
one’s environment effectively. It determines how we perform tasks requiring problem
solving and decision making. This general ability comes into play in situations requiring
adaptation to a new environment or to changes in the current environment, capacity for
reasoning and abstract thinking, ability to adjust in relationships, making judgments
about action, and situations involving capacity for original and productive thinking.
Environment includes a person’s immediate surroundings, the people around him or her
or the family, the workplace, or a classroom, etc.This unit provides understanding of the
nature of intelligence, various theories and tests of intelligence.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
The present unit will enable you to:
 Explain nature of intelligence.

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 State the individual and sex differences in intelligence.

 Describe different tests for assessment of intelligence.
 State various theories of intelligence.
1.3 CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence is the general mental ability that comes into play in executing any activity,
almost all our behavior except reflex actions are influenced by our intelligence, though
we become more aware of exercising our ability only when we are faced with more
complex situations. But the intelligence is operating in all aspects of our behavior of
reasoning, communicating, learning, solving problems, thinking abstract ideas or
overcoming environmental blocks, etc. There are different kinds of definitions given by
researchers depending on the methods used to study it. However, whatsoever may be
the definition of intelligence, there are individual differences on this ability to
understand situations, make adaptations, and live effectively. Let us see how this ability
has been defined by psychologists ever since interest was generated to understand and
measure it.
1.3.1 Definitions of Intelligence
Many researchers in the field of psychology have defined intelligence in different ways.
There are many definitions of intelligence; experts have defined it differently.
Alfred Binet (1973) defined it as practical sense or the faculty of adapting oneself to
circumstances.
Sternberg and Salter (1982) called intelligence as Goal-directed adaptive behavior.
Reuven Feuerstein (1990 describes intelligence as “the unique propensity of human

beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the
changing demands of a life situation”.
Linda Gottfredson (1998) defines intelligence as the ability to deal with cognitive
complexity.
All these definitions could be classified into two groups.
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The first group of definitions refers to the adjustment or adaptation capacities of the
person to strike a balance between his own needs and the demands of the
environment. Individuals not only adapt to environment but also bring about necessary
changes in it to meet their needs more effectively. The second group of definitions is
concerned with the capability of an individual to learn and enhance their effectiveness.
The two kinds of definitions are not mutually exclusive. Each group emphasizes on the
ability to learn to perform a certain activity well. Taking this into account, the most
suitable definition seems to be that given by David Wechsler. According to him,
“intelligence is the aggregate capacity of an individual to act purposefully , to think
rationally and to deal effectively with his environment”.
1.3.2 Assessing Intelligence
Tests of intelligence are among the most widely used psychological tests. Intelligence
tests sample a variety of behaviour involving different kinds of abilities such as verbal
and abstract reasoning, arithmetic ability, spatial ability, etc. Two widely used tests of
intelligence are described below:
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
The first test of intelligence by Binet (1905) had a scale containing 30 problems that
could identify mentally retarded children using problems assessing judgment,
comprehension, and reasoning. Terman, revised it, the new test was called the
Stanford-Binet (1916) battery of tests which was subsequently revised in 1937 and 1960
and re-standardized in 1972. The test could be used with children between the ages of 2
and 18. The test score was obtained by dividing the mental age (MA) as revealed
through the test, by the chronological age (CA) and Multiplying by 100. The resulting
formula, MA/CA x 100, resulted in an intelligence quotient, or IQ.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test (WAIS) was developed in 1955. It had become the most
widely used intelligence test for individuals aged 16 and older. The WAIS can provide
scores for 11 different intellectual abilities which fall under two general categories called
verbal intelligence and performance intelligence. The WAIS is a diagnostic test as well as
it provides an overall IQ score. The 11 subtests are given below:
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Table 1 Subtest on Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Verbal Performance
Information Digit symbol
Comprehension Picture completion
Arithmetic Block design
Similarities Picture arrangement
Digit span Object assembly
Vocabulary
Check Your Progress 1
Notes: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
1. What is intelligence? Answer in 4-5 lines.
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2. What are specific abilities of intelligence? Answer in 5-6 lines.
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3. Intelligence is the ability to evaluate and judge. (True / False)
4. Intelligence is related to both Heredity and Environment. (True / False)
5. Alfred Binet considered intelligence as an innate general
cognitive ability. (True / False)
6. How many subtests are there in WAIS. Write in the space provided.
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1.4 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence like many other psychological traits seems to be distributed in the

population in such a way that most people belong to the middle range while only few
people make very high or very low scores.
Differences in intelligence greatly affect people’s ability to cope with the demands of
society. This is particularly true in a technologically sophisticated, mobile, and
competitive society like our own. Nowhere are the demands as heavy as they are during
school, where children are expected to master complex tasks at a pace determined by
that of the developmental level of the average child. Some children learn quickly, others
slowly. While high intelligence is no guarantee of the ‘good life’, low intelligence creates
enormous barriers in the way of full participation of individuals in society, and their
attainment of a high standard of living.
1.5 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE
Stereotyped notions of differential intellectual abilities of men and women have little
basis in reality. One myth is that boys are more analytical than girls, and the girls are
better in language ability. However, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) found that men and
women generally do not differ on tests that measure analytical or problem-solving
abilities.
Boys do excel in spatial ability, an important intellectual function measured by many

intelligence tests. Spatial ability refers to the visual perception of figures or objects in
space and how they are related to each other. Male-female differences in spatial ability
have not been observed in childhood but appear fairly consistently in late childhood and
adolescence.
Other gender differences in intellectual performance seem to be largely a function of

socialization. For example, children of all ages tend to stereotype math and science as
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boys domain (Dwyer, 1973). The socialization of girls is more to be blamed for this, as
there is also evidence that differential practices with regard to teaching of mathematics
account for some of the gender differences in this subject. Boys are supposed to be
good at mathematics because many occupations that deal with figures and budgets are
male-dominated; as a result, the girls have no role-models in this area. Consequently,
more boys take mathematics courses than girls. In high school girls choose fewer
advanced mathematics and science courses since they have been socialized to believe
that such careers are not appropriate for females.
Overall, evidence seems to lead to conclusion that men and women are equal in general
intelligence but differ in some specialized abilities. A national assessment of educational
progress which involved almost one million students found that male and female
performances were equal in science, mathematics, and social studies up to the age of 9
(Sauls and Larson, 1975). By the age of 13, however, girls began to fall behind in these
subjects. Girls, on the other hand, were ahead in reading ability and literary knowledge.
Notes: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Compare your answers wit those given at the end of block.
1. Briefly explain Spearman’s two factor theory in the space given.
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2. Which factor underlines every performance of individual?
a. S factor b. G factor
c. L factor d. A factor
3. How many attributes of intelligence are distinguished by Thorndike? Elaborate.
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4. Who proposed three dimensional theory of intelligence?
a. Gilford b. Thurstone
c. Vernon d. Spearman
5. The structure of human abilities presented by Vernon is also known as-
a. Specific factor b. General factors
c. Hierarchical factor d. None of the above
6. Discuss individual differences in intelligence in 3-4 lines.
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7. Briefly list out the sex differences in intelligence.
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1.6 THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
There are numerous theories of intelligence none of which agrees with each other.
Every approach to intelligence comes up with its own perspective and assumptions.
1.6.1 Spearman’s Two-factor Theory:
Spearman (1904) proposed that intellectual abilities comprised two factors, one general
ability or common ability known as ‘G’ factor and the other a group of specific abilities
known as ‘S’ factors.(S1, S2, S3, etc.). This general factor can be defined as ‘general
intelligence’ or ‘G’ which operates in all kinds of mental activity. This factor G is
possessed by all the individuals, but in varying degrees. The G factor was postulated by
Spearman to explain correlations that he found to exist among diverse sorts of activities
like perceiving, knowing, reasoning and thinking.
The basic assumption of the two-factor theory is that every cognitive performance
involves two factors: a general intelligence factor G which underlies every performance
of the individual; specific ability factors which only come into play in particular kinds of
tasks.
Thus, the two factor theory states that, “all mental activities have in common some of
the general factor; each mental activity might involve a member of a “group”, and each
has also its own specific factors.
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1.6.2 MULTI-FACTOR THEORIES
The theories are based on the evidence that certain clusters of tests show higher
correlations with one another than with other tests. For example, memory tests tend to
show higher correlations with each other than with other tests; and tests that involve
calculating numbers are better correlated with each other than with tests that are not
numerical. This means that intelligence includes a memory factor, a numerical-ability
factor, and perhaps other factors as well. The multifactor theories are described below:
Thorndike (1921) rejected the notion that there was such a thing as a general
intelligence factor. He formulated the multifactor theory. This theory stated that
intelligence is made up of many independent components, all of which when added
together form intelligence. Each mental activity involves an aggregate of different set of
abilities. He distinguished the following four attributes of intelligence:
(a) Level—refers to the level of difficulty of a task that can be solved.
(b) Range—refers to a number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty.
(c) Area—means the total number of situations at each level to which the individual is
able to respond.
(d) Speed—is the rapidity with which we can respond to the items.
Thurstone (1938) identified factors which he called primary mental abilities namely,
verbal comprehension, reasoning, word fluency, memory, numerical ability, perceptual
speed and spatial ability. Thurston assembled a battery of tests to measure these
abilities.
Yet another multifactor theory was proposed by Guilford (1967). This three dimensional
theory grew out of a massive analysis of many existing tests. It resulted in the cubical
model seen in the figure below. This model provides for 120 factors of intelligence. Each
factor is represented by a cell in the cube and is some combination of following three
dimensions:
 Five kinds of operations (Evaluations, convergent production, Divergent

production, Memory, Cognition, Units, Classes).
 Six kinds of products (Units, Classes, Relations, Systems, Transformations,
Implications)
 Four kinds of contents(Figural, Symbolic, Semantic, Behavioral)
Tests were developed to measure most of these factors. Guilford’s concept of
intelligence also includes divergent thinking, which is closely related to creative, or
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original problem solving as opposed to convergent thinking, involved in solving

problems with a single correct answer.
1.4.3 Hierarchical Theory: Vernon’s (1950) hierarchical group factor theory of the
structure of human intellectual abilities proposed different levels of intelligence. At the
highest level ‘g’ (general intelligence) factor was identified with the largest source of
variance between individuals. The next level major group factors such as verbal-
numerical-educational and practical- mechanical- spatial- physical ability were
identified. The next level comprising minor group factors were combined to form major
group factors. The bottom level specific factors were very narrow and these were linked
to specific situations. He concluded that individual differences in intelligence were
approximately 60 percent attributable to genetic factors, and that there is some
evidence implicating genes in racial group differences in average levels of mental ability.
1.7 LET’S SUM UP
In this unit we have learned the concept of intelligence. Intelligence denotes ability for
specific performances and achievements. The G –factor theory and multifactor theories
define intelligence as suggested by correlations between different tests that were
developed to measure it. The Stanford-Binet intelligence test, which is arranged by age
levels, and the Wechsler tests, which are arranged by type of items are among the best-
known intelligence tests. These tests now use deviation IQs. Both tests assess
intellectual abilities that correlate with school achievement.
Further, individual differences and sex differences in intelligence were also discussed. As
to individual differences are concerned majority of people score in middle range while
very few people make very high or very low scores.
No sex differences in general intelligence have been found between men and women.
However, some sex differences are commonly found in certain intellectual skills.
Women tend to score higher on verbal tasks, while men score higher on spatial and
mathematical tasks. There are evidences of a biological influence on sex differences in
spatial ability. Other cases of intellectual differences are probably accounted for by
systematic differences in role assignment and socialization.
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1. Develop a chart with diagrams showing all the theories of intelligence and compare
all of them with each other.
2. Visit any nearby psychological laboratory and arrange WAIS, then measure your IQ
level.
3. Conduct a survey of 40 male and 40 female students of class XII, measure their IQ
levels and elaborate sex differences in intelligence.
Further readings
Binet, A., and Simon, T. (1973). The Development of Intelligence in Children, Reprint Ed.
New York: Arno Press.
Maccoby, E., and Jaclin, C. (1974). The Psychology of Sex Differences. Stanford University
Press.
Spearman, C. (1904). General Intelligence, Objectively Determined and Measured, American
Journal of Psychology, 15, 201 – 293.
Vernon, P.F. (1950). The Structure of Human Abilities. London, Methuen.
UNIT 2 MENTAL RETARDATION AND GIFTEDNESS
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Mental Retardation
2.3.1 Diagnosis
2.3.2 Levels of Mental Retardation
2.4 Giftedness
2.4.1 Characteristics of Gifted Children

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2.4.2 Dual Exceptionality
2.5 Causes of Mental Retardation
2.5.1 Difficulty of Mentally Retardation Persons
2.5.2 Education of the Mentally Retarded
2.6 Lets Sum Up
2.7 Unit-end Exercises
Further Readings
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Mental retardation is an enemy of humanity that strikes children without regard for
class, creed, or economic level. Underprivileged people and poor people are still the
hardest hit by mental retardation. Socio-cultural factors account for the majority of
cases of mild retardation, and mild retardation represents an estimated 90 percent of
the total number of cases of all kinds of mental retardation. Many of the organically
caused cases are also linked to such socio-culturally influenced factors as malnutrition
and a lack of prenatal care.
Mental retardation is that mental state in which we find a significant sub-average

general intellectual functioning of mind along with deficient adaptive behavior found to
be manifested during the developmental period. Thus, what we have is a situation of
not only low intelligence but also poor social adaptiveness and the presence of these
impairments quite early in life.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
 Examine the concept of Mental Retardation.

 To make handy the diagnostic kit to determine Mental Retardation.
 Determine various levels of Mental Retardation.
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 Explain those reasons found to be responsible for Mental Retardation.
2.3 MENTAL RETARDATION
The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for mental retardation, an Axis II disorder, include:
(1) significantly below average intellectual functioning
(2) deficits in adaptive behavior, and
(3) an onset prior to age 18.
2.3.1 DIAGNOSIS
Intelligence-Test Scores:
The first component of the DSM-IV-TR criteria requires a judgment of intelligence.

Approximately two-thirds of the population achieves IQ (intelligent quotient) test scores
between 85 and 115. Those with a score below 70 to 75, two standard deviations below
the mean of the population, meet the criterion of “significant sub average general
intellectual functioning.” Approximately 3 percent of the population falls into this
category.
Adaptive Functioning:
Adaptive functioning refers to mastering childhood skills such as toileting and dressing;
understanding the concepts of time and money; being able to use tools, to shop, and to
travel by public transportation; and becoming socially responsive. An adolescent, for
example, is expected to be able to apply academic skills, reasoning, and judgment to
daily living and to participate in group activities. An adult is expected to be self-
supporting and to assume social responsibilities.
Several tests have been devised over the period of time to assess adaptive behavior.
Best known are the Adaptive Behavior Scale or ABS, and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior
Scales. Although impairments in adaptive functioning have long been included in the
definition of mental retardation yet it is only recently that the tests have been
adequately standardized with firmly established norms. One problem with many
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assessments of adaptive behavior is that they fail to consider the environment to which
the person must adapt. A person who lives in a small rural community where everyone
is acquainted may not need skills as complex as those needed by someone who lives in
New York City.
The role of environment is so decisive in formulating the adaptive behavior of a child

and this can be illustrated by an example. Children who are competent working at farm
chores, walking to school, and shopping at the local store may, when transported to a
city, be considered deficient in adaptive behavior if they are not able to ride the subway
to school or buy groceries at a store where a foreign language is spoken. By the same
token, city children might find themselves at a loss with some of the activities expected
of children living on a farm. An effective and valid assessment of adaptive behavior
should therefore consider the interaction between the child and the surroundings in
which he or she must function.
Age of Onset:
This is the third standard by which the mental retardation is assessed. By this standard it
is required that mental retardation is manifested before the age of 18. However, any
deficit in intelligence as a result of injury or illness triggering mental retardation
occurring later in life is ruled out from this category. Children with severe impairments
are often diagnosed during infancy. Most children considered mentally retarded,
however, are not identified as such until they enter school.
2.3.2 Levels of Mental Retardation
American Association on Mental Deficiency and the American Psychiatry Association

both recognized four levels of mental retardation. In DSM-IV-TR, each level of mental
retardation corresponds to a specific range of IQ scores. However, because IQ is not the
sole basis of diagnosis, some persons falling in the mildly retarded range based on IQ
but having no deficits in adaptive behavior would not be considered mentally retarded.
In practice, the IQ criterion is usually applied only after deficits in adaptive behavior
have been identified.
The table below shows the four levels of mental retardation recognized by DSM-IV-TR.
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Levels of Mental Retardation IQ Percentage
Mild Mental Retardation 50-55 to 70 85
Moderate Mental Retardation 35-40 to 50-55 10
Severe Mental Retardation 20-25 to 35-40 3 to 4
Profound Mental Retardation Below 20-25 1 to 2
From the table it is clear that in the first level of mild mental retardation about 85% of
all those with IQ of less than 70 are classified as having mild mental retardation.
About 10% of those with IQ of less than 55 are classified as having moderate mental
retardation.
About 3 to 4 % of those with IQ less than 40 are classified as having severe mental
retardation.
About 1 to 2% of people with IQ less than 25 are classified as having profound mental
retardation.
Mild Mental Retardation (IQ 50-55 to 70)
As shown in the table above, that this group constitutes by far the largest number of
those labelled mentally retarded. Persons in this group are considered educable, and
their intellectual levels are comparable with those of average 8 to 11 years old children.
The mildly retarded individual with the mental age of, say, 10 (i.e., intelligent test
performance is at the level of the average 10 years old) is not in fact comparable to the
normal 10 year old in information processing ability. The social adjustment of such
persons often approximates that of the adolescent, although they tend to lack the
normal adolescent’s imagination, inventiveness, and judgment. Ordinarily, they do not
show signs of brain pathology or other physical anomalies, but often they require some
measure of supervision because of their limited ability to foresee the consequences of
their actions. With early diagnosis, parental assistance, and special educational program,
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the great majority can adjust socially, master simple academic and occupational skills,
and become self-supporting citizens.
Moderate Mental Retardation (IQ 35-40 to 50-55)
Persons in this group are likely to fall in the educational category of trainable. In adult
life, individuals classified as moderately retarded attain intellectual levels similar to
those of average 4 to 7 year old children. While some of the brighter ones can be taught
to read and write a little, and some manage to achieve a fair command of spoken
language, their rate of learning is relatively slow, and their level of conceptualizing
extremely limited. Physically, they usually appear clumsy and ungainly, and they suffer
from bodily deformities and poor motor co-ordination. A distinct minority of these
children are hostile and aggressive.
With early diagnosis, parental help and adequate opportunities for training, most of the
moderately retarded can achieve partial independence in daily self-care, acceptable
behavior, and economic usefulness in a family. Whether they require institutionalization
usually depends on their general level of adaptive behavior and the nature of their
home situation.
Severe Mental Retardation (IQ 20-25 to 35-40)
The term dependent retarded is used to refer to individuals in this group. Among these
persons, motor and speech developments are severely retarded and sensory defect and
motor handicaps are common. They can develop limited levels of personal hygiene and
self-help skills, which somewhat lessen their dependence, but they are always
dependent on others for care. However, many profit to some extent from training and
can perform simple occupational tasks under supervision.
Profound Mental Retardation (IQ below 25)
Individuals in this group are sometimes referred to as life support retarded. Most of
these persons are severely deficient in adaptive behavior and unable to master any but
the simplest tasks. Useful speech, if it develops at all, is rudimentary. Severe physical
deformities, central nervous system pathology, and retarded growth are typical.
Convulsive seizures, mutism, deafness, and other physical anomalies are also common.
These persons must remain in custodial care all their lives. However, they tend to have
poor health and low resistance to disease and thus a short life expectancy.
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Severe and profound cases of mental retardation can usually be quite readily diagnosed
in infancy because of the presence of physical malformations, grossly delayed habit
training, and other obvious symptoms of abnormality. But although these individuals
show a marked impairment of overall intellectual functioning, they may have
considerably more ability in some areas than others. Indeed, in very occasional case,
seriously retarded individuals may show a high level of skill in some specific aspects of
behavior that does not depend on abstract reasoning. Thus, one seriously retarded
person was able to remember the serial number on every dollar bill he was shown or
had ever seen, another was able to tell the day of the week of a given date in any year,
without resorting to paper and pencil or even to making other numerical calculations. In
other exceptional cases, a retarded person may show considerable talent in art and
music.
Notes:

1. Write down DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria of Mental Retardation in the space

provided.
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2. What do you understand by the term ‘adaptive functioning’?
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3. How many levels of Mental Retardation are there? Answer with IQ range for every
level in 6-7 lines.
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4. Individuals with IQ of 20-25 to 35-40 are classified as having-
a. Mild Mental Retardation b. Severe Mental Retardation
c. Moderate Mental Retardation d. Profound Mental Retardation.
5. People with Moderate Mental Retardation are considered as trainable. (True / False)
2.4 GIFTEDNESS
People at the upper end of the IQ distribution are appropriately regarded as mentally
gifted. Gifted (or talented) children show achievement that is well above average in one
or more areas-usually in language, math, music, art or athletics. Some children are
globally gifted: they show exceptional talent in all areas. Other children are unevenly
gifted: they are exceptional in one or two areas but are at (or below) average levels in
others. While a high IQ score may be one indicator of giftedness, it is not the only one;
some talent areas are not included on intelligence tests, and such tests do not consider
a child’s cultural context when used as indicators of talent (Sternberg, 2007).
Sir Francis Galton began the study of mentally gifted or genius in the late 19th century.
Mentally gifted are considered those with IQ above 130 and with exceptionally high
scores on achievement test in specific subjects such as mathematics. High IQ scores are
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predictive of adjustment in elementary school years. A child who is moderately bright is

likely to be one of the class star but the youngster with extraordinary high IQ may often
be a misfit and misunderstood by peers and teachers.
One of the most ambitious longitudinal studies in history was begun by Lewis Terman in
1921 to study the development of highly gifted individuals. Contrary to common
stereotypes, Terman found that gifted and talented individuals were not neurotic, frail,
eccentric, or emotionally sensitive individuals. Instead, they were larger, healthier, and
generally more well-adjusted than most other children. Overall, they tended to live
longer, enjoy better health, have a lower divorce rate, and be happier than most people
(Shurkin, 1992; Terman, 1925).
A study by Terman found that children with IQ above 140 were generally quite well
adjusted.
A study by Terman found that children with IQ above 140 were generally quite well
adjusted, but another study by Hollingsworth found that many children with IQ above
180 were very poorly adjusted. These children were underachievers, many were
extremely unhappy and some were even suicidal. It seems that such extremely bright
children are trapped in a world with few real peers. They are out of sync intellectually
with children their own age and out of synch physically and socially with the older
people who are their intellectuals’ equals. Their lives become better as these youngsters
mature. They are able to find social groups and work settings in which their abilities
prove a real asset. In fact, gifted adults appear to be happier and better adjusted than
most other people.
More recent research has found that gifted and talented adolescents are more focused
in school, spend much of their free time working in their talent areas, and spend more
time alone than their “average” peers. Their parents tend to have more education, and
their families have higher incomes, as well as more supportive and positive family
environments. For example, most talented teenagers rate their family interactions as
more affectionate, cohesive, flexible, and happy than other students (Shurkin, 1992;
Terman, 1925).
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2.4.1 Characteristics of Gifted Children
Winner (1996) describes, inter alia, three main characteristics of gifted children:
 Gifted children are precocious. They begin learning early and progress faster than
others.
 Gifted children march to their own drummer. They don’t need much assistance to
master information in their favorite subjects. They often teach themselves, have their
own ways of learning, organizing, and sorting information; and they don’t always
conform to the conventional learning methods of schools.
 Gifted children have a rage to master—an intense craving for information and an
obsessive need to make sense out of their favorite topics. They devour information,
spend endless hours on their chosen subjects, and rarely engage in any other pursuits.
Parents don’t push them to achieve; instead, gifted children push their parents for
more materials and stimulation.
 These children have a powerful interest in the domain in which they have high
ability, and they can focus so intently on work in this domain that they lose sense of
the outside world.
 The gifted children have shown to be atypical socially and emotionally in a number
of respects: they are highly driven, nonconforming, and independent thinkers.
 Gifted children in all domains also tend to be introverted. They spend more time
alone than do ordinary adolescents.
 Gifted children are not only solitary because of their rich inner lives, but also because
solitude is requisite for the development of their talents.
 Whereas ordinary children come home after school to play, gifted children come
home after school eager to paint, play music, and work on math problems, read or
write.
 Unevenness between verbal and mathematical abilities may be the rule, not the
exception among these gifted children. Mathematically gifted children show stronger
recall for numerical and spatial information than for linguistic information, whereas
verbally gifted children show the reverse pattern.
 Children gifted in the visual arts and in athletics typically show a lack of interest in
academic achievement, with those gifted in the visual arts even less committed
academically than those in athletics.
 It is certainly not uncommon to encounter high-IQ children who are also dyslexic, a
case of Dual Exceptionality is not uncommon among the gifted children.
2.4.2 Dual Exceptionality
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It is not uncommon to find giftedness and mental retardation in one and a same person.
These behaviors are typical of some children who are simultaneously gifted and learning
disabled. For many people, however, the terms learning disabilities and giftedness are at
opposite ends of a learning continuum. Uneasiness in accepting this seeming
contradiction in terms stems primarily from faulty and incomplete understandings.
Many experts still believe that giftedness is equated with outstanding achievement
across all subject areas. Thus, a student who is an expert on bugs at age 8 may
automatically be excluded from consideration for a program for gifted students because
he cannot read, though he can name and classify a hundred species of insects.
Recent advances in both fields have alerted professionals to the possibility that both
sets of behavior can exist simultaneously (Baum and Owen, 1988; Whitmore and Maker,
1985). Dual exceptionality in children exhibits both gifted and learning disabled, a mix of
both talents or strengths in some areas and disabling weaknesses in others.
The following list can help in recognizing the children with Dual Exceptionalities:
Characteristics of Gifted Children with Specific Disabilities
Gifted Children with Learning Disabilities
1. High abstract reasoning ability
2. Good mathematical reasoning ability
3. Keen visual memory, spatial skills
4. Advanced vocabulary
5. Sophisticated sense of humor
6. Imaginative and creative
7. Insightful
8. Exceptional ability in geometry, science, arts, music
9. Good problem-finding and solving skills
10. Difficulty with memorization, computation, phonics, and / or spelling
11. Distractibility and / or disorganization
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12. Super sensitivity
13. Perfectionism
14. Grasp of metaphors, analogies, satire
15. Comprehension of complex systems
16. Unreasonable self expectations
17. Often, failure to complete assignments
18. Difficulties with sequential tasks
19. Wide variety of interests
(Baum, Owen, and Dixon, 1991; Silverman, 1989)
Gifted Children with Physical Disabilities
1. Development of compensatory skills
2. Creativity in finding alternate ways of communicating and accomplishing tasks
3. Impressive store of knowledge
3. Impressive store of knowledge
4. Advanced academic skills
5. Superior memory
6. Exceptional problem-solving skills
7. Rapid grasp of ideas
8. Ability to set and strive for long-term goals
9. Greater maturity than age mates
10. Good sense of humor
11. Persistence, patience
12. Motivation to achieve
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13. Curiosity, insight
14. Self-criticism and perfectionism
15. Cognitive development that may not be based on direct experience
16. Possible difficulty with abstractions
17. Possible limited achievement due to pace of work
(Cline, 1999; Whitmore and Maker, 1985; Willlard-Holt, 1994)
Notes: 1. Write your answers in the space given below.
2. Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
1. Who began the study of Mentally Gifted children?
a. Francis Galton b. Lewis Terman
c. Spearman d. Guilford
2. Mentally Gifted are considered those with IQ above-
a. 100 b. 110
c. 120 d. 130
3. Describe three main characteristics of Gifted Children in the space below.
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4. What is Dual Exceptionality? Write down 5 characteristics of such children.
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2.5 CAUSES OF MENTAL RETAEDATION
There are various types of causes of mental retardation; for the sake of studies we
categorize causes into two types-organic and socio-cultural causes.
ORGANIC CAUSES:
Profound, severe and moderate retardation is usually caused by organic factors. The
problem may be a genetic or chromosomal abnormality, in which case it is determined
at the moment of conception. Or it may result from disease or trauma either in utero or
at the time of birth.
(1) Chromosomal Anomalies:
In less than 5 percent of all pregnancies chromosomal abnormalities occur. The majority
of these pregnancies end in miscarriage. One percent of all new-borns have a
chromosomal abnormality. Majority of these infants die soon after birth. A significant
proportion of babies who survive have Down Syndrome.
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(a) Down’s Syndrome or Mongolism:
It is the most common single cause of mental retardation. It was first described by
British physician Langdon Down in 1866. Human beings possess 46 chromosomes
inheriting 23 from each parent. In Down syndrome there is trisomy in 21 chromosome,
thus such individuals have 47 chromosomes instead of 46. The two chromosomes of pair
21 fail to separate during maturation of the egg. If the egg units with the sperm, there will
be three of chromosome 21, thus the term trisomy 21.
The typical physical features of people with Down syndrome include, short stature,
almond shaped eyes with thick eye lids, broad, flat nose and face. Square shaped ears, a
large furrowed tongue, which protrudes because the mouth is small and its roof low,
broad neck and hands withstubby fingers, creases in the palms, and L shaped loops in
the finger prints.
Many mongoloid children usually have moderate retardation and are aided in their
social adaptation by a tendency to be extremely playful and affectionate. About 40
percent have heart problems, and may have blockages of upper intestinal tract. During
the first year about one in six children dies, mortality after age 40 is high.
(b) Klinefelter’s Syndrome:
This anomaly involves the sex chromosome. A male with this syndrome may have XXY or
XXXY. This is usually not noticed until puberty, when the testes remain small, and in
some cases feminine secondary sex characteristics appear. About 25 percent of males
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having Klinefelter’s syndrome are retarded, and their retardation is usually mild or
moderate.
(c) Turner’s Syndrome:
In this a female has only a single X chromosome instead of the XX pair. A few cases of
triple X have also been reported, these are XXX females. Intelligence is reduced in many
chromosomal anomalies, but not in all.
(d) Fragile X Syndrome:
It is the genetic cause of mental retardation. This involves mutation in the gene on the X
chromosome. Facial features associated with syndrome include under developed and
large ears, long and thin face, and broad nasal root. Testicles may be enlarged in males.
Such individuals show problems of learning disabilities, difficulty with frontal lobe and
right hemisphere tasks.
(2) Phenylketonuria (PKU)
This is a very rare metabolic disorder occurring in one in 20,000 births. The infant with
PKU appears normal at birth, but lacks a liver enzyme needed to break down
phenylalanine, an amino acid found in protein foods. If the condition is undetected the
phenylalanine accumulates in blood and produces brain damage. The first signs may be
vomiting, seizures, or a strange odor in the urine, unresponsiveness or a deficiency in
motor development. Brain damage can be minimized by early detection and treatment.
A test given 4-5 days after birth detects excessive phenylalanine in the blood. A diet low
in phenylalanine maintained for the first six years shows great promise of alleviating
some of the intellectual deficit. If the disorder goes untreated the child will be severely
to profoundly retarded.
(3) Infections:
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A wide range of conditions due to infections may be associated with mental

retardation. Brain damage to the fetus can occur if the mother has syphilis or German
measles in the first trimester of pregnancy. The danger is greatest during the first month
and diminishes during the second and third months. The mother may experience slight
or no symptoms from the infections but the effects on the developing fetus can be
devastating. Blood test is essential to determine whether mothers are immune to
German measles, those who are not immune are advised to be vaccinated at least six
months before pregnancy.
Mental retardation can also be caused by HIV infection. An HIV positive mother is likely
to pass on the virus to the developing fetus, and about half of these infected infants
develop mental retardation.
Encephalitis and meningitis can also affect the development of the brain after birth.
These infections may cause brain damage and even death in infancy or early childhood.
(4) Prematurity and Physical Injury:
Children born pre-maturely and weighing less than five pounds at birth have high
incidence of neurological disorders. Premature babies are likely to be mentally retarded
than full term babies.
Mental retardation is also caused due to physical injury at birth. Normally, the fetus is
well protected by its fluid filled bag during gestation, and its skull is designed to resist
delivery stressors, accidents do happen during delivery as well as after birth. Brain of the
infant may be damaged because of difficulties in labor due to mal-position of the fetus.
The most common result of such birth trauma is bleeding within the brain. Another type
of birth trauma that may damage the brain is Hypoxia. Hypoxia is lack of sufficient
oxygen to the brain stemming from delayed breathing or other causes. This may also
occur after birth as a result of cardiac arrest, heart-attacks, and severe electric shocks or
near drowning.
(5) Toxic Agents and Radiation:
Mental retardation can also result from lead poisoning, carbon monoxide poisoning, or
other toxic agents. Any toxic substance entering the mother’s blood stream reaches the
fetus effectively multiplied in dosage because of the fetus’s much smaller body weight.
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In some instances immunological agents may lead to brain damage. Similarly, an excess
of alcohol taken by the mother during pregnancy may lead to congenital malformations.
Scientific attention has also been focused on the damaging effects of radiation on sex
cells, bodily cells and tissues. Radiation may act directly on fertilized ovum or may
produce gene mutations in the sex cells which may lead to defective off springs. High
energy x-rays, leakages at nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons testing are the
main sources of harmful radiation.
SOCIO – CULTURAL CAUSES:
The organic causes already discussed are involved in only a small percentage of the
total. Most mental retardates, especially in the mild-to-moderate range, show no signs
of cerebral or other physiological pathology. What these retardates do have in common,
to a considerable extent, is low socioeconomic status. A disproportionate number of
mental retardation (about three-fourth) comes from homes that are characterized by
economic, social, emotional, and intellectual deprivation. They are classified as cultural-
familial retardates. The main socio – cultural causes of retardation include: poverty,
deprivation, and volatile environment.
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(1) Poverty:
The most common and most prevalent cause of mental retardation is poverty. The child
growing up in poverty is more likely to suffer the effects of malnutrition in both prenatal
and postnatal life, to be left unattended, to ingest harmful substances, and probably most
important of all, to be deprived of stimulation. Especially in the formative years, the brain
needs stimulation that can only come from the child’s physical, verbal, social, and
intellectual contact with other human beings.
(2) Deprivation:
Deprivation is repeatedly mentioned in studies of cultural-familial retardates. When the

father is absent physically or emotionally and the mother inaccessible physically or
emotionally, the child’s development suffers. Similarly, when children are not exposed
during infancy to the same quality and quantity of tactile and kinesthetic stimulations as
other children and when they hear limited number of words, with sentences brief and
most commands carrying a negative connotation the child is considered to be deprived.
(3) Volatile Environment:
Studies of cultural-familial retardates have also provided convincing evidence that IQ is

not fixed and immutable. For example, as the cultural-familial retardate grows up, his /
her IQ may decline. This frequently observed fact is consistent with a socio-cultural
environment but not with a biological one. Furthermore, enriching the environment
produces dramatic increase in IQ.
2.5.1 Difficulties of Mentally Retarded Persons
There is essentially no difference in basic learning processes of mentally retarded

children from those of normal children. However, they learn at a slower rate and are
less capable of mastering abstractions and complex concepts. These limitations are
apparent in learning language and other symbolic skills. Problems that retarded children
encounter in learning basic academic skills may be summarized as follows:
(1) Difficulty in Concentration: It has been proved from various studies that poor
learning of retarded children is often due to the fact that their attention is focused
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on irrelevant aspects of learning situations. They show marked improvement in

performance and learning once they know what stimulus dimensions are
important. For example attending to form when the shape of the letters is
important in learning the alphabet they may quickly master appropriate
discrimination skills.
(2) Deficiency in Prior Learning: For most of the formal learning prior learning is
required. For example, a child who has not learned the basic verbal, conceptual,
and problem solving skills will face difficulty when he begins schooling. Thus, a
number of programs have been developed to help mentally retarded children
develop basic skills requisite for learning in school.
(3) Expectancy of Failure: The mentally retarded child tends to begin task with the
greater expectancy of failure because of having experienced more failure in
learning attempts than other children. Because of this expectancy they engage in
avoidance behavior. Often such children feel that for forces beyond their control
determine the outcome of their actions. Thus, if they succeed in a task, they may
not perceive their success as due to their own efforts. They become passive, lose
their initiative, and begin to rely too much on others. To counteract this tendency
learning experiences must be programmed into manageable components that can
yield continuing experiences of success.
2.5.2 Education of Mentally Retarded
Mentally retarded children do not perform as well as other normal children. One reason
is that they fail to use effective methods of information processing. When a series of
words is given to them to remember they tend not to rehearse the items or group them
into chunks. Rehearsal and chunking of information are the techniques used by normal
people to enhance memory.
Four decades ago mentally retarded children were placed in special classes in which
they received special training. This training is according to their level of ability.
Dissatisfaction with the results led the researchers to place mentally retarded children
in normal classes. They are encouraged to participate in activities with non retarded
children.
Mentally retarded children can also need training in self care skills because they are
poor in the skills of dressing, grooming, eating, and toileting. Training can also enhance
the retarded person’s home maintenance, clothing care, money management, and use
of public transportation skills. Simple social skills such as friendly style and a smile may
go a long way toward enhancing the confidence of mentally retarded children.
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1. What is Down Syndrome? How is it related with Mental Retardation?
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2. A male with XXY or XXXY is having-
(a) Down Syndrome (b) Klinefelter Syndrome
(c) Turner Syndrome (d) Fragile X Syndrome
3. Discuss three Socio- Cultural causes of Mental Retardation. Write in the space
provided.
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2.6 LET’S SUM UP
A person can be classified as mentally retarded if he has an IQ below 70 and, beginning

in childhood difficulties performing in everyday life. Four levels of mental retardation
are recognized, mild, moderate, severe and profound. Organic causes include
chromosomal anomalies such as Down syndrome, in which chromosome 21 is trisomic.
Klinefelter’s syndrome, in which a male has one or two additional x chromosomes and
does not mature sexually. Turner’s syndrome, in which a female has only one x
chromosomes. Genetics defects include phenylketonuria (PKU), in which a missing liver
enzyme result in an accumulation of phenylalanine in the body, causing brain damage.
Retardation may also result when the mother has German measles during the first
trimester of pregnancy. Retardation is more common among premature babies, and
may also be caused by injury at birth or during early childhood, by radiation, or by
ingesting toxic substances.
Mostly retardation is mild and results from socio-cultural factors usually linked to
poverty and specially to deprivation. The cultural-familial retarded have not been
sufficiently held, fondled, smiled at, talked to, and otherwise stimulated with human
contact and interaction.
To be classified as mentally Gifted, a person must have an IQ above 130 and

demonstrate an unusual ability in at least one area, such as art, music, or mathematics.
Terman’s genetic studies have demonstrated that mentally gifted children tend to
become successful in their academic, social, physical, and vocational lives.
1. Visit a mental hospital and measure the IQ levels of mentally retarded

individuals.
2. Observe mentally retarded people for a period of 15 days, and write down their
difficulties in various areas.
3. Provide more space training to a mentally retarded child in self-care skills.
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Further Readings:
Dolce, L. (1994). Mental Retardation. New York: Chelsea House.
Howe, M. (1990). The Psychology of Exceptional Abilities. New York: Basil Blackwell.
Nancy, M. and Robinson, H. (1976). The Mentally Retarded Child: A Psychological

Approach, Mcgraw-Hill,
New York.
Terman, L. (1926). Genetic Studies of Genius: Mental and Physical Traits of a thousand
Gifted Children. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
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UNIT 3 NATURE OF LEARNING AND MEMORY
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Learning and Memory
3.3.1 Nature of Learning
3.3.2 Nature of Memory
3.4 Determinants of Learning
3.5 Classical Conditioning
3.5.1 Principles of Classical Conditioning
3.5.2 Applications of Classical Conditioning
3.6 Operant Conditioning
3.6.1 Principles of Operant Conditioning
3.6.2 Applications of Operant Conditioning
3.7 Learning Disabilities
3.7.1 Criteria
3.7.2 Categories of Learning Disabilities
3.8 Lets Sum Up
Further Readings
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning is a central process in our life. All of us learn something new everyday, and this
learning produces changes in our behavior. A child who touches a hot pan will not
repeat that behavior. Learning, then, refers to relatively permanent changes in behavior
as a result of training or experience. Learning is the sum total of all the interactions that
an individual undertakes with his immediate environment and as a result orientates his
behavior, favorably or otherwise by it. It is the learning alone that make us what we are-
a sum total or the product of our environment.
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In our society, which places a high premium on formal education and in which training
of some sort has become a lifelong activity for many people, it is particularly important
that we understand.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
 Explaining the nature of learning and memory.

 Getting acquainted with various factors that determine learning.
 Discussing types of conditioning and understanding its principles and
applications.
 Focusing on learning disabilities, its criteria and categories.
3.3 LEARNING AND MEMORY
Learning is one of the fundamental processes that underlined human behaviors. It is

very difficult to think of any human activity which is not influenced by learning. It plays a
central role in the language we speak, our customs, our attitudes and beliefs, our
personality traits, our goals and even our perceptions.
Learning can be defined as a process by which our relatively permanent change in

behavior occurs as a result of practice or experience (Hilgard and Atkinson, 1967). This
definition of learning highlights three major aspects.
First, learning is a process that conditions the behavior of an individual. Here, behavior
means some actions that involves muscular, glandular, and mental or a combination of
these. This conditioning of behavior can be either beneficial or harmful for the individual
concerned. That is, the learning can be both positive or negative in its impact.
Secondly, the conditioning or change in behavior must be relatively permanent in

nature. The temporary modifications in the behavior of an individual as result of illness,
physical injury, drug and fatigue cannot be categorized as learning.
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Thirdly, any conditioning, change and modification in the behavior of an individual

should be result of practice or experience.
We can summarize learning as an acquired skill which is dependent primarily on the

external stimulation. It refers to those modifications in the behavior that take place as a
result of special stimulation.
3.3.1 Nature of Learning
Learning is a continuous process. All activities, simple or complex involve learning.

Everywhere, at every place one is mostly in the process of learning- at home, at school,
at social gatherings, and at countless other places. However, learning is not an easy
process; it takes a lot of time to learn an activity properly.
One important aspect of learning is that not all the changes in behavior can be related
to learning. Some behavioral changes are function of biological development and
maturation. The young child learns to stand upright as a result of biological maturation.
An old person’s strength of grip may weaken as a result of aging. These changes do not
depend on the person’s experience and are excluded from the nature of learning. Other
changes are due to transient motivational, emotional, or physiological state. For
example, a person who is intoxicated may exhibit marked changes in behavior.
Normally, such changes are short lived and do not fit into the nature of learning.
Second important aspect is that the learning process is not directly observable but must
be inferred from performance. The distinction between learning and performance is an
important one. When a person has learned something, the effects of this learning
although not immediately observable, can still change later behavior.
The process of learning constitutes three major elements these are- the stimulus, the
organism and the response i.e. (S-O-R). The stimulus is the variation in the physical
energy inside or outside an organism capable of influencing the nervous system through
receptors, condition, or a signal to which a response is made. A response is an action by
an individual such as saying or doing something. Response to a stimulus might be verbal,
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muscular, postural or glandular. When these responses are readily observable they are
called overt responses when not, they are called covert responses.
3.3.2 Nature of Memory
A memory is an organism’s unwritten record of some past event. The experimental

study of memory deals with the composition of memories, their interaction, and the
processes which occur over a period of time. Remembering is a process that makes
available to the individual something he has learnt earlier. The learnt material retained
by the individual is referred to as his memory.
Various acts of remembering vary from one another in certain aspects, but they have
some elements in common. In each case the present experience or the current behavior
of an individual is determined by something that has happened in the past. Before
anything can be remembered it must be learnt. Information comes in through the
sensory channel and is stored in the brain for a short time. Under favorable conditions
some part of the information stored in this short term store can be transferred to a long
term store from which it can be retrieved and translated into behavior. Thus it can be
said that memory consists of learning, retaining and retrieving.
How this exactly happens will be clear after a detailed discussion in the unit 4 on the
various types of memory and the process of interaction between them.
3.4 DETERMINENTS OF LEARNING
Researchers have found a number of factors that play a significant role in the
determination of learning. These factors are as follows:
Meaningfulness
More the meaningfulness of an item, the more readily and easily it is learnt. Ebbinghaus
(1885) in his experiments came to the conclusion that as the meaningfulness of the item
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in the serial list increases, the list requires fewer trials to learn. In free recall
experiments it was found that meaningfulness is positively related to the amount
recalled. Noble (1952) found that as the meaningfulness of items increases lesser time is
required for learning.
Frequency
Learning is also influenced by the frequency with which the particular words are
encountered. In a study by Hall (1954) it was found that the subjects recalled those
items better which they frequently heard or saw.
Recency
Murduock (1962) in an experiment found that the probability of recall of individual

items is a function of their position in the list when free recall is used. Along with other
things he found that items at the beginning of the list are recalled better as compared to
the ones in the middle of the list. This is due to the primacy effect.
Similarity
During the course of learning, when the stimulus is attached to a response and thereby
learned in that manner, we develop a tendency to make the same response to similar
stimuli.
Imagery and Concreteness
The role of imagery in learning is an important one. When one learns verbal material,
one learns by forming images of it. Words for which images can be formed easily are
referred to as concrete and for which images are difficult to form are called abstract. In
an experiment, Paivio (1971) found that learning in a paired associated task showed
better recall for pairs when the stimulus word was concrete and also when the response
term was concrete as compared to recall where either the stimulus term or response
term was abstract.
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Motivation
Studies have shown that motivation plays a significant role in learning. Prominent
among these studies are those done by Deese and Hube (1967), who have on the basis
of experimental evidence shown that motivation influences the amount of learning,
1. Define learning in 4-5 sentences.
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2. Write down major aspects of learning.
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3. What are the various determinants of learning? Explain.
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4. An organism’s unwritten record of some past event is:
a) Learning b) Memory
c) Stimulus d) Response
3.5 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Conditioning can be described as a procedure for studying learning in which a discrete

response is attached to a more or less discrete stimulus. Conditioning has to do with two
kinds of behavior— respondent and operant. Respondent behavior is a reflex evoked by
a stimulus. For example, if a bright light shines into your eye, your pupil will
automatically construct. In this case a stimulus evoked or elicited the response. All
organisms are provided by nature with reflexes. These reflexes are innate, spontaneous
responses to certain environmental events. Though innate, reflexes are subject to
modification through classical conditioning procedure.
However, not all behaviour is evoked by stimuli. For instance, waving your hand in class
to attract the attention of your professor is not elicited by an inborn need for attention.
Instead, it occurs because it is an effective way of attracting attention. The class of
responses not elicited by specific stimuli is called operant behavior. Operant responses
are said to be emitted by the organism, because there is no easily identifiable stimulus
provoking the behavior. Operant behavior is voluntary; it operates on the environment
to produce consequences for the organism. Operant responses can be conditioned by
manipulating the consequences of the responses.
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Classical Conditioning refers to the model of learning developed by the Russian

physiologist Ivan Pavlov. In his classic experiment Pavlov designed an apparatus that
could measure how much a dog’s mouth waters in response to food or other things in
the environment. The dog was strapped comfortably in a harness, standing on the
experimental table in a sound proof room. A tube was connected from the duct of the
dog’s slivery gland to a dish to accumulate saliva for measurement purpose. Pavlov then
sounded the tuning fork and noted that other than looking around the dog did not do
any other response. After some time a plate of meat powder was placed before the dog,
on getting the smell and eating the same the dog salivated. After the dog had eaten the
plate was removed. After some time the tuning fork was sounded again and the same
procedure was repeated and observations made. It was noted that after repeating this
procedure a few more times the dog on hearing the sound of the tuning fork started to
salivate.
3.5.1 Principles of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a

response after being associated with a stimulus that already elicits that response.
Various principles of classical conditioning are as follows:
Acquisition of Conditioned Response
To understand this, we must identify a stimulus that already elicits a reflexive response.
This stimulus is called an unconditioned response (UCS) and the response is called an
unconditioned response (UCR). In several trails the UCS is preceded by a neutral
stimulus— a stimulus that does not elicit the UCR. After many pairings of the neutral
stimulus and the UCS, the neutral stimulus itself elicits the UCR. At that point the neutral
stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus (CS), and the response to it is called a
conditioned response (CR).
In his experiment Pavlov used the UCS of meat powder to elicit the UCR of salivation. He
then used a tone of tuning fork as the neutral stimulus. After several trails in which the
tone preceded the meat powder, the tone itself becomes a CS that elicited the CR of
salivation. The acquisition of a conditioned response is usually gradual, as more and
more trails (CS-US pairings) are given; conditioned responses grow stronger and
stronger and are more and more likely to occur.
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Generalization and Discrimination
Pavlov also investigated the effects of a stimulus different from the original stimulus.
Pavlov discovered that if the dog was tested with tones of somewhat higher or lower
frequency, these new conditioned stimuli also elicited the conditioned response. When
an organism that has been conditioned to respond to one stimulus responds to similar
stimuli that have not been paired with the original US, we encounter a phenomenon
known as stimulus generalization.
The greater the similarity between the original CS and the other stimuli, the more likely
we are to respond to those stimuli in place of the original stimulus. Stimulus
generalization may be viewed as a very primitive form of categorization, or the
treatment of similar events as identical because of shared properties.
Classical conditioning can also teach subjects to discriminate between stimuli. When an
organism responds differentially to previous generalized stimuli, we say that the
organism has learned a stimulus discrimination. In a discrimination experiment of
Pavlov, a dog generalizes two conditioned stimuli, such as a tone and a light, each paired
with food (US). After a period, food is withheld for one stimulus, light. The dog learns
not to salivate for the withheld stimulus.
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Figure below shows the course of conditioning, extinction, and reconditioning,

spontaneous recovery after a rest period, with the help of vertical arrows.
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Pavlov varied his experiments to find out how strong the conditioned response was. He
found that if the CS is presented several times without UCS, the CR will diminish and
eventually stop occurring. This process is called extinction. A dog has learned to salivate
to a bell (CS) will eventually stop doing so unless presentations of the bell are
periodically followed by presentations of food (UCS).
But extinction should not be equated with the loss of the conditioned response. It only
inhibits the CR, it does not eliminate it. This can be easily demonstrated by a
phenomenon known as spontaneous recovery. If the dog is returned to the
experimental environment an hour or two after extinction first occurred and is then
presented with the CS, the CR will reappear spontaneously. Although the magnitude of
the response does not return to the level reached before extinction and extinguishes
faster than it did originally. Thus, after spontaneous recovery the dog’s salivation to the
bell will be weaker and subject to faster extinction than it was originally.
3.5.2 Applications of Classical Conditioning
Emotional responses important in human life are conditioned to certain stimuli. Many of
our subjective feelings are conditioned responses. A scene, a face, a voice may be the
conditioned stimulus for an emotional response. Since some emotional responses to
stimuli are learned, perhaps they can be unlearned. Or perhaps other, less disturbing
responses can be associated with the stimuli that produce unpleasant emotional
responses. The extinction and alteration of disturbing emotional responses by classical
conditioning is one form of behavior modification.
3.6 OPERANT CONDITIONING
Involuntary responses elicited by particular stimuli constitute only a small part of an

organism’s behavior. Much of the behavior of animals as well as humans is voluntary.
We already made a distinction between respondent and operant behavior. Operant
behavior produces consequence for the organism. To understand the complex interplay
of voluntary responses and their consequences that characterize our natural
environment, we have to explain the second major form of learning known as Operant,
or Instrumental conditioning.
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The discovery of operant conditioning is often attributed to Thorndike (1898). After

conducting numerous experiments with animals Thorndike concluded that the
development of connections between stimulus and response resulted from a process of
trial and error. Thorndike’s most significant contribution to learning was his formulation
of the law of effect, which states that a behavior followed by a satisfying state of affairs
is strengthened and a behavior followed by an annoying state of affairs is weakened.
Since Thorndike studied the process by which behaviors are instrumental in bringing
about certain consequences, the process became known as instrumental conditioning.
3.6.1 Principles of Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner (1986), perhaps the best known psychologist was inspired by the work of
Thorndike, and credited with the development of the fundamental principles of Operant
Conditioning. Skinner called instrumental conditioning Operant Conditioning, because
animals and people learn to ‘operate’ on the environment to produce desired
consequences, instead of just responding reflexively to stimuli.
Positive Reinforcement
The key concept in operant conditioning is reinforcement. Whereas classical

conditioning is concerned with the association between two stimuli, operant condition
deals with the association between a response and its consequences, i.e. reinforcement.
A reinforcer is a consequence of a behavior that increases the likelihood that the
behavior will occur again. In positive reinforcement a behavior that is followed by the
presentation of a desirable stimulus becomes more likely to occur in the future. Skinner
called the desirable stimulus a positive reinforcer.
Learning theorists distinguish between two types of reinforcement: primary and

secondary. A primary reinforcer is biological and unlearned, such as food, water,
oxygen, and sleep. In contrast, a secondary reinforcer is learned and becomes
reinforcing by being associated with a primary reinforcer. Secondary reinforcers do not
have intrinsic reinforcing properties; their reinforcing values are learned through
experience. Money is a good example of a secondary reinforcer.
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Negative Reinforcement
In negative reinforcement a behavior that brings about the removal of an aversive

stimulus becomes more likely to occur in future. A negative reinforcer is a stimulus or
event which when its termination is contingent on a response, increases the likelihood
that the response will occur again. This form of negative reinforcement is called escape
learning— learning to end something aversive. Another form of negative reinforcement
called avoidance learning— learning to prevent something aversive. Thus, in escape
learning the aversive stimulus itself is removed while in avoidance learning the
emotional distress caused by anticipation of that stimulus is removed.
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Extinction in operant conditions simply involves non reinforcement of a previously

reinforced response. Withholding reinforcement sooner or later leads to a reduction in the
frequency of responding until the subject completely ceases to respond.
As with classical conditioning, a behavior that has been subjected to extinction can show
spontaneous recovery- it can reappear after a period of time. Psychiatric patients, for
instance who had their maladaptive behavior extinguished and replaced with more
socially acceptable forms, still revert occasionally to their inappropriate behavior.
Punishment
Punishment is another way of reducing the probability of behaviors, in which the

consequence of a behavior decreases its likelihood. Punishment is a learning procedure
in which responses are followed by aversive events in an attempt to decrease their
frequency. The most characteristic feature of punishment is to reduce, at least
temporarily the strength of the response that is being punished.
Both punishment and negative reinforcement are aversive events. Negative

reinforcement increases the probability of a behavior by removing something
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undesirable as a consequence of that behavior. Punishment decreases the probability of

a behavior by presenting something undesirable as a consequence of that behavior.
A variety of punishments can be used to decrease undesirable behavior. Spanking,

reprimands, threats or humiliation are relatively common means of suppressing
behavior. Though punishment can be an effective means of reducing undesirable
behaviors, it is often ineffective. Some of the effective ways of using punishment to
discipline children are as follows
First, punishment for misbehavior should be immediate so that child will associate the
punishment with the misbehavior.
Second, punishment should be strong enough to stop the undesirable behavior but not
excessive.
Third, punishment should be consistent. If parents truly want to reduce a child’s

misbehavior, they must punish the child each time it occurs.
Fourth, punishment should be aimed at the misbehavior, not at the child.
Fifth, punishing undesirable behavior merely suppresses the behavior and tells the child
what not to do. To make sure that the child learns what to do, positive reinforcement of
desirable behavior must be given.
3.6.2 APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
B.F Skinner (1986) claimed that many of our everyday problems could be solved by
more use of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is capable of solving many of
our day-to-day problems in practical situations. For example consider the role of
teaching young ones the rules of the road or traffic rules to avoid accident and injury in
life. Operant conditioning is effective in teaching people follow traffic rules and wear
helmet while riding and put seat belt while driving are some of the real life applications
that can help in leading safe and secure life-style. Following are some of the areas of its
application:
In educational field
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To improve the classroom performance of students, teachers can use positive

reinforcements. They can use verbal praise to increase participation in class room
discussions. Positive reinforcements, in the form of token economies, have been used to
promote desirable classroom behavior. In a token economy, teachers use tokens to
reward students for appropriate conduct and academic performance. The students then
use the tokens to purchase items such as toys or privileges such as extra recess time.
Token economies have been used to decrease television watching by children, increase
reading by students, and improve social skills in mentally retarded adults.
The most distinctive contribution of operant conditioning to education has been

programmed instructions. The credit for developing programmed instruction is given to
B.F Skinner for his invention of a teaching machine that takes the student through a
series of questions related to a particular subject. It is a step by step approach in which a
learner proceeds at his or her own pace through more and more difficult material and
receives immediate knowledge of the results each response.
Computer assisted instructions, in which computers are used to provide programmed

instructions, is a descendent of Skinner’s programmed instructions. Computer programs
provide extra help on items that the students find difficult to master. Though teaching
machines and computers have not replaced teachers, they have added another teaching
tool to the classroom. Computer assisted instruction has proved useful with students,
physically disabled mentally retarded or intellectually gifted.
1. Discuss two principles of classical conditioning.
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2. What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement in operant

conditioning?
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3. Respondent behaviour is a reflex evoked by a stimulus. True/False
4. Operant behaviour is voluntary. True/False
5. Reflexes are not innate, spontaneous responses. True/False
6. Discuss the application of operant conditioning in educational field in 6-7 lines.
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3.7 LEARNING DISABILITIES
A learning disability is a condition in which a person shows inadequate development in a

specific area of academic, language, speech or motor skills that is not due to mental
retardation, autism, a demonstrable physical or neurological disorder, or deficient
educational opportunity. People with this disorder are usually of average or above
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average intelligence but have difficulty learning some specific skills and thus their
progress in school is impeded.
3.7.1 CRITERIA
DSM-IV-TR Criteria for Learning Disability
 Achievement in reading, mathematics, or written expression below levels

expected given the person’s age schooling, and intelligence.
 Significant interference with academic performance or activities of daily living.
3.7.2 CATEGORIES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
The term learning disabilities is not used by DSM-IV-TR but is used by most health
professionals. They group together three disorders that do appear in DSM-IV-TR, these
are— learning disorders, communication disorders, and motor skills disorder. Any of
these disorders may apply to a child who fails to develop to the degree expected by his
or her intellectual levels in a specific academic or language or motor skill area. Learning
disabilities are usually identified and treated within the school system rather than
through mental health clinics.
These disorders are slightly more common in boys than in girls. Though individuals with
learning disabilities usually find ways to cope with their problems, their academic and
social development is nonetheless affected, sometimes quite seriously.
(1) Learning Disorders
DSM-IV-TR divides learning disorders into three categories: Reading disorder,

Mathematics disorder, and disorder of written expression. None of these diagnoses is
appropriate if the disability is on account of a sensory deficit such as visual or auditory.
 Children with reading disorder, better known as dyslexia, have significant

difficulty with word recognition, reading comprehension, and with written
spelling as well. When reading orally they omit, add or distort the pronunciation
of words to an unusual extent for their age. In adulthood, the problems with
fluent oral reading, comprehension and written spelling can persist. This
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disorder, present in 5 to 10 school age children, does not preclude great

achievement.
 Disorder of written expression describes an impairment in the ability to
compose the written word including spelling errors, errors in grammar and
punctuation, and very poor handwriting. This is serious enough to interfere
significantly with academic achievement or daily activities that require writing
skills.
 In mathematics disorder the child may have difficulty recognizing numerical
symbols, remembering to add in carried numbers, and counting objects or
following sequences of mathematical steps. Children with this disorder may also
have difficulty rapidly and accurately recalling arithmetic facts, counting objects
correctly and quickly, and aligning numbers in columns.
(2) Communication Disorders
Several categories of communication disorders have been distinguished:
 In Expressive language disorder, the child has difficulty expressing itself in

speech. The child may seem eager to communicate but have difficulty finding the
right words, for example he may be unable to come up with the word ‘car’ when
pointing to a car passing by on the street. By age 4, this child speaks only in short
phrases. Old words are forgotten when new ones are learned, and the use of
grammatical structures is considerably below age level.
 Unlike children who have trouble finding words, youngsters with phonological
disorder comprehend and are able to use a substantial vocabulary, but their
speech is not clear and sounds like baby talk. ‘Blue’ comes out ‘Bu’ and ‘rabbit’
sounds like ‘Wabbit’. They have not learned articulation of the speech sounds
such as r, sh, th, f, z, l, and ch. With speech therapy complete recovery occurs in
almost all cases, and milder cases may recover spontaneously by age 8.
 Third communication disorder is stuttering. It is a disturbance in verbal fluency
that is characterized by one or more of the following speech patterns: frequent
repetitions or prolongations of sounds, long pauses between words, substituting
easy words for those that present in articulating and repeating whole words.
Sometimes bodily twitching and eye blinking accompany the verbal problems.
Stuttering can interfere with academic, social, and occupational functioning and
can prevent otherwise capable persons from fulfilling their potential. It is
frequently worse when the person is nervous and often improves or even
disappears when the person sings. About three times as many males than females
have the problem, which usually shows up at around age 5 and almost always
before the age of 10. DSM-IV-TR estimates that up to 80 percent of people with
stuttering recover, most of them without professional intervention, before the age
of 16.
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(3) Motor Skills Disorder
In motor skills disorder children show marked impairment in the development of
motor co-ordination that is not explainable by mental retardation or cerebral palsy.
The young child may have difficulty tying shoe laces and buttoning shirts and
when older, with building models, playing ball, and printing or hand writing. The
diagnosis is made only if the impairment interferes significantly with academic
achievement or with the activities of daily living.
1. What is the DSM-IV-TR criteria of learning disability? Write in the space below.
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2. List out different categories of learning disabilities in the space provided.
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3. Reading disorder is also known as Dyslexia. True/False
4. In phonological disorder speech is clear. True/False
5. Stuttering is a disorder related to-
(a) Motor coordination (b) Verbal fluency
(c) Grammar (d) Word recognition
3.8 LET’S SUM UP
Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior resulting from

experience. Two basic models of learning are classical and operant conditioning. In
classical conditioning two stimuli, such as a noise and food, are paired until both the
noise and the food elicit a reaction (salivation) that was previously linked only with the
food. Classical conditioning applies primarily to involuntary, reflexive behavior. Operant
conditioning requires that the organism first make a response in order to experience
some consequences. Conditioning occurs when a response is consistently followed by a
reinforcing event.
In addition to being reinforced positively, operant behavior can be brought under the
control of aversive stimuli, or negative reinforcement. This allows for the conditioning of
avoidance and escape and the suppression of behavior through the use of punishment.
Both classical and operant conditioning shares a number of phenomena such as
extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, and discrimination. To learn
effectively, an organism must learn to notice similarities as well as distinctive features of
the environment. The processes occurring in both classical and operant learning are
similar, despite considerable procedural differences.
Learning disabilities are diagnosed when a child fails to develop to the degree expected
by his or her intellectual level in a specific academic, language, or motor skill area.
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Learning disorders, communication disorders, and motor skills disorder are all referred
to by mental health professionals as learning disabilities. These disorders are usually
identified and treated within the school system rather than through mental health
clinics.
1. Suppose you are a teacher in a school and you wish to find out the impact of the
positive and negative reinforcement on the performance of students. Write in
detail the plan and procedure of doing it.
2. Visit a school in your area and identify children with learning disabilities with
the help of the class teacher.
3.9 FURTHER READINGS
Axelrod, S., and Apsche, J. (1983). The Effects of Punishment on Human Behavior. San
Diego: Academic Press.
Bower, G.H., and Hilgard, E.R. (1981). Theories of Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Davey, G. (1987). Cognitive Processes and Pavlovian Conditioning in Humans. New York:
Wiley.
Pavlov, I.P (1927). Conditioned Reflexes. Mineola, NY: Dover.
Skinner, B.F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Thorndike, E.L. (1931/1970). Human Learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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UNIT 4 MEMORY
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Memory Processes
4.3.1 Encoding Process
4.3.2 Storage Process
4.3.3 Retrieval Process
4.4 Memory Systems
4.4.1 Sensory Memory
4.4.2 Short- term Memory
4.4.3 Long- term Memory
4.5 Methods of Measurement
4.5.1 Recall
4.5.2 Recognition
4.5.3 Relearning
4.6 Improving Memory
4.7 Forgetting
4.8 Theories of Forgetting
4.8.1 Decay theory
4.8.2 Interference Theory
4.8.3 Motivation Theory
4.8.4 Cue-Dependence Theory
4.9 Lets Sum Up

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Further Readings
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Both language and cognitive integration require memory. A person with a deficient
memory becomes lost in his or her environment or, lives with a shattered mind. People
can learn a remarkable number of things. We can learn languages and mathematical
equations. We can learn to repair cars and stereo equipment. We can learn to balance
our check book and prepare our income tax return. All this learning would, of course, be
useless if we could not remember it. In this unit we shall examine the processes and
structures that account for memory and forgetting.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
 Explain the stages of memory through which it gets concretized.

 Discuss various types of systems of memory.
 Elaborate methods of measuring memory.
 Suggest ways and means of improving memory.
 Define forgetting and explaining its usefulness.
 Explain theories of forgetting.
4.3 MEMORY PROCESSES
Memory is a process by which information is acquired, stored in the brain, and later
retrieved. Memory serves several functions. First, as William James noted a century ago,
memory provides our consciousness with its continuity. Second, memory enables us to
adapt to situations by letting us call on skills and information gained from our relevant
past experiences. Your abilities to drive a car and to perform well on an exam all depend
on memory. Third, memory enriches our emotional lives. Your memory lets you re-
experience moments from your past.
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There are three basic processes- encoding, storage, and retrieval. These processes can
be thought of as the ‘three Rs’ of remembering: recording (encoding), retaining
(storage), and retrieving.
4.3.1 Encoding Process
Encoding is the process of receiving sensory input and transforming it into a form, or
code, which can be stored. Encoding, then, is the process by which information in the
form of physical energy from the environment is translated into some more suitable
state for memory storage. For example, as you listen to a lecture you do not remember
every word but encode the essential features of the material. By encoding we convert
information into a form that ismeaningful and easily retained. We easily encode most
everyday events into our memory. However, the effectiveness of encoding depends on
the type of material we are trying to retain. Some information is encoded much better
than other material, for instance historical dates and chemical formulas are difficult to
remember, while poems and pictures are considered easier to remember.
4.3.2 Storage Process
The second memory process, storage is the process of actually putting coded
information into memory. It refers to the holding or retention of encoded information
while it is not being used. Thus storage involves the maintenance of information over
time.
4.3.3 Retrieval Process
Retrieval is the process of gaining access to stored, coded information when it is

needed. It refers to the active search for stored information. Given that a certain
memory has survived the passage of time and is available in storage, we need to gain
access to it in order to retrieve it. Memory can be retrieved from either short term
memory (STM) or long term memory (LTM). Getting information out of STM, is not
difficult, but searching for and locating specific information in LTM is sometimes a
problem because the information is not always stored in an orderly way. Occasionally
retrieval, like encoding, is automatic and effortless, especially if the material has been
well learned.
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4.4 MEMORY SYSTEMS
Memory research, during the past three decades has been driven by the ‘cognitive
revolution’ in psychology, which views the mind as an information processor. This is
reflected in the most influential model of memory, developed by Richard Atkinson and
Richard Shiffrin (1968). In this ‘information processing’ theory the human memory
system is divided into three different components: sensory memory or register, short
term memory, and long term memory.
4.4.1 Sensory Memory
The first component in our memory system is a short term sensory information store or
sensory memory that receives information from our various sense receptors. It has been
observed in the visual, tactile, and auditory modalities. Sensory memory refers to the
brief retention of raw, unprocessed information. Sensory memory lasts for a brief period
from less than one second to as long as four seconds or more. This is adaptive, because
it lets us hold information long enough to attend to it for further processing. When you
attend to information in sensory memory it is transferred to short term memory.
Information can be held for a very brief time in the sensory channel themselves. This
storage function of the sensory channels is called the sensory register. Most of the
information briefly held in the sensory register is lost, what has been briefly stored
simply decays from the register. However, we pay attention to and recognize some of
the information in the sensory register, when we do this, the attendant to information is
passed on to STM for further processing. Various experiments have shown that the
visual sensory register holds information for up to about one second, while the auditory
register holds information somewhat longer up to about four or five seconds. Studies
with the visual sensory register have also shown that it can hold at least eleven to
sixteen items of information during the second before it loses the information through
decay. Furthermore, in vision the sensory storage is in the form of a faint image, called
an iconic image, which is a copy of the visual input. It is this iconic image that persists in
the visual sensory register for a second before it gradually decays. The relationship
between the three components of human memory system is diagrammed in the figure
below:
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4.4.2 Short- Term Memory (STM)
The next memory store is short term memory, which stores information for about
twenty seconds. Remembering a telephone number for at least as long as we need to
dial it illustrate the operation of short term memory.
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The most important characteristic of STM is its limited storage capacity. Miller (1956)
suggested that this capacity is about 7 items for most people. To increase the limited
capacity of STM, we can employ a process that Miller called chunking. Chunking consists
of grouping separate bits of information. For example, the number 4289643 is more
easily retained if it is chunked as 428, 96, 43. Without skills in chunking we could not
recall strings of more than seven digits or, for that matter, sentences of more than
seven words.
Information stored in STM decays very quickly, usually in less than 30 seconds unless we
rehearse the material. Rehearsal consists of repeating the information over an over.
Items in STM must be periodically rehearsed or they will fade away. Our short term
memory is a working memory where information is being held temporarily while it is
being rehearsed, recoded and related to past knowledge.
4.4.3 Long- Term Memory (LTM)
Information that is rehearsed may then be passed along to long- term memory,
information not so processed is lost. When items of information are placed in long term
memory, they are organized into categories, where they may reside for days, months,
years, or for a life time. When you remember something, the item is withdrawn or
retrieved from long term memory.
The characteristics of LTM are quite different from sensory memory or STM. LTM can
survive many assaults on the activity of the brain or long periods of coma. The fact that
memory remains intact for many years without apparent rehearsal of information,
suggests a structural change of some permanence in the brain.
The long term memory stored has been compared to a filing cabinet, whereas the STM
store is like an in-basket on an office desk. The in-basket has limited storage capacity
when the basket is filled it has to be emptied out to make room for more. Some of the
material will be thrown out; other material will be filled in the large cabinet. Nothing
can be put into the large fileout; other material will be filled in the large cabinet.
Nothing can be put into the large file cabinet without first going through the in-basket.
In the same way, information received by the STM is continually being processed into
the more permanent LTM store. This transformation process, which is not under
voluntary control, is called consolidation.
4.5 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

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Psychologists study human memory by observing people perform memory tasks. There
are three principal ways to measure memory. We can ask a person whether he or she
remembers something, we can ask the person to select previously learned items from a
larger group of items, or we can measure how fast the person learns material a second
time. These approaches are referred to as recall, recognition, and relearning
respectively.
4.5.1 Recall
Recall is the process of remembering learned association without the benefit of extra
cues. Thus recall is the mental revival of past experiences. The ability to remember your
date of birth or experiences from early childhood is an example of recall. In college,
recall is the task you are given in an essay exam. However, recall is not a very reliable
index of recognition, for often an item that cannot be recalled at a given moment is still
retained and is recalled sometime later on.
The act of recalling is a response to a stimulus. When acquisition or learning takes place
a stimulus and response occur together and get associated. At the time of recall, the
stimulus tends to evoke the same response with which it was associated previously.
Recall may be tested in two ways. In free recall the person is asked to reproduce the
material from memory without any cues. In cued recall the person is presented with a
special cue such as the first letter of the word to be recalled.
4.5.2 Recognition
The second procedure for studying memory is recognition. In recognition we perceive

that something is familiar, that we have encountered it before. It is easier and is often a
more sensitive measure of retention and recall. Recognition is the ability to look at
several things and select the one that the individual has seen or learned before.
In a recognition test the person is required to identify items previously learned or

experienced. Multiple-choice exams illustrate the recognition task. Recognition is
usually easier than recall since we do not have to search our minds for the information.
The principle that recognition is easier than recall is not only reflected in the comment
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“I’ll know it when I see it” but also explains apparent preference of some students for
multiple-choice test over essay examination.
Remembering something that one has learned by the recognition method often requires
less effort on the part of the individual than remembering by recall. Memory by
recognition can last for many years in the life of an individual. Brain-imaging studies
have discovered that the hippocampus plays an extensive role in memory tasks
involving recognition, and the degree of hippocampus activity varies with the exact
nature of the task.
The characteristic difference between the recall and recognition is that in the case of
recognition the object or the name of the object is in front of the individual for
perception while in the case of recall it is not. In recall the individual has to search in his
memory for the object. Recall is an active process. Recognition is, at least apparently,
more passive than recall.
4.5.3 Re-learning
Re-learning is the process by which something previously learned is later learned again.
If we learn material faster the second time than the first time, we show that we have
some memory of the material. Relearning is a common experience among adults who
learned a foreign language in childhood. They may not be able to recall any of the
language or even recognize many of the words. However, as they begin to study the
language again, they find that vocabulary and grammar come back to them rather
easily. Information that is not available for recall may nevertheless be accessible by
recognition or relearning.
Re-learning is sometimes also called the ‘savings method’. In this method retention is
expressed as the percentage of time saved when material is relearned compared with
the time required to learn the material originally. The savings score reflects how much
material remains in long term memory.
The percentage saving can be found out by the formula:
Original trials – Re-learning trials

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____________________________
Original trials
Experimental studies have demonstrated that in relearning an individual usually learns

faster than he did the first time.
4.6 IMPROVING MEMORY
Different psychological researches have focused on a number of basic principles that

help in memory improvement, these are: meaningfulness, organization, association, and
visualization. Many students are aware of some of these principles when memorizing.
They try various techniques to recode the material, reorganize it, give it meaning or in
some way make sense of it. It is useful to know how these principles work.
Meaningfulness affects memory at all levels. Information that does not make sense is
difficult to remember. There are several ways in which we can make material more
meaningful. Many people, for instance learn a rhyme to help them remember. Making
up acronyms by taking the first letters of the item to be remembered may also increase
their meaningfulness. An acronym most school children learn is VIBGYOR, composed of
the first letters of each of the seven colors of the rainbow: violet, indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange and red.
Organization also makes a difference in our ability to remember. How would a library be
useful if the books were shelved in random order? Material that is better organized is
easier to remember than those that are jumbled up. One example of organization that is
already described is chunking. Categorizing, grouping by first letters, and sequencing are
other means of organization. Suppose you are asked to remember the following list of
words: man, rose, dog, pansy, woman, horse, child, cat, carnation. The best way to
remember the name would be to put similar words in one category and recall them
during the test.
Association refers to relating the material to something we remember accurately. In

memorizing an unfamiliar number, you might try to associate it with familiar numbers or
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events. Associations can occur in the form of analogies, metaphors, comparisons, or

contrasts, all of which can aid us in remembering.
Visualization is one of the important principles to help in improving memory.

Researchers have revealed improvements in memory tasks when people are asked to
visualize the items to be remembered. In one study, subjects in one group were asked
to learn some words using imagery, while the second group used repetition to learn the
words. Results have shown that those using imagery recalled an average of 80 to 90
percent of the words, compared with 30 to 40 percent words for those who memorized
by repetition. Thus forming an integrated image with all the information placed in a
single mental picture can help us to preserve memory.
Chain technique is another relevant method to improve memory. We can construct

chains by selecting cue words under the following rules:
a. The cue word must be one that will help to recall the sentence from which it is
chosen.
b. All the cue words must be easily linked together to form a chain.
The chain method emphasizes the continuity of cue words and links them together in
such a way that each cue word provides a recall cue for the next cue word in the chain.
The number of cue words used to build a chain depends on both familiarity with the
material and the length of the material to be remembered.
Memory Tricks
To memorize detailed, and unfamiliar information people seem to have only two
alternatives: either learn it by rote until the material becomes familiar enough by sheer
repetition or transfer it into a different memory code that is easier to work with.
The art of applying memory devices is called mnemonics. Mnemonic techniques are
simple mental tricks, such as rhymes or visual images that help us to improve memory.
The oldest mnemonic trick known is the ‘method of loci’ which can be used in practical
task such as remembering important dates for a history exam. A student might imagine
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a systematic walk from one distinctive campus land mark to another: from the
gymnasium to the dormitory to the classroom, then to the library, and the computer
center. To learn a series of ordered historical dates, the student imagines a date at each
successive occasion. To recall the series of dates, the student would take an imaginary
walk across campus, remembering each date in its appropriate place.
Another popular mnemonic device is known as the pegword system. It involves

associating items to be recalled with objects that rhyme with the numbers 1, 2, 3 and so
on, to make the items easier to recall. The image of the pegword object and the image
of the object to be recalled should interact rather than just be paired with each other.
To recall an item, you would simply imagine the pegword that is paired with a particular
number, which would act as a cue for retrieving the image of the object that interacted
with that pegword. This system has the advantage that the learner can recall any item
without necessarily starting from the beginning of the list.
Link method is another mnemonic device that makes use of imagery. It involves
connecting images of items to be memorized in sequence, to make them easier to recall.
In this method usually items are connected to one another in a story.
Mnemonic devices have their limitations. They are of little use in integrating knowledge
from diverse sources and to make critical judgment. They are excellent for learning
strings of unrelated words, but are not helpful in remembering the sort of information
we require in daily life.
1. What are the basic processes of memory? Define every process in 3-4 lines.
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2. What do you understand by sensory memory? Elaborate in the space provided.
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3. To increase the capacity of short-term memory we can employ:
a. Rehearsal b. Chunking
c. Sensory register d. None of the above
4. Relearning is also called:
a. Recall b. Recognition
c. Saving d. Consolidation
5. Memory can be improved through-
a. Meaningfulness b. Association
c. Organization d. All the above
4.7 FORGETTING
The term forgetting refers to the apparent loss of information already encoded in long
term memory. Much is forgotten, but enough endures so that we have a record of our
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lives. Much of what we think we have forgotten does not really qualify as forgotten
because it was never encoded and stored in the first place. Some information, due to
lack of attention may not have reached short term memory from the sensory memory,
or due to inadequate encoding andreached short term memory from the sensory
memory, or due to inadequate encoding and rehearsal, the information may not have
been transferred from short term to long term memory.
According to William James (1890), if we remembered every thing we should on most

occasions be as ill off as if we remembered nothing. James believed that forgetting is
adaptive because it rids us of useless information that might impair our recall of useful
information.
The first formal research on forgetting was conducted by the German psychologist
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885 / 1913). He studied memory by repeating lists of items over
and over until he could recall them in order perfectly. The items he used were called
nonsense syllables (consisting of a vowel between two consonants such as RIT) because
they were not real words. He used nonsense syllables instead of words because he
wanted a ‘pure’ measure of memory, unaffected by prior associations with real words.
Ebbinghaus found that immediate recall is worse for items in the middle of a list than for
those at the beginning and end of a list. This differential forgetting is called the serial-
position effect. The better memory for items at the beginning of a list is called the
primacy effect, and the better memory for items at the end of a list is called the recency
effect.
The primacy effect seems to occur because the items at the beginning of the list are
subjected to more rehearsal as the learner memorizes the list, firmly placing those items
in long term memory. And the recency effect seems to occur because items at the end
of the list remain readily accessible in short term memory. In contrast, items in the
middle of the list are neither firmly placed in long term memory nor readily accessible in
short term memory.
4.8 THEORIES OF FORGETTING

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Over the past years psychologist have devoted considerable efforts to the study of
forgetting in an attempt to explain some of the factors responsible for forgetting. The
rates of forgetting are different for STM and LTM. Information in STM is much more
rapidly forgotten than information in LTM. Research on memory also indicates that we
do not forget at a constant rate, instead most forgetting occurs shortly after we have
learned some thing. Several explanations have been offered for why we forget. Let us
briefly discuss some of the interpretations.
4.8.1 Decay Theory
One of the oldest explanations for forgetting is that memories decay over time. Decay
theory suggests that memories leave some physical trace in the brain that gradually
fades away and eventually is permanently lost. Unfortunately, decay theory can not
explain why we are occasionally able to remember things we have previously been
unable to recall. Also, studies of older people have shown that some memories are
reasonably permanent and show little decay over time. Often an old person accurately
remembers events that occurred much earlier in life, while forgetting many of the more
recent experiences.
4.8.2 Interference Theory
The most powerful explanation of forgetting is interference theory. This theory assumes
that forgetting results from particular memories’ interfering with the retrieval of other
memories. We forget because other similar material that we have learned interferes
with the recall of the material we want to remember.
There are two main sources of interference: proactive and retroactive interference.
In proactive interference old memories interfere with the ability to remember new
memories. In a proactive interference experiment, experimental subjects are required
to learn list A, a second list B, and then are tested for recall of list B. A control group is
required only to learn list B and be tested.
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The experimental model looks as follows:
Table 1: The Proactive Interference Model
Experimental Treatment
Group Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Experimental Learn A Learn B Recall B
Control Rest Learn B Recall B
The studies of this type have revealed that that the experimental subjects have greater
difficulties in recall than the control subjects. In this case the material learned in list A
interferes with the recall of list B.
In Retroactive Interference theory it is found that interference can also be produced by

material that you learned after the acquisition of the target information. Suppose you
met a two group of people in a gap of a week’s time and later try to recall the name of
the first group of people you met a week ago, you may find that the names of the
second group of people whom you met recently try to interfere in recall. Psychologists
refer to this type of interference as retroactive and test it with the help of following
model:
Table 2: The Retroactive Interference Model
Experimental Treatment
Group Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
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Experimental Learn A Learn B Recall A
Control Learn A Rest Recall A
Here, too, the recall of experimental subjects is typically poorer than that of control
subjects. Retroactive interference, produced in Phase 2, has a detrimental effect on the
recall of material learned in Phase 1. Thus forgetting is caused by information learned
after the test material.
4.8.3 Motivation Theory
Sigmund Freud (1901/1965) explained the concept of motivated forgetting. He claimed

that we can forget experiences through repression, the process by which emotionally
threatening experiences, such as witnessing a murder, are banished from the conscious
mind to the unconscious mind. Evidences suggest that we are more motivated to forget
emotionally upsetting experiences than other kinds of experiences.
To demonstrate motivated forgetting an experiment was conducted, in which subjects

were to demonstrate motivated forgetting an experiment was conducted, in which
subjects were shown one of two versions of a training film for bank teller that depicted
a simulated bank robbery. When asked to recall details of the robbery, subjects who had
seen the violent version had poorer recall of the details of the crime than did subjects
who had seen the non-violent version. The explanation is that the content of the violent
version motivated subjects to forget what they had seen. However, in some cases
memory of traumatic events will be superior to memory of ordinary events.
4.8.4 Cue-Dependence Theory
Forgetting can sometimes be explained by the failure to have or to use adequate

retrieval cues because the retrieval of long term memory depends on these cues. For
example, odors that we associate with an event can aid our recall of it. This is known as
cue- dependence theory. At times we might fail to find an adequate cue to activate the
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relevant portion of a semantic memory network. Consider the tip-of-the-tongue

phenomenon that refers to the inability to recall information that one knows has been
stored in long term memory. William James (1890/1981) noted this a century ago. The
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is universal, increases with age, and occurs about once a
week for the typical person.
1. What is forgetting? How is it useful to us? Write in the space provided.
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2. Define decay theory of forgetting? Write in 5-6 lines.
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3. Better memory for items at the beginning of a list is called primacy effect. (True/False)
4. In retroactive interference old memories interfere with new memories. (True/False)

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5. In motivated forgetting, we can forget experience through repression. (True/False)
6. Tip of the tongue phenomenon is the example of interference theory. (True/False)
4.9 LET’S SUM UP
Memory refers to the encoding, storage and retrieval of information. These three are
the cognitive processes, in which, encoding is the process of receiving sensory input and
transforming it into a code that can be stored. Storage is the process of actually putting
the coded information into memory. Retrieval is the process of gaining access to the
encoded, stored information when it is to be used.
In the Atkinson- Shiffrin information processing theory, it is assumed that memory

processing involves the stages of sensory, short term, and long term memory. The
sensory register holds sensory information for a few second, has a relatively large
capacity, stores a copy of the sensory input and loses information through a process
involving the decay of the memory trace. Items in the sensory memory that are
attended to and recognized may be passed along to short term memory.
Short term memory (STM) is called working memory because we use it to manipulate
information provided by either sensory or long term memory (LTM). It holds about
seven items or chunks for a short period of 30 seconds or so. The type of information
stored consists of sounds, images, words, or sentences. Information is lost by decay and
displacement of information. Information in STM may be transferred to LTM through
either maintenance or elaborative rehearsals.
Memories stored in LTM are relatively permanent. The capacity of LTM has no known
limit. Memories of specific things that have happened, the meanings of words and the
rules for using them, are stored in LTM. Information may be lost, or at least not
retrieved from LTM because of difficulties with the search process or because of
interference by other long term memories.
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Certain basic principles can help us remember: meaningfulness, organization,

association and visualization. In addition, a number of memory tricks have been
recommended to help us combat forgetting. Mnemonic devices are memory aids that
organize material to make it easier to recall. These mnemonic devices imply that we do
not actually remember, instead, we remember how to remember.
Forgetting refers to the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in long
term memory. How much is forgotten depends on many factors. Several explanations
for forgetting have been advanced. One suggests that the strength of the memory trace
decays overtime. Interference theory explains forgetting in terms of either proactive or
retroactive interference. The other theories of forgetting are motivation theory and cue-
dependence theory.
1. Prepare a chart to show methods of measurement of memory. The chart should

be prepared in such a manner that it exhibits characteristic features of recall,
recognition and learning.
2. Conduct an experiment on friend to understand different principle of memory
improvement and write in detail which technique is the most effective.
Further Readings
Baddeley, A. (1986). Working Memory, New York: Oxford University Press.

Bartlett, F., C. (1932). Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885/1964). Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. New
York: Dover.
Elizabeth, L. (1980). Memory: Surprising New Insights into How we Remember and Why
We Forget, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Scruggs, T., and Mastropieri, M. (1990). Teaching Students Ways to Remember:
Strategies for Learning Mnemonically. Cambridge: Brookliyn Books.
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UNIT 5 CREATIVITY AND GIFTEDNESS
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Creativity
5.3.1 Characteristics of Creative People
5.3.2 Creativity and Divergent Thinking
5.4 Stages in Creative Thinking
5.4.1 Obstacles to Problem Solving
5.5 Creativity in Adulthood and Elderly
5.6 Creativity and Intelligence
5.7 Giftedness
5.7.1 The Role of Families
5.7.2 Motivational Aspects of Gifted Children
5.7.3 Social and Emotional Lives of Gifted Children
5.7.4 Cognitive Profile of Gifted Children
5.8 The Ends of Giftedness
5.9 Concept of Individual Differences
5.9.1 Taxonomies of Individual Differences
5.9.2 Sources of Individual Differences
5.10 Lets Sum Up
Answers
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Further Readings
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Teachers sometimes get annoyed or irritated with children who do not follow
instructions with regard to writing answers to questions or tend to their own viewpoint
and question teachers methods of solving problems or are unusual in their approach to
study or choice, etc. They can label such children as problem children and refer them to
counselors or complain to their parents. Frequently, such children can be gifted or
creative children. The counselors must be aware of the characteristics of such children
and the way these children behave so that they may be able to guide and help school
teachers understand such children. In this unit you would be introduced to the
characteristics of such children and the ways to identify them.
Creativity and Giftedness are like two states of energy. One is potential energy while the
other is kinetic energy. If creativity is an ability to view things in a different perspective,
then Giftedness is a potential of that ability to look at things in another dimension.
Creativity in art and sciences seems to involve a considerable amount of unconscious
rearrangement of symbols. The creator at first makes little progress, but then, perhaps
triggered by a favorable set of circumstances, anew idea seems to bubble up into
awareness, in a seemingly spontaneous manner. Since the creative thinker becomes
aware of the new idea suddenly, it is said that much of the thought has already gone on
unconsciously. In this unit we shall discuss various aspects and stages of creativity and
giftedness.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
 Define creativity and explain characteristics of creative people

 Explaining types and stages of creative thinking
 Creativity among adult and elderly differentiated and compared with intelligence
 Define Giftedness and find its categories
 Explain role of various factors like family, social environment etc on Giftedness
 Discuss reasons for end of creativity
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5.3 CREATIVITY
Creativity refers to the ability to see things in a new, unusual light. It is the anti-thesis of
routine, stereotyped pattern of thinking. It gets expressed in many ways. Most
definitions of creativity include novelty, spontaneity and the production of rare or
unusual ideas or objects.
Creativity cannot be defined by a specific set of features it has a ‘fuzzy borders’ we may
be able to identify creative persons by their accomplishments without being able to
identify exactly what makes one creative. Psychologists generally define creativity, as a
form of which is divergent problem solving characterized by finding solutions that are
novel, as well as useful or socially valuable.
Unlike ordinary and solutions Creative solutions are routine solutions that other people
have not thought of before. The product of creative thinking may be a new and unique
way of conceptualizing the world around us. The emphasis in creative thinking is on the
words ‘new’ and useful.
Creative thinking in the arts and sciences involves a considerable amount of unconscious
rearrangement of symbols. The thinker at first seems to make little progress, but then
triggered by continues contemplation going on unconsciously circumstances, a new idea
seems to emerge in the awareness in a seemingly spontaneously manner. Because a
creative thinker becomes aware of the new idea suddenly, continuous thinking has been
on unconsciously. The sudden appearance of new ideas is called insight.
5.3.1 Characteristics of Creative People:
Much attention has centered on the personality characteristics of creative individuals.

Creative people are curious and enjoy thinking, they like to manipulate ideas, and they
crave variety. It has been seen that the creative person can tolerate ambiguity and
apparent disorder. Creative people often spend a great deal of time turning problems
over in their mind. They are able to let a problem ‘simmer’ in their heads while turning
attention to other activities. High energy levels and vast output are usually associated
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with creativity.Though the creative people tend to have above average intelligence, they
are not necessarily have to be an intellectual genius to be highly creative. A study of
undergraduates found that their scores on a test of intelligence and a test of creative
thinking correlated .24, indicating a positive, but small relationship between the two
(Rushton, 1990). Creative people also tend to prefer novelty, favor complexity and make
independent judgments. Moreover, they are able to combine different kinds of thinking,
being superior at combining verbal thinking with visual thinking and reality oriented
thinking with imaginative thinking.
The following are the characteristics of creative people:
Commitment towards Problem: In order to be creative, a person should be very much

aware of the problem and the circumstances surrounding the problem without which he
cannot have creative thinking.
Dynamic Thinking: The creative persons thinking reflects and accommodates changes
circumstances.
Divergent Thinking: The most important characteristic of creativity is divergent thinking.

It means openness in thinking that involves continuity, flexibility, originality.
Flexibility: An important characteristic of creativity is flexibility of thinking and behavior.

A creative person is always prepared to adopt new ideas, attitudes or behaviour.
Originality: It is a necessary trait of creativity. A creative person is always prepared to

find new ways of doing things.
Curiosity: Creative persons are highly curious to know new things in any field and are
open to change.
A personality dimension called ‘origence’ (Welch, 1975) has been shown to be related to
creativity. A person high on this dimension resists traditional approach in vogue and
would come out with new ways, even if the same are unacceptable to other. Such a
person is more interested in artistic, literary, and aesthetic matters that are ambiguous
and that allow a more individualized interpretation and expression.
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5.3.2 Creativity and Divergent Thinking
Several attempts have been made to measure creativity in people, constructed and
carefully analyzed. Out of this work came the concepts of convergent and divergent
thinking. Convergent thinking is concerned with a particular end result. The thinker
gathers information relevant to the problem and then proceeds, by using problem
solving rules to work out the right solution. The result of convergent thinking is usually a
solution that has been previously arrived at by someone else. So it focuses on finding
conventional correct solutions to the problems. Creative persons do not believe in
conventional solutions or a single right answer.
The characteristic of divergent thinking is the variety of thoughts involved. It is a

cognitive process by which an individual considers a variety of potential solutions to
problems. Divergent thinking is the hallmark of creativity. However, divergent thinking
includes, does involve some convergent thinking. The creative thinker may use
convergent thinking to gather information and thoughts as building materials for the
ultimate creative solutions. Besides, at times, the creative person may drift into autistic
thinking, wherein some useful ideas are perceived that would have been missed by
concentrating strictly on the problem.
Over emphasis by adults on convergent thinking among children can impair divergent
thinking abilities and, as a result, inhibit creativity. One way of inducing divergent
thinking is brain storming, in which thinkers are encouraged to come up with many
possible solutions to a problem, though there is no guarantee that many solutions
produced by brain-storming will be superior to those produced by more focused
attempts as problem solving.
Divergent thinking can be cultivated by parents and teachers who expose their children
to a wide variety of experiences. Even adults can learn to use divergent thinking.
Divergent thinking is also promoted by positive emotional states and relaxation. When a
person is angry, anxious, or depressed, s/he is more likely to engage in convergent
thinking. Thus, teachers who evoke positive emotions in their students and managers
who evoke positive emotions in their employees may encourage creative academic or
vocational problem solving. Divergent thinking can also be impaired by a loss of sleep
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and the resulting feeling of fatigue, so individuals who must find a creative solution to a
problem should make sure to get enough rest.
5.4 STAGES IN CREATIVE THINKING
The steps involved in creative thinking have been identified researchers through
interviews and questionnaires of outstanding creative thinkers. Though there were
individual differences there was a recurring pattern in the ways creative people thought.
It proceeds in five stages: preparation, incubation,
illumination, evaluation and revision.
(1) Preparation
This is the first stage of creative thinking. Before beginning looking for a solution, the
thinker has to formulate and define a problem. S/he understanding the problem or the
issues connected with problem. The preparatory period is concerned with the
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exploration of the problem and the collection of information about it. It involves
intensive work, concentration and study, characterized by trial and error.
During this phase creative person accumulates all the facts and materials that have a
bearing on the problem.
The problem may cannot be solved in spite of concentrated effort. ‘Usually persons tend
to leave the problem but s/he remains salivated with ideas relating to it.
(2) Incubation
This is the stage when there seems to be little progress in finalising. The persons
unconsciously or consciously reviews systematically the past experiences, knowledge
materials, and resources. This could be the period of frustration and restlessness. The
persons though does not leave hope s/he continues to explore solutions.
(3) Illumination
The incubation stage is followed by the stage of illumination. As a result of the

reorganization of the available knowledge material and resources during the incubation
period, ‘insight’ finally comes with ‘aha’ experience. Many times ‘insight’ comes in a
flash. Insight is an approach to problem solving that depends on mental manipulation of
information rather than on overt trial and error. The thinker suddenly has a hunch and
an idea for the solution suddenly wells up into consciousness. Such moments are
extremely rewarding, marked by feelings of success and accomplishment. The
illumination period is the most dramatic stage of creative thinking.
(4) Evaluation
In the stage of evaluation, the apparent solution is tested to see if it satisfactorily meets
the requirement of being the solution of the problem. Frequently, the insight turns out
to be unsatisfactorily, and the thinker is back, to the exploration. It could happen a
number of times. A creative person is distinguished from other in his persistence and
patience.
(5) Revision
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The process of creative thinking terminates with the stage of revision. The insight is
generally satisfactory but needs some modification. During this stage the creative
people painstakingly evaluate, criticize, test, and polish the solution until it satisfies the
person. A problem is solved when the person successfully undertakes some purposeful
action.
5.4.1 Obstacles to Problem Solving
Many times we encounter obstacles that come the way of solving the problem.
Sometimes emotional reactions of the individual hinder the solution of a problem. For
example, if a person is very upset he may not be able to think clearly at all. Pressure to
solve a problem may make a person flit from one potential solution to another,
anxiously trying to come up with an answer.
Ability to solve problems is hampered by ‘functional fixation’ explains why people gain
or fail to gain insight into problems. Insight is often delayed by fixation on an in
appropriate solution or any particular aspect of the problem. Functional fixation makes
people take a habitual approach to problem solving and overlooking the creative
solution.
Education and past experiences develop inhibitions that make people rigid, which
prevent divergent thinking towards problem solving. Familiar with the use an object
prevents its visualization for other uses.
Conformity is another attitude that works against divergent thinking and novel problem
solutions. The fear of looking foolish and taking risks usually prevents bold and novel
thinking goes with not wanting to be different. Many people hold back an inventive idea
because they are afraid that others may consider it inappropriate.
People are hindered to solve a problem sometimes by a mental set. Mental set is a
tendency to use a particular problem solving strategy that has succeeded in the past but
that may interfere with solving a problem requiring a new strategy. In one study expert
computer programmers and novice computer programmers were given a programming
problem that could be solved by using a simple programming strategy. The results
showed that the novices were more likely to solve the problem, because the experts
tried to use a more sophisticated, but ineffective, strategy that they had adopted during
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their careers as computer programmers. In other words, the experts had developed a
mental set that blinded them to the simpler solution. (Adelson, 1984)
Other factors that may prevent successful problem solving are the complexity of the
outcome, the degree to which the solution is conceptualized, and the kind of resources
that are available. Such conditions impose definite limitations, determining what is
possible or necessary to solve the problem.
One way of overcoming blocks to problem solving is by brain-storming. Brain-storming

is a concentrated assault on the barriers of routine and stereotypic thought habits. Most
brain storming takes place in groups where each participant can voice opinions, offers
suggestions, and thrash out ideas. The unrestrained atmosphere encourages the people
in the group to be creative and come up with new ideas.
5.5 CREATIVITY IN ADULTHOOD AND ELDERLY
Developmental changes during adulthood differ with the type of creativity involved.
College students specializing in such fields as mathematics and physics are on the verge
of the most creative period; major innovations in these fields most often come from
people in their twenties. Einstein published his theory of relativity when he was twenty
six, Newton developed the calculus at age 28, and Galileo was only 26 when he
proposed the theory of falling bodies. Some researchers have theorized that the
common denominator in these achievements is the appearance of a burst of fresh
insight- a bright idea by people whose thinking is not weighted down with the givens of
established knowledge.
Creative contributions in other areas such as, philosophy, history and literature seem to
require a thoughtful synthesis of accumulated knowledge. It is perhaps for this reason
that major achievements in these fields are usually made by people forty and older, in
fact, creative contributions of this type seem to grow increasingly likely from age 40
through the sixties and often well into the seventies.
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Whatever the performance of elderly people on various tests and tasks, it is evident that
many people make major creative contributions well into their so called retirement
years. Many examples suggest, the years past sixty-five can be a time of real
consolidation. It is a time when the ideas and skills developed over most of a life time
can be brought together to produce major new achievements. Most people will not
achieve at the level of various creative examples at any age. Yet most people will have
many opportunities for personally gratifying consolidation and creation well into their
later years.
5.6 CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
Both the concepts of creativity and intelligence refer to the mental functioning of the
individual. These are differently viewed in different contexts. Researchers have taken a
keen interest in making a distinction between the two; while creativity is concerned with
novel, divergent and innovative outcome, intelligence is conventional and deductive
thinking. Though creativity involves finding new solutions to the problems problems,
these solutions need not be extraordinary or revolutionary while intelligence is the ability
to acquire and utilise existing knowledge. Creativity is associated with certain personality
traits like risk taking and openness, on the other hand. Intelligence prompts a non-risk
taking or calculated risk taking, conservative personality. There is low correlation
reported between creativity and intelligence by the various research studies. Intelligence
tests by Binet, Spearman and Guilford advanced the concepts of intelligence and
conceptualised many different abilities that constitute intelligent functioning. Guilford
(1959) identified links between mental ability and creativity in the form of sub abilities
which lead to divergent thinking. These sub abilities were flexibility, spontaneity,
adaptability and originality, elaboration and transformation in the output of thinking
which contributed to creative performance.
Conceptualisation of creativity in terms of sub-abilities that constitute intelligence does

not explain why the creativity would co-relate low with tests of intelligence.
The bulk of evidence indicates that creativity is independent of intelligence, as

measured by standard tests. Although little or no creativity found at relatively low levels
of intelligence, a high level of intelligence does not necessarily mean one is creative.
There are bright people who do well in school or on the job but exhibit little evidence of
creativity. There are also people who muddle their way through college but constantly
come up with original ideas. Although highly creative people are often highly intelligent,
the reverse does not necessarily hold true.
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Creativity is not the mysterious prerogative of a special group of gifted people. Creative
situations are common to every one from the experienced artist to the college student.
When a problem arises for which there is no predetermined correct answer, people
combine imagination and realistic thinking in a creative endeavor to arrive at the
solution.
Wallch and Kogan (1965) pointed out that creativity is different from intelligence. On
the basis of their study they maintained that creativity involves some traits which are
not found in the traditional concepts of intelligence.
2. Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block
1. Define creativity in simple words in 4-5 lines.

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2. List out three characteristics of creative people.
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3. The hallmark of creativity is ………………………
4. Insight comes with …………….experience.
5. During incubation period some of the ideas that were
interfering with the solution tend to fade. (True/False)
6. The process of creative thinking terminates with the stage
of evaluation. (True/False)
7. Brain storming is a way to overcome blocks to problem
solving. (True/False)
8. Major achievement in social sciences are usually made by
people in their twenties. (True/False)
9. Creativity is dependent on intelligence. (True/False)
5.7 GIFTEDNESS
Giftedness is the ability to achieve what is well above average in one or more areas like
language, music, art, mathematics, or athletics. Indirect evidence indicates that gifted
children have following atypical brain organization (whether as a result of genetics, the
in utero environment, or after-birth trauma).
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First, giftedness in mathematics, visual arts, and music is associated with superior visual-
spatial abilities. Children with mathematical gifts show enhanced brain activity in their
right hemisphere when asked to recognize faces, a task known to involve the right
hemisphere (O’ Boyle and Benbow, 1990). Thus, giftedness in these domains may
involve enhanced right-hemisphere development.
Second, individuals with gifts in mathematics, visual arts, and music are
disproportionately non right-handed. Again, this finding suggests atypical brain
organization, because non right- handedness is a rough index of anomalous brain
dominance (Annett, 1985).
Third, studies have shown that mathematically and musically gifted individuals have a
more bilateral, symmetrical brain organization than is usual, with the right hemisphere
participating in tasks ordinarily reserved for the left hemisphere (Alexander, et, al.
1994).
Fourth, giftedness in spatial areas is accompanied by a disproportionate incidence of

language-related learning disorders such as dyslexia, a finding reported for artists,
inventors, and musicians (Hassler, 1990).
Finally, youths with very high IQs have an increased incidence of auto-immune
problems. A link between immune disorders and giftedness in music has been suggested
but not firmly established. In summary, giftedness is an ability that involves enhanced
right-hemisphere development and hence with anomalous brain dominance.
5.7.1 The Role of Families
The notion that giftedness is a product of intensive training reflects an overly optimistic
view of the power of nurture. A more negative view of the power of nurture is reflected
in another common claim: that gifted children are created by driving, overambitious
parents. There is concern that the end result of such extreme pushing will be
disengagement, bitterness, and depression. Parents of gifted children are advised to let
their children have a normal childhood. However, most gifted children do not become
bitter and disaffected. Moreover, it is impossible to drive an ordinary child to the kinds
of high achievements seen in gifted children. In addition, gifted children typically report
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that their family played a positive, not a negative, role in their development (Van Tassel-
Baska, 1989).
Family Characteristic of Gifted Children:
The families of gifted children are child centered, meaning that family life is often totally
focused on the child’s needs. However, the fact that parents spend a great deal of time
with their gifted children does not mean that they create the gift. It is likely that parents
first notice signs of exceptionality and then respond by devoting themselves to the
development of their child’s extraordinary ability.
Gifted children typically grow up in enriched family environments with a high level of
intellectual or artistic stimulation. Of course, these findings are co-relational. We cannot
conclude that stimulation and enrichment lead to the development of giftedness. First,
gifted children may need an unusual amount of stimulation and may demand enriched
environments, a demand to which their parents respond. Thus, the child’s inborn ability
could be the driving force, leading the child to select enriched environments.
Parents of gifted children typically have high expectations and also model hard work and
high achievement themselves. It is logically possible that gifted children have simply
inherited their gift from their parents, who also happen to be hardworking achievers.
Parents of children in performance domains like music and athletics are the most
directive; parents of children in the visual arts are the least directive; parents of children
gifted in an academic domain fall somewhere in between (Bloom, 1985).
Parents of gifted children grant their children more than the usual amount of
independence (Colangelo and Dettman, 1983). However, we do not know whether
granting independence leads to high achievement, or whether it is the recognition of
the child’s gift that leads to the granting of independence. It is also possible that gifted
children are particularly strong willed and single-minded and thus demand
independence.
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Gifted children who grow up in “complex” families— those that combine both
stimulation and nurturance—are happier, more alert, more engaged, and more goal
directed than are gifted children who grow up in families with only one or neither of
these traits (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993). Gifted children from complex families report
more states of flow and high energy and were rated by teachers as original,
independent, and working up to their potential. Youths who dropped out of their
domains of talent reported having parents who were either too directive or too
uninvolved.
Although we cannot conclude that any particular kind of family can create a gifted child,
the co-relational findings reported by Csikszentmihalyi et al. (1993) certainly suggest
that given a high-potential child, certain kinds of family constellations are most likely to
succeed in maintaining and nurturing the gift. Although it is not proven that complex
families, which combine nurturance and stimulation, are causally implicated in
maintaining and developing a gift. Unless we have evidence to show that family
environment plays no causal role, it seems prudent to urge families to strive to combine
the two qualities most typically associated with gifted youths who remain engaged in
their area of ability.
5.7.2 Motivational Aspects of Gifted Children
Gifted children have a deep intrinsic motivation to master the domain in which they
have high ability and are almost manic in their energy level. Often one cannot tear these
children away from activities in their area of giftedness, whether they involve an
instrument, a computer, a sketch pad, or a math book. These children have a powerful
interest in the domain in which they have high ability, and they can focus so intently on
work in this domain that they lose sense of the outside world. They combine an
obsessive interest with an ability to learn easily in a given domain. Unless social and
emotional factors interfere, this combination leads to high achievements. This intrinsic
drive is part and parcel of an exceptional, inborn giftedness.
This ‘rage to master’ characterizes children we have traditionally labeled gifted children
with high IQs who excel in school. It also characterizes children we have traditionally
classified as talented children who excel in art, music, or athletics. The distinction in
terminology between gifted and talented suggests two different subtypes of children,
but this is a distinction with no basis. No matter what the domain, gifted or talented
children show a rage to master: Musically gifted children spend hours voluntarily
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working at their instrument, artistically gifted children draw whenever they are allowed,
just as mathematically gifted children willingly spend their time solving existing math
problems and discovering new ones (Winner, 1996a, 1997b).
The intense drive characterizing gifted children should be recognized, celebrated, and
cultivated, not destroyed. When children are not sufficiently challenged in school, as so
often happens to gifted children, they sometimes lose their motivation and become
underachievers. When parents and schools try to force single-minded, driven children to
be well-rounded by curtailing activity in the children’s domain of giftedness and having
the children spend time on more “normal” activities, they may end up stifling the
children’s drive. All children, not only the gifted, would be better educated if teachers
sought to find out what motivates and excites individual students and then harnessed
this drive toward learning.
5.7.3 Social and Emotional Lives of Gifted Children
The study of giftedness began in earnest in the early part of this century, when Lewis
Terman initiated a large-scale longitudinal study of over 1,500 high-IQ children. The first
volume about this group appeared in 1925, a 40-year follow-up appeared in 1968
(Oden, 1968), and a volume describing the survivors in their 80s appeared in 1995
(Holahan& Sears, 1995). Terman’s goal was to dispel the myth that gifted children are
maladjusted and emotionally troubled. Another early researcher of gifted children,
Hollingworth, argued that children with profoundly high IQs (over 180) had special social
and emotional problems (Hollingworth, 1942). In a more recent report it was estimated
that the rate of social and emotional difficulties experienced by profoundly academically
gifted children is about twice the rate found among the non gifted, with almost a
quarter of such children having such difficulties (Janos and Robinson, 1985).
Extreme levels of giftedness lead to isolation. Hence, in middle childhood profoundly

gifted children may try to hide their abilities in the hopes of becoming more popular.
Academically gifted girls are more apt to do this than boys, and such girls report more
depression, lower self-esteem, and more psychosomatic symptoms than do
academically gifted boys (Gross, 1993). Teenagers with gifts in the visual arts, music, and
athletics have as many difficulties with their peers as do those gifted in academic areas.
These teenagers have been shown to be atypical socially and emotionally in a number of
respects: They are highly driven, nonconforming, and independent thinkers. Gifted
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children in all domains also tend to be introverted. They spend more time alone than do
ordinary adolescents. They gain stimulation from themselves more than from others
and report liking solitude far more than do most other people (Csikszentmihalyi et al.,
1993).
Gifted children are not only solitary because of their rich inner lives, but also because
solitude is requisite for the development of their talent. Whereas ordinary children
come home after school to play, gifted children come home after school eager to paint,
play music, work on math problems, read, or write. Despite liking solitude more than do
ordinary children, gifted adolescents also report a preference to be with others rather
than alone. Thus, although they gain more from solitude than others, they still yearn for
peer contact. It is difficult for these atypical children to find like-minded peers.
5.7.4 Cognitive Profiles of Gifted Children
Psychologists typically assess academic giftedness with an IQ test that yields subtest
scores as well as an overall, global number. Children are usually defined as gifted if their
global IQ score rises above some arbitrary cutoff point (often 130). The assumption
underlying the use of a global score is that academically gifted children are generally
gifted in all academic subjects. Some children justify this assumption perfectly by
demonstrating giftedness in reading, math, and logical analytic thinking. These kinds of
children are notationallygifted, able to master rapidly the two kinds of notational
symbol systems valued in school: language and numbers. Although, globally gifted
children present a much less balanced picture; unevenness between verbal and
mathematical abilities.
It is not surprising that unevenness exists, because the abilities that underlie
mathematical giftedness differ sharply from those that underlie verbal giftedness.
Underlying mathematical but not verbal giftedness are spatial abilities. Mathematically
gifted children show stronger recall for numerical and spatial information than for
linguistic information, whereas verbally gifted children show the reverse pattern (Dark
and Benbow, 1991).
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Jagged profiles also characterize children gifted in music and art. A gift in music or art
can exist alongside an average or even a subnormal IQ. Correlations between musical
ability and IQ are positive but low: Above average IQ, or intelligence is not particularly
predictive of musical ability. In the same vein, high musical ability is not predictive of a
high IQ. Further, the existence of musical savants, individuals who are retarded and
autistic but who have exceptional musical ability, shows decisively that a high IQ is not a
necessary component of giftedness in music (Miller, 1999).
Yet, musically gifted children typically do very well academically. Children gifted in the
visual arts and in athletics typically show a lack of interest in academic achievement,
with those gifted in the visual arts even less committed academically than those in
athletics. Savants who excel in drawing provide clear evidence for the possible
dissociation between giftedness in the visual arts and IQ. A gift in the visual-spatial area
may bring with it a language-based learning disability. Gifted children may perform at an
average level in some academic domain. Others are gifted in one domain and learning
disabled in another. It is certainly not uncommon to encounter high-IQ children who are
also dyslexic.
5.8 THE ENDS OF GIFTEDNESS
The highest possible endpoint of childhood giftedness is certainly creativity although,

they may have been creative in the little-c sense (e.g., coming up with innovative
approaches to problems), they did not become major creators. That is, they neither
created a new domain nor revolutionized an old domain. Many gifted children grow up
to become happy and well-adjusted experts in their fields. However, only a fraction of
gifted children eventually become revolutionary adult creators. Those who do so must
make a painful transition from a child prodigy (a child who learns rapidly and effortlessly
in an established domain) to an adult creator (a person who disrupts and ultimately
remakes a domain; Gardner, 1993). It is not surprising that most gifted children, even
most child prodigies, do not go on to become adult creators.
However, this kind of universal creative thinking is quite different from the kind of big-C
creativity that is involved in reshaping a domain. Individuals who are creative in this big-
C sense have a personality structure different from that of the typical gifted and non-
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gifted child: They are rebellious, they have a desire to alter the status quo, and they
have often suffered childhoods of stress and trauma (Sulloway, 1996). Their families are
often a far cry from the complex families of engaged gifted adolescents. The
disproportionate incidence of manic depression in creative individuals also suggests a
link although not a necessary one between creativity and psychopathology.
There are a number of reasons for prodigies’ failure to remake themselves into big-C
creators.
One inevitable reason is that the funnel is small. There is simply not enough room at the
top for all prodigies to become creators. Therefore, there is an inevitable weeding out of
those who do not make the cut, so to speak. Any domain would be in chaos if there
were as many creative adult innovators as there are child prodigies.
Second inevitable reason is that the skill of being a prodigy is not the same as the skill of
being a big-C creator. A prodigy is someone who can easily and rapidly master an
already-established domain with expertise. A creator is someone who changes a
domain. Personality and will are crucial factors in becoming an innovator or
revolutionizer of a domain. Creators have a desire to shake things up. They are restless,
rebellious, and dissatisfied with the status quo. They are courageous and independent.
They are able to manage multiple related projects at the same time, engaging in what
Gruber (1981) calls a ‘network of enterprise’. For these two reasons, we should never
expect a prodigy to go on to become a creator. The ones who do make this transition
are the exception, not the rule.
Third non inevitable reason that prodigies may fail to make the transition is that they
have become frozen into expertise. This is particularly a problem for those whose work
has become public and has won them acclaim, such as musical performers, painters, or
children who have been publicized as ‘whiz kids’. Expertise won them fame and
adoration as child prodigies. It is then difficult to break away from expertise and take the
kinds of risks required to be creative.
Fourth non inevitable reason is that some with the potential to make the transition do
not do so because they have been pushed so hard by their parents, teachers, and
managers that they lose their intrinsic motivation (Elkind, 1981).
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The last two reasons show us what can happen when culture and greed overtake nature
and stamp it out. Parents, teachers, and psychologists all have an obligation to nurture
prodigies through the potential transition from expertise to creative innovation and to
help them avoid four dangers:
1. The danger of pushing so hard that the intrinsic motivation and rage to master these
children start out with become a craving for the extrinsic rewards of fame.
2. The danger of pushing so hard that these children later feel they missed out on having
a normal childhood.
3. The danger of freezing a prodigy into a safe, technically perfect but non innovative
way of performing because this is what he or she has been rewarded for doing so well.
4. The danger of the psychological wound caused by the fall from being a famous
prodigy who can perform perfectly to a forgotten adult who can do no more than
perform perfectly.
5.9 CONCEPT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
One of the most important ways in which psychology differs from the natural sciences
arises from the existence of ‘individual differences’. Two litres of hydrogen that are
treated identically respond identically, but any two human beings, even identical twins,
may respond quite differently to the same stimulus. This is because people differ from
one another not only in appearance (that is, physically) but also in their behaviour (that
is, psychologically). Consequently, the study of individual differences, which
encompasses personality, has been a significant part of psychology since ancient times.
Frances Galton (1884) is credited with being the first to investigate individual
differences scientifically. As part of his study of heredity, he developed a large and
systematic body of data on individual differences, including both physical and
psychological measures. The study of intelligence became the focus of individual-
differences research in the first half of the twentieth century. Selection procedures
associated with the introduction of universal education, as well as recruitment
procedures for two world wars, helped to stimulate demand for measures of individual
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differences in skills and abilities. As a result, most people nowadays are familiar with the
concept of IQ and have experienced intelligence testing of some kind.
Individual differences are not idiosyncrasies. In the study of individual differences, the
aim is to identify dimensions that are applicable to everyone but that discriminate
among people. For example, everyone is intelligent to some degree. A particular
individual’s intelligence level can be measured, and that person’s intelligence relative to
other people’s can be determined. In contrast, idiosyncrasies refer to a person’s unique
characteristics that make him or her different from all other people. The study of
individual differences and personality has tended to ignore idiosyncratic characteristics,
although one pioneering personality theorist, Gordon W. Allport (1961), included them
in his view of personality structure.
5.9.1 Taxonomies of Individual Differences:
Taxonomic work has focused on categorizing the infinite ways in which individuals differ
in terms of a limited number of latent or unobservable constructs. This is a multi-step,
cyclical process of intuition, observation, deduction, induction, and verification that has
gradually converged on a consensual descriptive organization of broad classes of
variables as well as on methods for analyzing them. Most of the measurement and
taxonomic techniques used throughout the field have been developed in response to
the demand for selection for schooling, training, and business applications.
Classical Test Theory (CTT)
Consider the case of differences in vocabulary in a particular language (e.g., English).

Classical Test Theory (CTT) ignores individual response patterns and estimates an
individual’s total vocabulary size by measuring performance on small samples of words.
Words are seen as random replicates of each other and thus individual differences in
total vocabulary size are estimated from observed differences on these smaller samples.
The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) compares the degree of
covariance between these samples with the variance within samples. As the number of
words sampled increases, the correlation of the individual differences within each
sample and with those in the total domain increases accordingly.
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Item Response Theory (IRT)
Estimates of ability based upon Item Response Theory (IRT) take into account
parameters of the words themselves (i.e., the difficulty and discriminability of each
word) and estimate a single ability parameter for each individual. CTT and IRT estimates
are highly correlated. CTT estimates of reliability of ability measures are assessed across
similar items (internal consistency), across alternate forms, and across different forms of
assessment as well as over time (stability).
One of the most replicable observations in the study of individual differences is that
almost all tests, thought to assess cognitive ability, have a general factor (g) that is
shared with other tests of ability. That is, although each test has specific variance
associated with content (e.g., linguistic, spatial), form of administration (e.g., auditory,
visual), or operations involved (e.g., perceptual speed, memory storage, memory
retrieval, abstract reasoning), there is general variance that is common to all tests of
cognitive ability.
The non-cognitive measures of individual differences also predict important real life
criteria. Extraversion is highly correlated with total sales in dollars among salespeople.
Similarly, impulsivity can be used to predict traffic violations. Conscientiousness, when
added substantially increases the predictability of job performance. Although the size of
the correlation is much lower, conscientiousness measured in adolescence predicts
premature mortality over the next fifty years.
5.9.2 Sources of Individual Differences
Descriptive taxonomies are used to organize the results of studies that examine genetic
bases of individual differences. The most common family configurations that are used
are comparisons of identical (monozygotic) with fraternal (dizygotic) twins. Additional
designs include twins reared together or apart, and biological versus adoptive parents,
children and siblings. Conclusions from behavioral genetics for most personality traits
tend to be similar: Across different designs, with different samples from different
countries, roughly 40-60% of the phenotypic variance seems to be under genetic control
with only a very small part of the remaining environmental variance associated with
shared family environmental effects. Additional results suggest that genetic sources of
individual differences remain important across the lifespan. However, this should not be
taken to mean that people do not change as they mature but rather that the paths one
takes through life are similar to those taken by genetically similar individuals.
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Genes do not code for thoughts, feelings or behavior but rather code for proteins that
regulate and modulate biological systems. Specific neurotransmitters and brain
structures can be associated with a broad class of approach behaviors and positive
affects while other neurotransmitters and structures can be associated with a similarly
broad class of avoidance behaviors and negative affects. Reports relating specific alleles
to specific personality traits emphasize that the broad personality traits are most likely
under polygenic influence and are moderated by environmental experience.
Subtle differences in neurotransmitter availability and re-uptake vary the sensitivity of

individuals to cues about their environment that predict future resource availability and
external rewards and punishments. It is the way these cues are detected, attended to,
stored, and integrated with previous experiences that makes each individual unique.
Current work on the bases of individual differences is concerned with understanding this
delicate interplay of biological propensities with environmental opportunities and
constraints as they are ultimately represented in an individual’s information processing
system. With time we can expect to increase our taxonomic and predictive power by
using these causal bio-social theories of individual differences.
Explain giftedness in 3-4 lines.
…………………………….………………………………………………………………
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Discuss briefly the role of family in giftedness.
…………………………….………………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………………………
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Briefly explain the reasons for gifted children’s failure to become creators.
…………………………….………………………………………………………………
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Who investigated the concept of individual differences?
a. Terman b. Galton
c. Winner d. Albert
CTT and IRT estimates are highly:
a. Co-related b. Unrelated
c. Unrealistic d. Subjective
5.10 LETS SUM UP
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Creativity is a form of problem solving characterized by novel solutions that are also
useful for social value. Creative people tend to have above average intelligence and are
able to integrate different kinds of thinking. Creativity also depends on divergent
thinking, in which a person freely considers a variety of potential solutions to a problem.
Creative people have a special talent and are strongly motivated to solve the problems
that interest them.
Creative thinking is said to proceed in five stages preparation, incubation, illumination,

evaluation and revision. Research suggests that we go through a series of these stages
when we try to solve a problem. Psychologists have identified several generalized
obstacles to successful problem solving. These include functional fixation, or focusing on
ineffective approaches and conformity, or the unwillingness to take risks because of the
fear of others’ opinions. Both obstacles can be overcome by brain-storming.
Giftedness is the ability to achieve what is well above average in one or more areas like
language, music, art, mathematics, or athletics. The families of gifted children are child
centered, meaning that family life is often totally focused on the child’s needs. Gifted
children may need an unusual amount of stimulation and may demand enriched
environments, a demand to which their parents respond. Gifted children have a
powerful interest in the domain in which they have high ability, and they can focus so
intently on work in this domain that they lose sense of the outside world.
Many gifted children grow up to become happy and well-adjusted experts in their fields.
However, only a fraction of gifted children eventually become revolutionary adult
creators. One non inevitable reason that prodigies may fail to make the transition is that
they have become frozen into expertise. Expertise won them fame and adoration as
child prodigies. It is then difficult to break away from expertise and take the kinds of
risks required to be creative.
The aim of individual differences is to identify dimensions that are applicable to

everyone but that discriminate among people. For example, everyone is intelligent to
some degree. A particular individual’s intelligence level can be measured, and that
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person’s intelligence relative to other people’s can be determined. The test theory
developed to account for sampling differences within domains can be generalized to
account for differences between domains. Just as different samples of words will yield
somewhat different estimates of vocabulary, different cognitive tasks (e.g., vocabulary
and arithmetic performance) will yield different estimates of performance.
Visit the nearby school in your area and administer intelligence tests to identify those
children whose IQ level is 130 and above and make a list of all such students.
Prepare a report comparing the activities and behavior of those children with IQ level
130 and above with those children having average level of IQ.
ANSWERS
Unit 1 Unit 4
Check Your Progress 1 Check Your Progress 1
3. True 3. (b)
4. True 4. (c)
5. False 5. (d)
Check Your Progress 2 Check Your Progress 2
2. (b) 3. True
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4. (a) 4. False
5. (c) 5. True
6. False
Unit 2
Unit 5
4. (b)
5. True 3. Divergent Thinking
4. Aha!
Check Your Progress 2 5. True
6. False
1. (a) 7. True
2. (d) 8. False
9. False
2. (b)
4. (b)
Unit 3 5. (a)
4. (b)
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3. True
4. True
5. False
3. True
4. False
5. (b)
Further Readings
Bransford, J. D., and Stein, B. S. (1993). The Ideal Problem Solver: A Guide to Improving
Thinking, Learning, and Creativity. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Baer, J. (1993). Creativity and Divergent Thinking: A Task Specific Approach. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Glover, J.K. (1989). Handbook of Creativity: Assessments, Research, and Theory. New
York: Plenum.
Levine, M. (1988). Effective Problem Solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prenticehall.
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GUIDANC AND COUNSELLING
DGC – 1
BLOCK – 4
Motivation and Emotion
Unit 1: Motivation and Emotion
Unit 2: Theory of Motivation
Unit 3: Conflict and Frustration
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BLOCK 4
MOTIVATIONS AND EMOTION
Block Introduction
This is the fourth block of the Course GC-I ‘PGDGC’ (Post Graduate Diploma in Guidance
and Counselling). There are three units in it as given below:
Unit-1: Motivation and Emotion
Unit-2: Theory of Motivation
Unit-3: Conflict and Frustration
The first unit is Motivation and Emotion. In this unit definition and nature of motivation
and emotion have been dealt with. Besides introduction, definitions of motivation have
been given. Different types of motivation, i.e. intrinsic and extrinsic, motivations cycle
and principles of motivation have been discussed in detail with examples. Emotions, its
meaning, definitions, types, characteristics, factors influencing emotions and training of
emotions have been discussed with examples.
The second unit deals with Theories of Motivation like Drive-reduction Theory,
Incentive Theory, Arousal Theory, and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. These have been
elaborated with suitable examples and diagrams.
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The third unit is Conflict and Frustration. Various conflicts such as Approach-Approach
Conflict, Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict, Approach-Avoidance Conflict and Multiple
Approach-Avoidance Conflict have been explained. Frustration, its sources and fact and
resulting conflict has been discussed in detail.
UNIT 1 DEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
STRUCTURE
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Motivation
1.3.1 Definitions of Motivation

1.3.2 Types of Motivation
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1.3.3 Conversion of Extrinsic into Intrinsic Motivation

1.3.4 Motivation Cycle
1.3.5 Principles of Motivation
1.4 Emotion
1.4.1 What are Emotions?
1.4.2 Definitions of Emotion
1.4.3 Nature and Characteristics of Emotions
1.4.4 Kinds of Emotions
1.4.5 Factors Influencing Emotional Development
1.4.6 Facilitating Healthy Emotional/Development
1.4.7 Emotional Intelligence (E.I)
1.4.8 Emotional Quotient (E.Q)
1.5 Let us sum up
1.6 Unit end exercises
1.1 INTRODUCTION
As human beings, we perform various functions in our daily lives. All our actions are
motivated. Without motivation no one can do anything. The result of our performance
or achievement depends on the level of motivation with which we perform any task.
Some of our motivation is also derived from emotions of fear and anger. Apart from the
fear and anger, simple arousal also is motivating. Arousal as an emotion is inborn quality
of human beings which is later shaped and refined in the family and society. Emotions
play crucial role in our development. This unit deals with nature and the types of
motivation, principles and factors influencing it as well as emotions and their
development.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
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After going through the unit, you would be able to:
 Define motivation.
 Mention different types of motivation.
 Explain different types of motivation.
 Define emotions
 Explain the process of emotional development.
1.3 MOTIVATION
IPL (Indian Premier League) is going on. You are either in the office or college or
university doing daily routine work. You know that the match between one of your
favorite team and the other team will start at 7.00 pm. You complete all your work
much earlier to watch the match of your favorite team. What is that force which is
compelling you to watch the match? This is the force of motivation. A student of class IX
is working very hard to get good marks in Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics. He
chooses Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics stream in class XI Science and continues
to work hard. He passed class XI and XII with good percentile rank. Now he strives for
the final game i.e. engineering degree for making his career. What is that which is
compelling the student to pursue his interest, and work hard? It is motivation. When we
are hungry we could go to places to look for food even when tired, though if we were
not hungry we would not move. This is also because of different levels of motivation.
These examples show us that behavior is always driven towards some goals. The goal-
seeking behaviours tends to persist until goal is achieved. The technical term that is
used for this driving force is motivation.
1.3.1 Definitions of Motivation
The word motivation is derived from a Latin word ‘Motum’ which means to move, motor
and motion. It is the internal force which causes behavior. In the beginning there is a
‘need’, or motive which leads to motion to fulfill the need. Motivation is the activation or
energizer of goal oriented behavior. All our actions are motivated. It results from the
interactions among internal and external factors such as the (1) intensity of desire or need
for achieving the goal (2) incentive or reward value of the goal, and (3) expectations of
the individual and his or her parents or teachers. But most of the time we may not be
aware of our own needs and motives.
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Motivation has been defined differently by psychologists. Some of the important

definitions of motivation given by different psychologists are given below.
According to Bernard, “Motivation is the stimulation of actions towards a particular
objective where previously there were little or no attractions to that goal.”
According to Good, “Motivation is the process of arousal, sustaining and regulating
activity.”
According to Guilford, “A motive is any particular internal factor or condition that tends
to initiate and sustain activity.”
According to Lovell,” Motivation is defined more formally as psycho-physiological or
internal process initiated by some need which leads to an activity that will satisfy the
need.”
According to Skinner, “Motivation in school learning involves arousing, persisting,
sustaining and directing desirable behavior.”
On the basis of above discussion and definitions of motivation we may conclude this
concept in the following way:
Motivation is a process or behavior of a person which is selective, goal-directed and is
initiated and energized by a motive that aims to maintain a state of balance and
equilibrium of the person in relation to his environment by keeping his basic needs
satisfied.
1.3.2 Types of Motivation

Motivation can be broadly classified into two types:
1. Intrinsic Motivation
2. Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
As the name indicates, this type of motivation is directly linked with the individuals’
natural instincts, urges, and impulses. The individual performs an act because s/he finds
interest in the activity. Engagement with an activity is because of the pleasure of doing
that. The activity carries its own reward and the individual takes genuine interest in
performing the activity, not due to some outside motives and goals.
Example: A student is reading a story and derives pleasure in it. Another student is
trying to solve some mathematical problems and is deeply engaged in it. A third student
is trying to write a poem and is completely involved in it. All of them are fully involved
and derive pleasure in doing that activity. In all these acts, we can say that the students
are intrinsically motivated, as in all of these cases the source of pleasure lies within the
person’s engagement with the activity. They are doing these for their own sake not for
external reward or appreciation. Such kinds of motivation have real value in the learning
of various tasks or skills as it creates spontaneous attention and interest to sustain it
throughout.
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Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation is opposite of the internal as the source of pleasure does not lie within
the task or the individual. The individual performs the task or activity not for its own sake
or for pleasure but for obtaining some desired goals or getting some external rewards like
working for achieving better grade or honour; or some other goal like learning a skill to
earn livelihood; receiving praise rewards etc. all belong to this category. The chief concern
is not the final output of the work being done, but the consequences or returns in terms of
money or material or praise, etc. that the performer will receive, after the completion of the
work. For example the teacher tells his students that those who get more than 90% marks in
the physics test will be given a free trip to ISRO, Bangalore. The students are likely to work
hard to achieve this percentage of marks if they think they can pass the test. But they will
be working hard for free trip to ISRO, not for learning physics. So they are extrinsically
motivated. Though the students may learn to do well in physics in the process, which is the
prime objective of the teacher. However this may not be the best way to motivate child, as
it may result in unfair practices to earn reward. A mother tells her son or daughter, if you
finish your home work, I will prepare your favorite dish in the meal. The child starts doing
home work and finishes in time. S/he will work to have his or her favorite dish, the external
or extrinsic benefit, but learning will occur during completion of home work, and in the
process learning of subjects also takes place.
1.3.3 Conversion of Extrinsic into Intrinsic Motivation
As compared to extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation brings better results in the
teaching-learning process as well as, in other areas of work; as it provides a strong source
of spontaneous inspiration and stimulation. It is always good to make use of the intrinsic
motivation, if possible. In case it is not possible, then extrinsic motivation could be used.
Type of motivation and the rewards should match the nature of work, work environment,
difficulty level of work and other such factors. If intrinsic motivation is lacking then
extrinsic motivation should be used effectively and on continuous and consistent basis
with different extrinsic rewards. The reward or punishment would depend on a number of
factors like need, age, status, interest etc of the individual involved. If appropriate
rewards are chosen there is greater likelihood that intrinsic motivation will develop in the
individual toward the work or skill intended to be learned.
1.3.4 Motivation Cycle

Motivation is linked to the needs of the individual. If there is no need, there is no effort to
fulfill the need and hence no motivation for its achievement. On the other hand if our needs
are fulfilled, the other needs emerge automatically. The needs are multiple, incessant and
continuous. In this way, it goes on in a cyclic way giving rise to cycle of motivation (fig
1.1).
Drive/Motivation
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Need/
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Fig 1.1 Motivation Cycle
The point of origin of motivation is the needs which give rise to effort to achieve/acquire
something to satisfy the needs which in turn becomes the goal of the individual. Intensity
of needs develops the same intensity of drive or motive to fulfill their need. Because of
the intensity of needs and drive, the individuals feel tension to reach the desired goal or
fulfill ones need. This tension leads him to action, aimed at achieving the goal and
fulfilling the need, this is the highest state of motivated behavior. Even when the
individual satisfies his needs of being successful, the new needs come before him. But if
he gets dissatisfied on failure, he may do two things: Either he continues efforts to fulfill
previous need or goal and tries again with higher level of drive, tension and motivation
after assessing the previous actions taken or he redefines his needs and goals and begins
working for that with renewed motivation.
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1.3.5 Principles of Motivation

Motivation is the key factor and essential requirement for success in any act we perform,
whether teaching-learning process, guidance and counseling, reading stories, reading a
novel, learning skills, morning exercise, etc. There is not a single magic formula for
getting oneself or the others motivated towards any activity. However, the following
principles may be useful for developing motivation.
1. Readiness: Physically, mentally, and emotionally readiness is essential for taking

initiatives in any task. This is really the precursor of motivation. In the absence of
readiness, no motivation can be imagined.
2. Capitalizing on the Needs and Motives: Motivation is highest when it is based on
the existing needs and motives of the individual. As a counselor, one has to make
effort to identify important needs of the counselee and work out strategies for
satisfying these needs.
3. Arousal and Maintaining Interest: Interest is the key and central figure in the
process of motivation. Interest is generated when individual likes the activity and
believes that s/he will be able to succeed in that activity. An individual gets
motivated and remains absorbed in a particular task depending upon the degree of
his arousal and interest in that task.
4. Capturing and Sustaining Attention: Attention is the first step in determining
interest, and interest is the key to motivation. Therefore teachers must make efforts
to capture attention of the learners and sustain it for a long duration for having
result oriented performance.
5. Clarity and Definiteness of Goal and Purpose: The learner may be motivated to
the extent s/he sees some purpose, value and advantages drawn from the learning. If
s/he is having full clarity of goal and purpose, s/he will be more attentive, take more
interest and show more zeal and enthusiasm towards achieving that goal. Hence, the
clarity of goals which will motivate individual in right direction is the objective of
counselling.
6. Creating an Open and Positive Environment: The autocratic functioning,
expecting conformity, denial of the freedom to question and respond, irrelevant
rebuking etc. may prove quite detrimental to the enthusiasm and initiatives of the
learners. It is important to throw all these negative elements out of the system and
in its place introduce an open and positive environment for better motivation.
7. Change and Variety: Introduction of change and variety in activities removes
boredom, generates interest, as a result proves an important factor in maintaining
and raising the level of motivation. Novelty, newness, curiosity and choice may be
built into a routine or the otherwise boring and fatigued environment, classroom
learning and all other aspects of the teaching-learning process or in any working
environment.
8. Providing Proper Feedback: The learner should know the progress on the learning
task as soon as, possible. It helps in maintaining his/her interest and motivation
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further in the ongoing teaching-learning process. The knowledge of the progress

attained on the previously set goals, motivates the learners in directing his/her
activities with more energy and enthusiasm towards the goal for receiving
continuous opportunities of experiencing success.
9. Providing Incentive and Reinforcement: Behavior gets reinforced through a
proper schedule of appropriate reinforcer. Reinforcements and incentives must be
chosen and used appropriately for ensuring lasting results. Reinforcement may be
verbal like praise, appreciation etc. or non-verbal like smiling, nodding the head,
patting etc. Incentives could be materialistic in nature, like prizes, increments, hike
in stipend or scholarship or pay etc.
10. Resorting to Internal Motivation: It is a well known fact that internal motivation
is long-lasting, result-oriented and self-directive than external motivation. Some
individuals, particularly children may not have internal motivation and they have to
be guided and reinforced constantly, through external motivation in terms of
rewards and incentives. The external motivation must be given with proper care. It
should be used only when it is absolutely necessary. Repeated use of external
motivation appropriately will ultimately develop internal motivation. However if
external rewards and incentives are used indiscriminately the learner may become
dependent on them. Discriminate use of incentives may make the individual to
internalize rewards instead of the external rewards and incentives.
11. Ensuing Success: Experiencing Success is more predictably motivating than
failure. The fear of getting failure or not getting desired level of success keeps the
individual away from the learning situation. It is therefore necessary to instill
beliefs and confidence in the learners that they can learn whatever they are
supposed to learn. Learning tasks and processes must be organized from ‘simple to
complex’ and ‘concrete to abstract’. Teaching-learning strategies and method must
suit the ability, capability levels, and learning styles of the students.
12. Affiliation and Approval: Both affiliation and approval are accepted to be the
strong motivators. This is why group or cooperative learning is considered better
than individualized competitive learning. One needs his or her affiliation to a class
or any group for better learning. It gives an opportunity to assess own progress vis-
a-vis others, and sharing of ideas, emotions, values, and other skills with one
another. Similarly, one needs the acceptance and approval of own learning from
others, and the group provides such opportunity. Hence, a teacher should use utilize
the strength of the group, and group dynamics for the motivation of students during
the teaching-learning.
13. Role Models: Knowledge of successful and positive role-models and ideals
provides positive motivation for individuals. They must be acquainted with the
biographies and autobiographies of great men and scholars for imbibing their
attitudes and habits. Multimedia and internet resources may be used for this
purpose. Learners may share the good work done by the contemporaries particularly
by their peers. The good work, ideas, knowledge and accomplishments of
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individual students, groups, classes or schools should be brought to the notice of the
students so that they may set these persons, events and situations as their role-
models and derive motivation from them.
14. Realistic Expectations: Expectation of teachers from their students, parents from
their children, and individuals from friends and peer groups, play a very important
role in the life of an individual. Researchers have revealed that the teachers’
expectations have powerful effect on the students’ performance. As a teacher if you
have positive expectation from your students, they are likely to perform well. As a
teacher if you convey low expectation, your students will not perform at that level.
The standards teachers set for students should be a little above their level of
performance so that they are perceived as reachable and succeed in motivating
students to do their best. But they should not be so high that students are frustrated
in trying to meet them.
…………………Activity/Experiment………………………
Choose any five children from your family or neighborhood and study their motivation
in various day-to-day activities. Make a list of their activities in which they show
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Give justification for your categorization.
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Notes: (i) Write your answer in the space given below.
(ii) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Define motivation in your own words.
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2. What are the different types of motivation?
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3. Discuss the principles of motivation.
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1.4 EMOTIONS
Emotions play a significant role in guiding, shaping, and directing our behavior.
Sometimes they dominate our behavior in such a way that we are completely
overwhelmed by our emotions. Contrary to this if a person does not have emotional in
him or her then he or s/he becomes crippled in terms of living a normal life. Emotional
development plays a crucial role in the development of our personality.
1.4.1 What are Emotions?
The word emotion is derived from a Latin word ‘emovere’ which means ‘to stir up’ or ‘to
excite’. In this way, emotion may be understood as an agitated or excited state of our
mind and body.
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1.4.2 Definitions of Emotion
Psychologists have defined emotion in many ways. Following definitions clarify the
different aspects of emotions. Some of the important definitions of emotions given by
prominent psychologists are given below:
According to Woodworth (1945), “Emotion is a ‘moved’ or ‘stirred-up’ state of an

organism. It is a stirred-up state of feelings and muscular and glandular activity; that is
the way it appears to an external observer.”
According to Crow and Crow (1973), “Emotion is an affective experience that

accompanies generalized inner adjustment and mental and physiological stirred-up
states in the individual and that shows itself in his overt behaviour”.
According to Morris (1979), “Emotion is a complex affective experience that involves

diffused physiological changes and can be expressed overtly in characteristic behavior
patterns’’.
McDougall (1949), considers instinct as an innate tendency, he believes that emotion is

an affective experience that an individual undergoes during an instinctive excitement.
For example, when a child perceives a dog coming towards him (cognition) he
experiences an affective experience in the form of the arousal of accompanied emotion
of fear and consequently tries to run away (conative aspect of one’s behavior).
McDougall has listed 14 basic instincts and advocated that each and every emotion is
the product of some or the other instinctive behavior. These are given below (table 1.1):
Table - 1.1
Various instincts and accompanied emotions
Sl. No. Instincts Emotion accompanying it
1 Flight or escape Fear
2 Pugnacity or combat Anger
3 Laughter Amusement
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4 Food-seeking Appetite
5 Self-assertion Positive self-feeling or Elation
6 Submission Negative self-feeling
7 Sex, Mating Lust
8 Repulsion Disgust
9 Curiosity Wonder
10 Parent Tender emotion, Love
11 Appeal Distress
12 Construction Feeling of creativeness
13 Acquisition Feeling of ownership
14 Gregariousness Feeling of loveliness
Thus from the explanation given above, it is clear that, emotions are feelings or affective
experiences which are accompanied by physiological changes that influence behaviour.
1.4.3 Nature and Characteristics of Emotions
Emotions are associated with instincts or biological drives. When basic needs are
satisfied or challenged the individual experiences emotions.
Emotions are the product of perception. Emotional experiences begin with the
perception of stimulus i.e. any object or situation in the environment. Biological changes
in our body could also stimulate and intensify our emotional experiences.
Emotions and physiological changes influence each other. For example, when we are
highly emotional due to fear our pulse rate is high and heart beat is fast. Examples of
other such physiological changes due to emotional stir-up are bulge of the eye, flush of
the face, flow of tears, choking of in the voice, fleeing from the situation, faster rate of
blood circulation etc. On the other hand physiological changes during adolescence like
change in voice, change in height, growing up of beard on the face of boys, growth of
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mammary glands in girls (i.e. secondary sexual characters) etc. induce emotional
changes in the individual.
Emotions exist in every living organism. They are present at all stages of our
development and can be aroused in young, as well as in old. They are individualistic in
nature and their expression varies from person to person. They rise abruptly but settle
down slowly. Once it is aroused, it tends to persist and leaves behind emotional mood.
Emotions are also transferable i.e. the effect of emotion in one situation or place or time
is transferred to another. For example, a teacher who had a quarrel with his wife at
home comes to school and behaves rudely with his students. A doctor had to attend to
large number of patients at the clinic, and has an argument with someone, he becomes
tired, and after returning home he may behave differently with his family members.
There is a negative correlation between the upsurges of negative emotions like anger,
and intelligence. While reasoning ability and sharp intellect provide a careful check on
the sudden upsurge of emotions under the influence of negative emotional experiences,
the reasoning and thinking powers get hampered and unbalanced during emotional
experience.
1.4.4 Kinds of Emotions
Emotions could be classified broadly into two kinds- positive and negative according to
their consequences. Unpleasant emotions like fear, anger, hatred, jealously, enmity
which are harmful in the development of an individual are termed negative emotions.
They create negative energies in the environment of the individual and are disabling for
growth end achievement. Pleasant emotions like affection, love, amusement, curiosity,
joy and happiness which are very helpful and essential for normal development of an
individual are termed as positive emotions. These emotions create positive energies in
the environment of the individual and facilitate growth and development
It should be kept in mind that all the positive emotions are not always good, and all the
negative emotions are always bad. While assessing their utility and impact, other factors
like the frequency and intensity of emotions, situations and nature of stimuli should also
be considered. Excess of everything is bad even excess of positive emotions is also not
good. Emotions with too much intensity and frequency, no matter positive or negative,
bring harmful effects on the individual. On the contrary, the so called negative emotions
are also very essential for the human welfare and social life. Negative emotions like fear
prepare a person to stay alert and face the dangers ahead in life. A person who has no
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fear is sure to get injured because he or she has not learnt to protect him or herself
against a possible danger or be careful in life.
1.4.5 Factors Influencing Emotional Development
There are various factors which play crucial role in the emotional development of
children. Some of those factors are elaborated below:
1. Physical Development and Health: Health and physical development of the

children has a positive correlation with their emotional development. Any type of
deficit in their physical development like low vision, orthopedic handicap, hearing
impairment etc. may create emotional problems. Children, who generally suffer
from illness or have some other health related problems, generally get emotionally
upset and are more unstable than those with better health. Normal hormonal and
glandular functions are very important for normal emotional development.
2. Family Environment: Family plays crucial role in all kinds of development of the
children and particularly in their emotional development. Family’s emotional
climate and the kind of relationships prevailing are important for proper emotional
development. Behaviour of the parents, older members of the family and siblings
with the child, and among siblings themselves, influences the emotional
development of the children. Healthy communication patterns, congenial
environment and ways of dealing with conflict in the family develop positive
emotions, whereas conflicting situations, tensions, quarrelsome environment in the
family develop negative emotions in the children. The order of the birth of the
child, the family size, the socio-economic status of the family, the parental attitude
towards the child like neglect, pampering, or over-protection, all negatively impact
the emotional development of the children.
3. Neighbourhood and the Community: The neighbourhood and community
influence the emotional development by way of exposure of the child to the
neighbourhood jobs, emotional and social behavior, support for each other,
relationships and ways of dealing with conflicts and differences. Children
unwillingly pick up emotional behavior from these sources. If the community
models bravery, the children will be brave; if the community is generally timid the
children will be fearful. The society where the adults exhibit emotional outburst of
anger or are loud and aggressive, the youngsters are likely to imbibe such
behaviour.
4. School Environment: School life plays very important role in the emotional
development of the children. Healthy and conducive environment of the school,
including school administration, teachers, students, staffs, teacher-teacher
relationships, teacher-students relationships, teacher-parent relationships, student-
student relationship, etc. results in a balanced emotional development of children.
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All aspects of the school like physical facilities, academic environment, laboratory
facilities and conduct of practical work, method of teaching, organization of
curricular activities, sports facilities, etc. impact the emotional development of the
learners.
5. Social Development and Peer-group Relationships: Emotional development of
an individual is closely linked with his or her social development. The more social
the individual, the more likelihood is that s/he would be socially adjusted. Socially
rejected or maladjusted children face emotional problems in their lives. Therefore,
it is essential to facilitate and guide social development of the children and, is
equally important to oversee the peer group of the children. Parents and teachers
should guide children in choosing peer group carefully.
6. Intelligence: Intelligence is the ability of an individual to adapt to various
situations or environment. It has significant correlation with the emotional
adjustment of the individual. The intelligent persons have better reasoning, thinking
and self restrain, and hence are the more emotionally adjusted and mature.
According to Meltzer (1973) there is less emotional control, on an average among
those of the lower intellectual levels than among children of the same age who are
bright (Hurlock, 1959).
Thus the personal and social factors exert significant influence upon the emotional
development of the child. Personal factors include physical, physiological, mental and
social development of the child, and social factors include parents, family, school,
neighbourhood, community, and the society.
1.4.6 Facilitating Healthy Emotional/ Development

Emotions could be understood as positive and negative. It is important to socialize
expression of emotions in such a way that they are not disruptive and could be
expressed more positively rather than negatively. Some of the ways employed for this
purpose are discussed below:
1. Repression or Inhibition: It is a process which is the generally employed by

parents and teachers to check undesirable emotional behaviour of the child by
imposing restriction and punishment. The emotional expression, which is supposed
to be a social or which is against family or social norms is punished. Although, this
is not a good method of guiding emotional development yet it is frequently used as
a handy method. It is not likely to be of use with grown up children. Though with
very small children it could be successful if the punishment is mild and consistent.
2. Redirection and Sublimation: This method involves diverting the attention from
an undesirable goal to a socially desirable one. There is a difference in redirection
and sublimation. In redirection there is no change in the nature of the emotion and
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only the direction of the flow is changed. In sublimation, there is modification of

original instinct or emotions. It changes the very form of the emotion.
Redirection serves the best purpose for controlling the expression of emotions. It
does not affect the personality of the individual negatively as in the case of
repression or inhibition. It does not stop expression of the emotion, rather brings
desirable changes in modes of its expression.
For example, if a child is very aggressive and displays anger frequently, his
aggression must be channelized towards games so that excess physical the energy
of the child can be spent in a constructive manner.
3. Catharsis: It involves enabling children to release their emotional energies in safe
environment. The children are provided ample opportunities to express themselves
so that the pent up emotions get appropriate outlet. In the absence of this
opportunity, tensions build up in the mind of children which can be disruptive or
may be directed wrongly. By providing proper outlet for emotional expression, the
tensions can be released and children are made to feel better and lighter. The
simplest catharsis process is to pay attention and listen to such people, what they
want to say. Curricular activities, festivals, fairs, parties, rituals etc. provide means
for the catharsis of emotional energy.
4. Industriousness or Mental Occupation: It is self-regulating method of controlling
emotions in which people keep themselves busy in some constructive activities. It
follows the famous saying, “An empty mind is a devil’s workshop”. It is necessary
to organize curricular activities, cultural programmes, sports, National Social
Services Work, leisure activities for the balanced emotional development of the
children.
1.4.7 Emotional Intelligence (E.I)

Mayer and Salovey (1997) define emotional intelligence as, “the capacity to reason with
emotion in four areas: to perceive emotion, to integrate it in thought, to understand it
and to manage it.” As the definition indicates that every individual has varying capacities
and abilities with regard to their capacity for dealing with emotions. Depending upon
the nature of this capacity and ability, an individual may be more or less emotionally
intelligent in comparison to others. According to the definition a person is emotionally
intelligent in proportion to his ability to:
 Identify and perceive the various types of emotions in others through various
verbal and non-verbal means of communication (like face reading, body
languages and voice tone, etc.);
 Aware about ones own feelings and emotions;
 Incorporate and integrate the perceived emotions in ones’ thoughts and actions
like using his emotions in analyzing, problem solving, decision making, leading
the group, and so on’;
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 Have proper understanding about the nature, intensity and outcomes of the
emotions; and
 Exercise proper control and regulations over the expression and management of
own self and relationships with others for promoting harmony, prosperity and
peace.
Thus four components of emotional intelligence are awareness, acceptance, attitude

and action. Awareness means knowing what you are feeling and when you are feeling it.
Acceptance means believing that emotions are biological processes taking place in the
body and the brain that is not always rational. It means being able to feel an emotion
without judging it. Attitudes are beliefs that are attached to emotions. There are times
when the emotion follows an attitude, or is coloured by an attitude. Unless the attitude
is challenged, the emotion will continue to be felt in the same direction.
An emotionally intelligent person would have the ability of emotional awareness, and
cognitive realization that emotional expression may be irrational or unhealthy,
formation of desired attitude for the proper utilization of emotional feelings, and proper
behaviour for the progress of the self in harmony with others.
1.4.8 Emotional Quotient (E.Q)

It represents a relative measure of one’s emotional intelligence potential in the same
way as intelligence quotient (I.Q) does for the measurement of one’s intellectual
potentialities.
Like intellectual potential, every individual is born with some innate emotional
intelligence potential, which may be assessed in terms of one’s level of emotional
sensitivity, emotional memory, emotional processing and emotional learning ability. This
potential (unlike intelligence) is likely to be developed or damaged as a result of one’s
life experiences.
General intelligence is generally not subjected to the decline or damage with age or life
experiences. On the other hand, the emotional intelligence can be either developed or
damaged depending upon the environmental experiences of the individual. The level of
emotional intelligence is measured through some tests or life situations and is
represented as emotional quotient (E.Q), It may be defined as a relative measure of
emotional intelligence potential held by an individual at a particular period of his or her
life.
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……………………Activity/Experiment…………………………
Choose five families from your locality and conduct a survey of techniques used for
training of emotions by parents. You can use observation method and interview
parents and children for data. List out the methods identified and group them into
various categories. Discuss the methods identified. Develop a comprehensive report
and submit to your teacher.
Check Your Progress

1. Define emotion in your own words.
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2. Discuss the factors influencing emotional development of children.

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1.5 LET’S SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed motivation and emotions. Both play very important role in
shaping our personality and future. Motivation is the key to success in all walks of life. It
may be intrinsic or extrinsic in nature. We learned about motivation cycle and principles
of motivation in detail. We also discussed in this unit the different types of emotions,
factors influencing our emotions, techniques for training of emotions among children,
emotional intelligence and emotional quotient. The content of this unit will help you, in
studying and guiding motivation and emotions of your client as a counselor.
KEYWORDS:
Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation
Emotion
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Repression or Inhibition
Redirection or Sublimation
Catharsis
Emotional intelligence
Emotional Quotient
1.6.1 Objective Questions
1. The term emotion is derived from:
(a) Latin word (b) Greek word (c) French word (d) Emovere
2. Which of the following is more powerful motivation?
(a) Extrinsic motivation (b) Intrinsic motivation (c) Situational motivation (d) None of
these
3. Catharsis is:
(a) Ban on self expression (b) Freedom on self expression (c) Reduction in tension (d)
emotion
4. The term ‘emotional intelligence’ was introduced by:

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(a) Mayer & Salovey (b) Abraham Maslow (c) Yetta (d) Meltzer
1.6.2 Descriptive Questions
1. Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation with suitable examples.

2. What is emotional quotient? How is it different from intelligence quotient?
3. Discuss the role of inhibition and sublimation in training of emotions.
4. Elaborate motivation cycle. Discuss the role of needs in our lives.
5. As a guidance worker or counselor, how will you utilize motivation and emotion
of your clients for their proper counselling?
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOU PROGRESS/EXERCISES:
1. Motivation is the process of arousal, sustaining and regulating activity to achieve a

particular goal.
2. Two types: (i) Intrinsic Motivation or Natural Motivation, and (ii) Extrinsic
Motivation or Unnatural Motivation
3. Refer para 1.2.5
4. Emotions are some sort of feelings or affective experience which is characterized
by some physiological changes that generally lead them to perform some or the
other type of behavioural acts, generally on immediate basis.
5. Refer para 1.3.5
Brown, J.S. (1961), The Motivation of Behaviour, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Goleman, D. (1995), Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can matter More Than I.Q, Bantam
Books, New York.
Mangal, S. K. (2009), Essentials of Educational Psychology, PHI Learning, New Delhi.
Maslow, A. (1954), Motivation and Personality, Harper & Row, New York.
Mayer, J. D. and Salovey, P. (1997) “Emotional Intelligence and the Construction and
Regulation of Feelings, Applied & Prevention Psychology, 4(3), 197-208.
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UNIT 2 MOTIVES AND DIFFRENT THEORIES OF MOTIVES
STRUCTURE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Definition of Motive
2.4 Kind of Motives
2.4.1 Biological or Physiological Motives
2.4.2 Maternal and Paternal Motives
2.4.3 Achievement Motives
2.4.4 Affiliation Motives
2.4.5 Aggression Motives
2.5 Theories of Motives
2.5.1 Drive Reduction Theory
2.5.2 Arousal Theory
2.5.3 Incentive Theory
2.5.4 Maslow’s Hierarchy Theory
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Unit End exercises
2.1 INTRODUCTION
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We know that needs are the basic force behind all actions. It is the needs which give rise
to activating force or a drive that makes an individual to act or behave in a particular
way at a particular time for a particular purpose. In this way drives are the basic force
behind all behaviour. We usually ask in our day-to-day conversation, what was his
motive behind this statement? What was the motive of a person X in making this remark
in the public? These statements indicate that even a lay person knows that a motive
works as a basic force underlying behaviour. All that we do has some motive behind it.
We eat to avoid hunger or enjoy something, so in this case avoiding hunger or enjoying
food is motive. We drink water to quench our thirst, so quenching thirst is our motive
behind drinking water. Behind all behaviour simple or complex, there is some motive
which induces action.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you would be able to:
 Define motive
 Name different kinds of motives
 Differentiate between various types of motives
 List out various theories of motives
 Differentiate between push and pull theory of motives
 Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
2.3 DEFINITION OF MOTIVES
Motives provide direction to behaviour. Motives though not observable directly, yet
behaviour can be predicted from motives. For example, a friendly person is motivated
by affiliation motive. On the basis of this observation person’s behaviour can be
predicted in future also.
According to Fisher (Labh Singh and Tiwari, 1971), a motive is an inclination or impulsion
to action plus some degree of orientation or direction.
According to Rosen, Fox and Gregory (1972), a motive may be defined as a readiness or
disposition to respond in some ways and not others in a variety of situations.
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According to Carroll (1969), a need gives rise to one or more motives. It is rather a
specific process which has been learned. It is directed towards a goal.
On the basis of above definitions, we can conclude that:
 Motive is an inner state of our mind or an aroused feeling emanated through our
basic needs or drives which compel us to respond to some situation by creating a
kind of tension or urge to act to achieve the desired goal.
 Motive may be considered as a learned response or tendency, and also an innate
disposition.
 Motive is a preparation for responding in some selective manner for the
satisfaction of the related need and is a goal-directed activity, pursued till the
attainment of the goal.
 Change in our goal may bring about changes in the nature and strength of the
motive, while attainment of the goal helps in the release of tension aroused by a
specific motive.
Motives are energetic forces or tendencies (learned or acquired or innate) working
within the individual to compel, persuade or inspire him to act either for the satisfaction
of his/her basic needs or the attainment of some specific purpose.
Check Your Progress

4. Define motives in your own words.

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5. What are the important characteristics features of motives?

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2.4 KIND OF MOTIVES
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Motives are of various kinds, corresponding to the needs of the individuals, some
motives are common to all human beings, while some others are specific to a few. Some
motives are innate while others are learned. Innate motives are present by birth; these
are more or less automatic and help maintain balance in the body. These are biological
motives like hunger, thirst etc. There are other kinds of motives called social motives
which are learned in social situations like, affiliation, achievement, aggression etc. There
are other kinds of motives too like conscious or unconscious motives. Motives have
been identified and described differently by theories of motivation. The important
motives that play a crucial role in human life are described here.
2.4.1 Biological or Physiological Motives
As human beings some of our needs are common. All of us need food to eliminate
hunger (hunger motive), water to quench our thirst (thirst motive), and so on. From
birth to death, all human beings have variety of needs, some are basic in nature while
others make us comfortable or enjoy luxury. Some of these needs arise at specific age,
time and according to our typical situation, but all these needs which may vary in their
intensity are motives which may be labeled as biological or physiological motives. All the
biological motives are controlled and coordinated by various systems of the body- the
actions of various kinds of fluids, and hormones secreted by various exocrine and
endocrine glands of our body.
2.4.2 Maternal and Paternal Motives
The behaviour involving the care and protection of offspring by the biological or
adopted parents or of a species is called maternal or paternal behaviour and the
motives that energize them to engage in such behaviors is called maternal and paternal
drive or motive. It is stimulated by both biological, as well as psychological factors
related with learning. Hormones also play an important role in activating the maternal
drive. For example, a hormone named progesterone has been found to be important in
maintaining pregnancy. Another such hormone, prolactin, produced by the pituitary
gland, directs the mammary glands to secrete milk for the newborn.
Of course, these motives and drives go on changing in their intensity depending upon
the age of offspring, social condition, socio-economic background of the family, nature
and natural environment of the family, culture, and such other factors. These are the
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motives which are learned and acquired by the parents from the society, neighborhood,
grandparents, etc.
2.4.3 Achievement Motive
The desire to excel is learned socio-psychological need. This type of motivation

produced by desire for achievement, which provides sense of fulfillment, is called
achievement motivation or achievement motive. This motive has been extensively
explored by researchers in the field of education and psychology and other social
sciences.
According to Atkinson and Feather (1966), the achievement motive is conceived as a

latest disposition which is manifested in overt striving, only when the individual
perceives performance as instrumental to a sense of personal accomplishment.
According to Sarnoff (Mangal, 2009), achievement motive is defined in terms of the

individual’s orientation towards objects or conditions that he does not possess. If he
values those objects and conditions, and he feels that he ought to possess them, he may
be regarded as having an achievement motive.
The achievement motive moves or drives an individual to strive to gain mastery over
difficult and challenging situations or performances in the pursuit of excellence. It is
generally conditioned by one’s early training, experience and subsequent learning.
Children generally acquire achievement motive from their parent’s lifestyle and peer
group. It has been found through various studies that the children whose independent
training starts at an early age and who get more autonomy within a cooperative,
encouraging and less authoritarian family environment usually develop an achievement-
oriented attitude. Such an attitude provides foundations for the achievement motive of
the child. The experiences and learning in favorable circumstances and situations may
facilitate the development of the intensity of achievement motive that drives him/her
towards high standards of excellence.
2.4.4 Affiliation Motive
It originates from affiliation needs or social needs, a need to be with people. The
affiliation need is found in most human beings, as a result of which they live together in
packs, flocks or groups. Being in group enables them to better care, protect and provide
security for the welfare and survival of all. It is very often stimulated by some other
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needs or motives like the social approval motive, the recognition motive, the power
motive and the achievement motive. These are connected with the socio-psychological
make-up of the individuals, hence the affiliation motive must be considered to be an
offshoot of early experiences and social learning.
The presence or absence of affiliation motive in an individual to adopt either an isolated

lifestyle or an affiliated lifestyle depends upon his/her previous experiences, right from
childhood stage. You must have observed that the children coming from close-knit
families reflect a stronger affiliation motive than those children coming from more
loosely knit families. You can also find out that the neglected children or restitutes lack
intensity of the affiliation motive. The patterns of affiliation behaviour and strength of
the affiliation motive may vary from individual to individual based on earlier experiences
and social learning.
2.4.5 Aggression Motive
This motive instigates behaviours that are generally intended to inflict physical, financial
or psychological harm to others. According to Bandura (1973) frustration generates
aggression only in those people who have previously learned aggressive attitudes and
actions as a means of coping with their environment. The environment in the family,
school or neighbourhood, parents, elders, teachers and peer group may model using
aggression as a means to discipline, which could be imbibed by the individual. This kind
of attitude and motive may also develop in children by viewing various media sources
displaying violence. How these motives are learned and why some motives may become
very persistent has been explained by various theories of motives which are discussed in
next section.
………………………….Activity/Experiment…………………………………
Visit any senior secondary school and meet class X students and interview at least 20
students on random basis to find out their achievement motivation. Is their any
relationship of their achievement motivation with their family environment and socio-
economic status?
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Check Your Progress

8. Name different types of motives.
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9. What do you mean by achievement motive?

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10. Do you have achievement motive? Justify your answer.

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6. Differentiate between aggression motive and affiliation motive with example.

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2.5 THEORIES OF MOTIVES
The behaviour is always changing, it is dynamic. It is because motives are always

changing. The factors which create motives and motivation have been explained by
different theories. Some of the important theories are discussed below.
2.5.1 Drive-Reduction Theory
Hull (1943) stressed that biological drives such as thirst, hunger, sex, escape from
danger, pain, etc. are mainly responsible for initiating and maintaining the primary
responses of an individual. These drives creates state of internal tension and
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restlessness which has to be changed to return to normal. In such condition, all the
energies of the individual are concentrated on his/her efforts to reduce the heightened
tension or drive. For example, when a person is very hungry s/he will look for food and
may not even pay attention to other things.
An individual may tolerate hunger up to a level when busy with work, but a stage comes
when s/he is unable to tolerate hunger. This happens with all other drives we have in
our lives.
2.5.2 Arousal Theory
This theory is also known as “push theory of motivation”, as behaviour is pushed

towards attainment of goals. Internal arousal of the person is oriented to behaviour
which will reduce the intensity of the driving state.
Example: A student X is low achiever. But his/her two friends Y and Z score high on the
class tests. Now X is likely to be in a state of arousal to be a high achiever than his/her
friends or at least equal to them. S/he is in tension how to achieve that level. S/he may
starts working hard. S/he may improve his/her level of achievements in all succeeding
tests and consequently reduce the level of arousal. A day comes when s/he is either
equal or better than his/her two friends. Now s/he is satisfied but may move on to still
higher levels of achievement.
2.5.3 Incentive Theory
Incentives could be anything which increases efforts for attaining the set goals. The
incentive provides pleasure to the individual that is why s/he seeks to attain it or it could
be elimination of some painful thing or obstacles or delimitation. Accordingly the
incentives are called positive and negative. Both kinds of incentives are desirable and
create high level drives in people for moving towards positive ones and avoidance of
negative ones. This theory is also known as “pull theory” of motives or motivation. So
many expected incentives like wages, salaries, bonuses, vacations, etc. exert pull on
people in their day-to-day lives.
2.5.4 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Every human being has basic needs which are quite essential for proper living. The more
basic needs are more essential and are called as lower order needs. The superior or
higher order needs come after the individual fulfills the lower order needs. These needs
create strong drives and motivation in the individuals for their fulfillment. Until and
unless the first level needs are fulfilled, the individual cannot think of the higher needs.
Maslow, (1954) proposed a hierarchical structure of the human needs as shown in figure
2.1. The hierarchy of need indicates the need structure of every human beings. At the
bottom are the physiological needs i.e. the need for food, water, clothing, shelter and
other biological needs without which human beings cannot survive. Unless and until
these needs are fulfilled, it is very difficult for human beings to think about other needs.
Once these needs are fulfilled, we move towards satisfaction of other needs, the need
for safety and security and to secure satisfaction of first order needs.
Self
Actualization
Esteem needs
Social needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
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Fig. 2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
When an individual is sure about satisfaction of his first two needs i.e. physiological and
security needs, s/he is confident about these two levels, only then can the person think
of social needs or needs for belongingness. As soon as these two lower level needs are
fulfilled, one aspires for getting respect and importance from the society. This
constitutes the need for self esteem and next order of self-actualization. These two
needs, self-esteem and self-actualization are the very fine and superior needs,
exclusively for self actualization of the human beings. Self-actualization refers to an
individual’s need to develop his or her potentialities; in the other words, to do what he
or she is capable of doing. This need is felt by the people who make the fullest use of
their capabilities. This is a very strong need and may overcome all other needs when it is
aroused.
The pyramidal structure of hierarchy of needs emphasizes that as one grows and
develops as a human being, he advances through the satisfaction of these needs in the
order as provided in the structure. These needs emerge as satisfaction of lower order
occurs, which opens the ways for higher order needs to appear. There are people who
spend their whole life just at the first level of hierarchy.
It is also important to mention that this need hierarchy generally applies to most of the
people. However, there are exceptions when the satisfaction of lower order needs is
superseded by efforts for the realization of the higher order needs. You must have
heard and read the biographies of many saints, national heroes, martyrs, inventors,
scientists, discoverers, poets writers and composers revealing this fact that they were
self actualizing their potential without satisfaction of basic needs. But these are
exceptions only, these cannot be generalized.
…………………….……….Activity/Experiment……………………………………
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Talk to twenty five working people in your neighborhood and try to find out at what
level of hierarchy of needs they are. It is advised that the sample of 25 people should
be selected on random basis. Develop a report and submit to your teacher.
Check Your Progress

7. Name different theories of motives.
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8. What do you mean by Drive Reduction Theory?

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9. Where do you find yourself in the Maslow’s hierarchy of need? Justify your answer.
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10. Differentiate between push and pull motive with example.

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2.6 LET’S SUM UP
In this unit, we have studied about the concept of motive, kind of motives, and theories
of motives. We have discussed various kinds of motives like biological or physiological
motives, arousal motives, aggressive motives, and achievement motives. We have
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discussed various important theories of motivation like Hull’s Drive Reduction theory,
Incentive Theory, Arousal Theory and Hierarchy of Need Theory.
Needs are the most important factors which control our drive and motivations. Need
satisfaction is very important for development of personality. The knowledge about
motives and the theories of motives may help us in understanding the behavioural
problems experienced by ourselves, our family members and others students who come
for counseling.
KEYWORDS:
1. Motives
2. Achievement Motives
3. Drive Reduction
4. Incentives
5. Hierarchy of Need
6. Self-actualization
2.7.1 Objective Questions:
1. How many levels does the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs have:

(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 6
2. Which is the highest level in the hierarchy of needs:

(a) Physiological needs (b) Self-actualization need (c) Security need (d) Esteem
need
3. Incentive is
(a) Push drive (b) Pull drive (c) Instinct drive (d) None of these
4. Drive Reduction Theory was given by:

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(a) Hull (b) Maslow (c) Bollets (d) Bandura
2.7.2 Descriptive Questions.
1. Discuss the theories of motives with suitable examples.

2. Do you believe in the Maslow’s hierarchy of need? Justify your answer with the
help of your experiences.
3. What is self-actualization? Do you think in this age of globalization and
economic rivalry any body is self- actualized?
4. Make a list of ten big achievers, each from India and abroad, and find out how
they surpassed or made Maslow need hierarchy not implemented on them.
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/EXERCISES
1. Motives are energetic force or tendency working within an individual to compel,

persuade or inspire him or her to act either for the satisfaction of his or her basic
needs or for the attainment of some specific purpose.
2. Needs, Purpose, goal-directed actions, high energy activity to achieve some
specific objective or goal, learned or acquired, etc.
3. Biological or physiological motives, maternal or paternal motives, achievement
motives, affiliation motives, and aggression motives.
4. A motive intended to achieve some very important aims in life especially related to
career, aspirations, and achievement in studies, and profession.
5. Yes, I have achievement motive. This is reflected from my achievement in my
exams, my selection for this course, and my high energy effort to excel in the field
of guidance and counseling.
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6. Aggression motive: Motive to take revenge from some one or to inflict punishment
on others, for example, the role of Amir Khan (after interval) in Gajni, enmity
between two people.
7. Affiliation motive: Motive to be with people, with society, with groups. For
example, making friends, being with like-minded people, meeting with people in
your locality, attending social gatherings, etc.
8. Drive-reduction theory, Arousal theory, Incentive theory, Maslow’s Need theory.
9. For fulfilling our needs, drives are developed. As we move ahead towards fulfilling
our needs, drives get reduced slowly and finally it reached to zero as soon as that
particular need is fulfilled.
10. Totally personal question, answers vary from person to person. Refer para 2.4.4
and assess yourself.
11. Push motive: totally internal motivation, people are automatically drawn or
pushed towards some goal. For example, a student want to become doctor, study
very hard to quality the medical entrance test.
Pull motive: developed by incentives or extrinsic motivation. A child is told by his father
that if you get more than 80% marks in the test, you will be given a cycle. The motive of
getting a cycle is pulling the child toward hard work.
Atkinson, J. W. and Feather, N. T. (eds.), (1966), Theory of Achievement Motivation,

John Wiley, New York.
Brown, J. S. (1961), The Motivation of Behaviour, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Mangal, S. K (2009), Essentials of Educational Psychology, PHI Learning, New Delhi.
Weiner, B., (1980), Human Motivation, Holt Renehart & Winston, New York.
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UNIT 3 CONFLICT OF MOTIVES AND FRUSTRATION
STRUCTURE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Conflict of Motives
3.3.1 Approach-Approach Conflict
3.3.2 Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
3.3.3 Approach-Avoidance Conflict
3.3.4 Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict
3.4 Frustration
3.4.1 What is Frustration
3.4.2 Personal Frustration
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Our motivational level is never constant in direction. There are several motives or goals.
Motivation for a goal varies from time to time and situation to situation. When two
goals attract an individual or two motives are aroused simultaneously there is conflict.
We often experience conflict and it can sometimes reduce the motivation, as well as
increase it, depending on the challenges posed to our efforts to reach the goals. When
the challenge is too high it leads to frustration. But at times the motivation for the goals
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keeps us from other goals that may be equally important. Thus there is frustration and
conflict due to motives. We will discuss in this unit about these two concepts in detail.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit; you would be able to:
 Define conflict of motives;

 Define frustration,
 Describe different types of conflict; and
 Explain various sources of frustration.
3.3 CONFLICT OF MOTIVES
We have learned that there are several needs that drive us and make us work for their
satisfaction. Sometimes two needs may be activated simultaneously which causes a
conflict. Conflict could be between two needs or there could be several needs activated
together; depending on the case conflicts could get very intense. Generally, it involves a
decision as to which need is more important. However, when both needs are equally
strong the person is in a state of indecision as to which need s/he should be working for.
This state of indecision is conflict among motives. Most conflicts are easy to resolve but
there are some which cannot be resolved; those conflict cause tension. Conflict
between two motives or lack of satisfaction of needs leads to frustration. Conflicting
motives are the most important, most persistent and deep seated source of frustration
among people. This can be the important cause of individual’s anxiety. There are three
major kinds of conflict of motives. These are discussed here.
3.3.1 Approach-Approach Conflict
It is a conflict that arises out of the clash of motives leading to two positive goals i.e. the
goals which are equally attractive and activated at the same time (see figure 3.1).
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Goal Person Goal

P Positive A Positive Q
Fig.3.1 Approach-approach conflict
A conflict related to careers equally attractive to a student, selected for admission to

B.Tech as well as B.Arch, is experienced by him/her. A physiological conflict arises when
a person is hungry and sleepy at the same time. In the social context, such conflict arises
when a person wants to go to the two parties one organized by a friend and another
organized by a close relative, and both are important for him or her. Such conflicts are
usually resolved either by deciding for one or the other. However, when both the needs
are equally strong, the person is in a state of indecision as to which needs she/he should
be working for. For example if a person is both hungry and sleepy s/he may decide to
eat than sleep. Another way of resolving such conflict is choosing one of the goals and
giving up the other. Compared with other conflict situations, approach-approach
conflicts are usually easy to resolve and generate little emotional behaviour or anxiety.
3.3.2 Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
It involves two negative goals or outcomes which the person wants to avoid. It is a fairly
common experience for most of us. A student has to do his home work or s/he will get
scolding from the teacher. The student wants to avoid both of these. A student is
required to study very hard for the last five days before the examination or face the
possibility of failure or low marks. A woman has to leave the job or face problems in
caring for her kids at home. This conflict may be represented by the following diagram
(figure 3.2).
Goal Person Goal

P A Q
Negative Negative
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Fig 3.3.2 Avoidance-avoidance conflict
The individual is caught between two repelling threats, fears, or negative situations
which S/he can’t escape. The choice becomes difficult and produces intense anxiety and
erratic behaviour. Indecisiveness is extremely intense and painful. Inconsistency in what
they propose to do and think is clearly visible. Vacillation occurs because the degree of
the offensiveness of the goal increases as the person reaches near it. As the person goes
nearer to the other negative goal, he finds himself repelled from it too, and finally
retreats or withdraws from both it. But at the same time, the person again comes closer
to the other negative goal and finds it too, in turn, unbearably obnoxious. He finds
himself in a perplexed situation, what to do and what not to do. What to avoid and what
not to avoid. Thus a sort of depression and helplessness crippling the individual leaves
him/her with hardly any energy to take any action. Indecisiveness is extremely painful.
The second important behavioural change in this type of conflict is the attempt to flee
from the conflicting situation. The person wants to escape from avoidance-avoidance
conflict by running away. People, indeed, try this. In real life, however, there are other
negative outcomes of fleeing from the situation. For example a student does not want
to take examination as s/he has not prepared for it. But running away from home and
the consequences of running away are even worse; hence, most of the persons in
conflict do not do it, rather suffer in silence.
People facing this type of conflict may rely on their imaginations to flee from the fear
and anxiety caused by the conflict. They spend much of their time in daydreaming,
which provides them certain relief. They may indulge in regression, a defence
mechanism in which people re-create in their minds the carefree world of childhood in
the event of facing unpleasant tasks and avoidance-avoidance conflict.
This type of conflict generates many intense emotions. If both negative goals are fear-
producing and threatening, a person caught between them will experience fear, anger
and resentment. If this type of situation arises on a regular basis, it may cause
personality problems for the individual.
3.3.3 Approach-Avoidance Conflict
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This type of conflict is most difficult to resolve because, in such cases, a person is both
attracted and repelled by the same goal object (figure 3.3).
Person
A Positive valance +
Negative valance -
Fig 3.3.3 Approach-Avoidance Conflict
The goal has both the positive, as well as negative value; because of the positive valence
of the goal the individual tends to approach the goal but as s/he nears the goal the
negative valence becomes stronger which repels the individual from the goal. If at the
same time when they approach to the goal, its negative or repellent aspects become
stronger than its positive or attractive aspects, the person will stop before reaching the
goal. The individual gets frustrated, as the goal is not reached.
Indecisiveness is the response to this conflict also. People approach the goal until the
negative valence becomes too strong, and then they back away from it. On the contrary,
if the negative valence is not offensive enough to stop the approach behaviour, the
people reach the goal, but much more slowly and hesitatingly than they would have
without the negative valence; and until the goal is reached, there is frustration. Even
after reaching the goal, the individual may feel arousal because of the negative valence
attached to it. Frustration, fear, anger, resentment are common emotional reactions in
this conflict. This is common among school children when they approach subjects that
they do not like or that they find difficult to comprehend. Another common example is
the high risk behaviour like drugs and alcohol consumption. Initially a person
approaches these things but at the same time is worried about its negative
consequences.
3.3.4 Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict
There are several situations and goals which have many positive as well as negative
valences. The decision in such situation whether to approach or avoid involves multiple
approach-avoidance conflicts (fig 3.3.4).
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Marriage
+ -
Job Career
Person
+ Positive valance A Positive valance +
- Negative valance Negative valance -
Fig 3.3.4 Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict
For example, a student has got selected for a good job; on the other hand s/he has got
selected for a very good professional course which will make his/her career even more
rewarding. Further his/her family compels him/her for marriage because of some family
situation. Here there are multiple options for him/her, with both positive and negative
consequences. Job has a positive valence for him/her as it will provide security for life,
but the person also wants better career, hence career opportunity also has positive
valence. Marriage is a repellent for him/her because it will mean giving a rewarding
career and obstacles in the new job as well. With respect to the career the person is
attracted towards job but also repelled by the problems it will create in his marriage.
Resolving family situation by marrying will have positive valence but it will create
hurdles for new job. What would the person do? The answer depends on the relative
strengths of approach and the avoidance drive due to all these multiple positives and
negatives. After a deep thought process and vacillation, s/he might delay his/her
marriage and avoid joining job, if the sum total of the positive career valence and
negative career valence is more than the sum total of positive and negative job valence,
as well as the sum total of positive and negative marriage valence (fig 3.4). Thus the
decision an individual will take in a multiple approach-avoidance conflict will depend on
the relative strengths of all the positive and negative valences involved.
………………………….Activity/Experiment………………………………
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Sit together with your close friends and discuss various types of conflicts you and your
friend had faced in various stages of lives. Which conflicts you have faced most
frequently and which ones you have faced the least. How did you sort out those
conflicts? Develop some interesting and encouraging story to resolve conflicts based
on the conflicts you and friends have experienced in life.
Check Your Progress

6. Define conflict of motives in your own words.

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7. What are the different types of conflict of motives?

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3.4 FRUSTRATION
We engage in a variety of activities in our daily life. These activities are not without a
reason, even though the reason may not be apparent to others. The reason behind
every action is basically our motives or motivation which enforces us to do that. But the
motivation does not always bring about desired results. There are hurdles that prevent
us from reaching the goals which we are desire at any point of time. When we can’t
attain our desired goals or fulfill our needs, we get frustrated.
3.4.1 What is Frustration?
Frustration refers to the blocking of behaviour directed towards some goal. It may be
that we are unable to achieve our set goals despite our best efforts and so we become
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frustrated. On the other hand it may happen that because of frustration in some area of
achievement, the other area of work or accomplishment is hampered. Hence frustration
leads to obstacles and unfulfillment, and on the other hand obstacles and
underachievement in any one area may leads to frustration in other area.
There are many ways in which motives are prevented from being satisfied. The most
important hurdle that prevents satisfaction of our goals and brings frustration is the
conflict, particularly among simultaneously aroused motives, as discussed earlier in the
unit. If motives are frustrated or blocked, emotional feelings and strong reactions often
get expressed. People feel depressed, fearful, anxious, guilty, or angry and they simply
fail to derive ordinary pleasure from living.
Frustration can be diagrammatically shown by the following diagram (fig 3.5). The
rectangular box denotes the total environment of a person, the vertical line denotes
barrier and the + sign within the circle denotes the goal of a person A (encircled) in the
diagram. In such diagrams goals are always denoted by either ‘+’ or a ‘–’ sign, called
‘valence’. A plus sign indicates a goal to which a person is attracted and a minus sign
indicates a goal which repels the individual like punishments, threat, and kind of fear
which any person avoid. The arrow is used to indicate the direction of motivation of the
individual towards which he or she is being attracted or repelled.
Person
A +/-
Goal Total
Environme
nt
Barriers (Person, environment, wrong goal

setting, an object, lack of ability, etc.
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Fig 3.4.1 Frustration by Obstacles (Personal and Environmental)
3.4.2 Sources of Frustration
There are three important sources of frustration. These are environmental factors,
personal factors, and conflict between and among motives. These are depicted in figure
3.4.1.
Environmental Frustration
Environmental factors or physical factors are the most important sources of frustration,
which hinder us in achieving our goals. Hence, these can frustrate individuals in attaining
motives. It may be locked door, locked room, locked almirah etc. It may involve parents,
teachers, police personnel and other human factors present in the environment that in
one or the other create hindrances in achieving our goals. In the present society
corruption is rampant and causing lots of frustration among people.
Personal Frustration
Unachieved goals may be important sources of frustration. These are mainly learned
goals that cannot be achieved either due to the environmental conditions or limitations
posed by capabilities of a person. For example, if a student who normally achieves 50%
marks in the examinations, aspires to achieve 90% in the final which is beyond his/her
capability or environmental capacities because of several e.g. lack of ability or bad study
habits and a host of other reasons like atmosphere at home, social support etc.).
Another student may be motivated to join the school band, games, science club, music
club, football team, cricket team, or act as the lead in a play and be frustrated because
he does not have the requisite talent for all these things. Generally the people are often
frustrated because they aspire to goals (a level of aspiration) beyond their capacity to
perform.
Conflict-Produced Frustration
In today’s society which is full of competition, major sources of frustration are found in
motivational conflict, in which the expression of one motive interferes with the others.
Life is full of conflicts and the frustration arising from them. Aggression is the result of
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conflict between or among various views of persons. It may be in conflict with the need
for social approval. In some societies, sexual motivation is often in conflict with society’s
standard of approved sexual behaviour. Other common conflicts are between
independence and affiliation needs or career aspiration and economic realities.
Economic Crisis Induced Frustration
Economy is the centre of gravity of all spheres of today’s society. For growth and
development in any area of study and profession, we need economic resources. In the
lack of these resources, we feel frustrated. Some bright students do not get proper
education, some bright mind could not do proper business and their capabilities are not
used properly. Of course, exceptions are every where.
……………………………………Activity/Experiment………………………………….
Meet at least ten people and collect data with the help of an interview regarding the
types of frustration they are dealing with. Which type of frustration is prevalent in the
society?
Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by frustration?

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2. What are the causes of frustration?

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3. Explain various sources of frustration.

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3.5 LET’S US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed the meaning of the conflict of motives, and the types of
conflict of motives. We studied about approach-approach conflict, avoidance-avoidance
conflict, approach-avoidance conflict and multiple approach-avoidance conflict. We also
discussed the meaning, causes, and sources of frustration. The most important and
most frequently occurring types of frustration are because of conflict of motives. The
other sources of frustration are environment and personal desires, unfulfilled conflicts
and economic reasons.
KEYWORDS:
1. Conflict
2. Frustration
3.6.1 Objective Questions
1. Which type of conflict is the most difficult to resolve?

(a) Approach-Approach (b) Approach-Avoidance (c) Avoidance-Avoidance (d)
Multiple Approach-Avoidance
2. Which is the most important source of frustration among lower middle class
people?
(a) Environmental (b) Personal (c) Economic crisis induced (d) Conflict induced
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3.6.2 Descriptive Questions
1. What, according to you, is the most important cause of frustration? Explain with
suitable example.
2. Which type of conflict have you faced in your academic career? List out any four
situations and explain to which category they belong.
3. Explain with an example the multiple approach-avoidance conflict.
4. Discuss the concept of conflict with your friends and explain what people
generally do in any conflicting situation.
1. When we are in a dilemma like whether this should be done first or the other one
should be done first. When selection or rejection among alternatives are difficult.
These types of situations are called as conflict of motives.
2. There are four types of conflict of motives. These are- approach-approach
conflicts, approach-avoidance conflicts, avoidance-avoidance conflicts and
multiple approach-avoidance conflicts.
3. Frustration refers to the blocking of behaviour directed towards some goal.
4. There are many causes but conflicts among simultaneously aroused motives and
unfulfillment of any desire are the most important.
5. Various sources of frustrations are environmntal, personal, conflict related and
economic crisis. Refer to para 3.3.2.
Arkoff, A, (1968), Adjustment and Mental Health, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Kartz and Lehner, G. F., (1953), Mental Hygiene in Modern Living, The Ronald Press
Company, New York.
Mangal, S. K (2002), Advanced Educational Psychology, PHI Learning, New Delhi.
Morgan, T., King,A. R, Weisz,R. J, and Schopler, (1993 ed.), Introduction to
Psychology, Tata McGraw Hill,New Delhi.
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Weiner, B., (1980), Human Motivation, Holt Renehart & Winston, New York.
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DGC – 1
BLOCK – 5
Personality
Unit 1: Nature and Determinants of Personaility
Unit 2: Theories of Personality: Types and Trait Theories
Unit 3: Recent Trends in Understanding Personaility:

Measurement of Personality

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BLOCK 5
Block Introduction:
This is the fifth block of the Course GC-I ‘Psychological Basis of Guidance and
Counseling’. There are three units in this block as given below:
Unit-1 Nature and Determinants of Personality

Unit-2 Theories of Personality: Types and Trait Theories
Unit-3 Recent Trends in Understanding Personality: Measurement of Personality
The first unit entitled ‘Nature and Determinants of Personality’ deals with the
nature of personality, its meaning and definition. The various definitions given by
psychologists have been discussed in detail. The determinants of personality like
genetic, social and cultural factors have been described. The role of the school
and parents in shaping personality has been discussed.
The second unit deals with the theories of personality. It describes the role of
theory in understanding personality. The trait and type approach have been
explained in detail. The typology provided by Hippocrates, Kretschmer, Sheldon
and Jung have been discussed under the type theories. Main theories which have
been discussed under the trait theory are those propounded by Allport and Catell.
The third unit deals with the recent trends in understanding personality. It escribes the
OCEAN or the Big Five Theory and the recent Myers Briggs Type Indicator. It also
discusses various measurements of personality like the projective tests and self report
tests. Under the projective techniques the Rorschach Ink Blot Test is discussed in detail,
while under the Self Report, the Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI) is
explained.
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UNIT 1 NATURE AND DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
STRUCTURE
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Nature of Personality
1.4 Perspectives on Personality
1.5 Determinants of Personality
1.5.1 Genetic Determinants
1.5.2 Social Determinants
1.5.2.1 Role of the Home
1.5.2.2 Role of the School
1.5.2.3 Role of the Teacher
1.5.3 Other Determinants
1.5.4 Cultural Determinants
1.6 Let us Sum Up
1.1 INTRODUCTION
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We frequently use the word ‘personality’ when we are describing ourselves and others,
and we all believe we know what it means. For a layperson, personality is defined in
terms of how a person appears to others. The person with a ‘good personality’ is one
who impresses us with his or her ability to get along well with people. Beauty pageant
contestants are typically judged on their physical attractiveness, talent and ‘personality’.
Here personality is defined and judged in terms of popularity, talent, poise and
sophistication, etc.
There is a general curiosity to understand and explain human behaviour. It is also one of
the most exciting and challenging issues in psychology. People are interested in knowing
why we act, think and feel the way we do? We want to understand personality to
control our behaviour and make better adjustment with others. The more we
understand our own personality and that of others, their perceptions and their
responses to us, the better will be our responses to others.
We use adjectives to describe personality. When we say that our friend is reliable, we
are describing his/her personality. When we characterize others as intelligent,
thoughtful, ambitious, etc. we are again describing the features of their personality.
These adjectives that we use to describe people and distinguish them from each other.
There are more than 20,000 such adjectives in the English language alone.
Study of Personality is aimed at explaining the characteristics of people that make them
different and unique from each other. Personality psychologists attempt to answer
these intriguing questions through systematic observations about how and why
individuals behave as they do. They tend to avoid abstract philosophical or religious
musings and focus instead on thoughts, feelings and behaviors of real people.
1.2 OBJECTIVE
After going through this unit, you would be able to:

1. Define personality
2. Explain nature of personality
3. Explain various determinants of personality
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1.3 NATURE OF PERSONALITY
The word personality is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’, which means ‘mask’.
Persona refers to social face or the outward appearance that person adopts. Thus initial
understanding of personality was in terms of external characteristics of the person, which
are visible to others. But we are not concerned with the superficial personality.
Personality is much more than that.
Personality is an abstract concept that takes into account many aspects that characterize
or contribute to the making of a person’s whole personality or what a person would be
like. There are many attributes that contribute to the making up of personality. For
example emotions, motivations, thoughts, experiences, perceptions, actions and other
internal mental processes that influence the person’s behavior and which determine how
the person is going to behave or act in a given situation.
Different psychologists describe personality from their own perspective. The problem is
how to establish a definition that encompasses all the aspects like inner features, social
aspects, qualities of mind and body, inner goals, etc.
Carl Rogers described personality in terms of self, an organized permanent, subjectively

perceived entity, which is at the very heart of all our experiences. According to him all
our perceptions about our self are based on feedback we received from others, right from
childhood. These perceptions get organized and form our self which may or may not
reflect our true self. But the person believes this to be the true self and all his/her actions
are in conformity to this Self.
For Erik Erikson, life proceeds in terms of a series of psychosocial crises, with
personality a function of their outcome. He believes that an individual experiences at
different stages in his/her life a number of crises, the effective resolution of these crises
results in a healthy and positively oriented personality; whereas not handling these crises
effectively results in negative and unhealthy personality.
George Kelly regarded personality as the individual’s unique way of making sense out of
life experiences.
Cattell described the core structure of personality as comprising of 16 source traits.
These definitions indicate that personality is not just a superficial social image; rather it is
far beyond this. It refers to the more meaningful, essential and enduring qualities of a
person.
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One of the more comprehensive definitions of personality has been propounded by

Allport, (1936) who defined personality as ‘ the sum total of all the biological innate
dispositions, impulses, tendencies, appetites and instincts of the individual and the
acquired dispositions and tendencies acquired by experience’.
Check your progress

Q.1 What are the various aspects that contribute to making up a personality?
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Q.2 How has Allport defined personality?

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Q.3 State whether the following statements are true or false

a. Persona refers to a mask worn during dramas. True/False
b. Cattell describes the core structure of personality as 16 source traits
True/ False
1.4 PERSPECTIVES ON PERSONALITY
Personality can be understood at three levels. As Kluckhohn and Murray pointed out,
every human being is in certain respects:
a. Like all others (the human nature level)

b. Like some others (the level of individual and group differences)
c. Like no others (the individual uniqueness level)
The first level of personality analysis is descriptive of human nature in general that is the
traits etc of personality that are typical of the species and are possessed by almost
everyone. This could include language, or other common desires like the desire to live
with others, etc. The second level pertains to the individual and group differences. This
includes the individual differences that people have in terms of likes, motivations, goals
etc. In addition, this also includes differences between groups, wherein people belonging
to one group may have personality features in common within the group and different
from those belonging to other groups. These differences could be in the form of age, sex,
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cultures, socio-economic backgrounds etc. The third level of analysis of individual

uniqueness, points out that every individual has personal qualities and personality not
shared by any one. Thus these three levels of analyses help in a comprehensive
understanding of personality.
1.4.1 Approaches to the Study of Personality

The personality study has been approached from different perspectives namely
evolutionary, life-span, psychometric, and social perspectives.
1.4.1.1 Evolutionary Perspective

It examines the evolution of man as a biological and social being. Historically the
emergence of specialisation while living collectively enabled the group to function in a
much more efficient way. This led to development of expertise in different areas that
bestowed specialised personality and individuality. The diversity in human personality
and differentiation, that was brought about by the work and other survival needs, was
further worked upon by natural selection. The complexity of human mind which led to a
greater fitness and better adaptation was perpetuated by the nature. The differentiation of
emotions, like aggression, love, flexibility, etc. in human personality has come to be
acquired during these processes of adjustment and natural selection going on side by side.
1.4.1.2 Life-Span Perspective

The personality has been examined against the developments taking place over the entire
life as also against the theories that lay emphasis on a particular phase of life. A
significant characteristic of this perspective is that it assumes the personality as an
evolving and ever changing set of qualities which could be influenced in multiple ways
by a supportive and nurturing environment. The support for this perspective comes from
the fact that individuals change a lot with changes in the environment. Though the
changes around childhood are more drastic and around adolescence these are very fast
and explosive, still even then these are manageable with manipulation of the
environment.
1.4.1.3 Psychometric Perspective

This approach lays emphasis on the assessment of the observable or the objectively
assessable traits or qualities. The importance of objective modes of assessment whether
observation or self reporting rating scales or using sophisticated psychological tools is
central to this approach.
1.4.1.4 Social Perspective
This approach stresses on the social context of the individual. The cultural, social norms
and the various opportunities that environments provide for emulation are of central
importance in determining the personality.
1.5 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

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Human personality is a product of both heredity and environment. Heredity provides the
raw material in the form of physique, physiological make up, mental and perceptual
acuity, etc. while environment gives actual shape to the personality.
It is difficult to ascertain the extent to which personality is determined by genetics and

hereditary factors, or the up-bringing, culture, environment and experience etc. The
research studies seem to indicate that it's a bit of each, although obviously it varies from
person-to-person. It can safely be said that perhaps half of our personality is determined
by influences acting upon us right after we are conceived and born. An infant is born with
certain potentialities. The development of these potentialities depends on various factors
that give shape to personality. Although all experiences are individual and subjective, yet
there are two sets of experiences that one can distinguish. The common experiences refer
to those experiences that are shared by most people growing up within a family, culture
or cultural sub-groups. Unique experiences are those that are unique or personal to the
individual. They are not shared by many people. Basically, these are personal
experiences, for example, criticism or appreciation that an individual has received during
his/her life and which influences his/her life.
Factors that are quite important in development of personality are discussed here:
1.5.1 Genetic Determinants: Every cell of the human body contains a set of biological
blueprint that enable it to perform its essential functions. This information is
contained in chromosomes, which are composed of DNA. Genes are segments of
DNA that serve as the basic unit of our heredity. Our genes are assembled in
complex combinations, and the environmental factors work upon these genetic
guidelines to determine significant characteristics of our biological make up.
Genes do not control behaviour or other aspects of life directly; rather, they
indirectly impact on chemical reactions that affect the physiological processes in
the brain, and other parts of the body.
Heredity is of two types, biological and social. Biological heredity is the one that
the child inherits from his parents and forefathers in the form of chromosomes.
Social heredity includes all that a generation inherits from preceding generations
in the form of social traditions, customs and skills, attitudinal and behavioural
characteristics. Heredity and environment both play an important role in the
development of personality. Human personality comes into shape by the
interaction of heredity and environment. Heredity influences the individuals’
physique, motor sensory equipment and level of intelligence. It also influences
temperamental characteristics, health, and proneness to diseases.
1.5.2 Social Determinants: Environmental influences begin right from the time of
conception of the child in the womb of the mother. The overall condition of the
mother, i.e., her mental, physical and emotional condition influences the
development of fetus in her womb. This becomes the internal environment for
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the child. The influence of the external environment starts when the child comes
into the physical world. Within the social environment there are several factors
that influence the development of the personality. Prominent among them are the
influences of home, school and the teachers.
All of us are born alike with respect to our biological needs. The differences that
we have are created out of the social environment in which our needs seek
fulfillment. People living in hilly regions have a body different from those living
in the plains and coastal regions. Similarly, their mode of living, their food
habits, their diets are also different. These differences create regional differences
in personality characteristics of the people.
1.5.2.1 Role of the Home: Home is the first external environment that a child
experiences. It plays an important role in shaping the personality of a child
during his early infancy. The child comes in close contact with his parents
particularly mother, siblings, and other immediate family members in the home.
The way s/he is taken care of, his/her diet and warmth extended by way of
physical presence, touch etc. influences the emotional make-up of the child. A
well cared for child develops sense of security and positive self-image. The
child’s likes, dislikes, identification with people, response to stimuli, emotional
responses etc are all conditioned by the exposure in the family environment.
Early training and childhood experiences are important factors determining the
personality of a person. It is also seen that deprivation in early childhood imposes
serious handicaps on the development of the personality. Patterns of mothering,
family morale including discords, economic factors like poverty, lack of money
to fulfill needs etc. also influence the development of personality.
1.5.2.2 Role of the School: After home, a child spends a significant proportion of his
time in the school. A large proportion of the child’s time starting from age 3+ to
around 18 years is spent in the school. Much of the child’s personality is already
shaped at the home before s/he goes to school. When a child enters school, the
teachers replace his parents, and constitute authority figures. The classmates and
other friends become his/her social environment instead of siblings and
significant others. The behaviour of the school teachers and the other classmates
plays an important part in the development of his personality.
The process of developing likes and dislike continues. S/he develops and
modifies the conception of him/herself, and the outside world. The school poses a
new challenging environment different from that of the home. The child has to
accept new ways of behaving and accept new disciplining techniques; s/he may
conform or rebel, and acquire new adjustment. The school exerts considerable
influence over the development of a child’s personality.
1.5.2.3 Role of the Teacher: As mentioned earlier, the child spends a considerable
proportion of his time in the company of his teachers. The teacher is an important
influence in shaping the personality of the child. The way a teacher interacts and
supports children has an effect on their future personality. The teacher affects the
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environment of a classroom. If the teacher is democratic and caring, s/he will

create conducive classroom climate. On the other hand if s/he is authoritarian and
over critical, s/he would create an environment of aggression, hostility and
frustration for the children, thereby, restricting the development of healthy
personality. A democratic set up can lead to constructive and positive behaviour
patterns among children, and permits maximum personality development.
1.5.3 Other Determinants: Besides the above determinants there are a host of other
factors that determine the personality of a person. Some of them are described
below:
1.5.3.1 Language: Language is an important means through which the members of the
society interact and learn to draw meanings and imbibe these into their own
attitudes towards people and things. Thus the culture and characteristics of any
particular society are transmitted through language. A child learns the language,
its vocabulary, and usage in specific circumstances in his/her his family and
immediate environment. His/her personality is shaped during his/her interaction
with the others in the society through the medium of language. Thus language
plays a crucial role in personality development.
1.5.3.2 Social Role: As child grows up s/he comes to acquire several roles, as a child
(son or daughter), as a student, as a brother / sister, as a husband / wife, as an
employee etc. These roles define the behavioural expectations from the
individual. Living these roles successfully brings about adjustment of the
individual and the smooth functioning of a family or society at large. However,
the multiple roles that an individual has to play sometimes cause confusion or
frustration in the person, particularly during transitional life stages. For example
adolescents get frustrated when they are expected to behave like adults and at the
same time treated like children.
1.5.3.3 Self Concept: Self-concept refers to the way an individual perceives him/herself.
It is the image or identity that an individual holds of him. The initial self concept
of a child is formed from his awareness of his physical characteristics. Gradually
as the child grows and interacts with the world around, depending on his/her
positive or negative experiences, s/he develops positive attitudes towards his/her
own looks, health, abilities, achievements, family or peers, etc. The self concept
is the social status which in turn determines quality of life and experiences.
Social status determines our way of living, dressing, dietary habits, our
interactions, our language etc., which in turn enhance our capabilities,
opportunities for better achievement. Self concept is an important determinant of
personality, as a high self concept would mean that others hold a positive attitude
towards us, which in turn enhances our own self concept and self esteem. On the
other hand, if others look at us in a negative light, it would create a feeling of
worthlessness and may lead to self-defense or withdrawal from society.
1.5.3.4 Identification: The child normally imitates the behaviour patterns of his parents,
siblings and significant others. He tries to behave as his parents and significant
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others behave, the way they talk, the way they walk, the way they interact with
others etc. In short a child wants to be like his role models whom he blindly
imitates. This identification becomes an important determinant in the
development of his personality.
1.5.3.5 Inter-personal Relations: Interpersonal relations refer to the relationships that
members of society may have with each other. There may be congenial
relationship among members or there may be hostility or indifference towards
each other. The child learns the patterns of inter personal relations from his
immediate environment. Living in a caring, warm and supportive social
environment, s/he mixes freely and exhibits feelings of love, compassion and
sympathy. On the other hand, in country circumstances he may develop anxiety,
isolation or reduced contact with others. This may lead to the development of
negative aspects of his personality.
1.5.4 Cultural Determinants: The culture refers to the total life styles of a society or
the person. How people think or do and feel constitutes culture. Culture is the
sum total of the knowledge, beliefs, morals, law, customs, capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society. Thus it refers to the total life activities
of a society. Individuals across the world have the same biological inheritance,
but it is through difference in their cultural conditions that they develop
distinctive personality characteristics typical to the individuals belonging to that
cultural group. The customs, beliefs, rituals, mores, religious training, etc. of the
culture, moulds the personality of individuals. The influence of culture is so
pervasive that we can identify individuals by the cultural characteristics that they
exhibit. Culture is the carrier of the social heritage and induces a permanent
impression on the personality of the child. Research studies conducted on
identical twins reared in different cultures have shown that the twins exhibit the
culture of the society they are reared in rather than the culture of their birth. Thus
the impact of culture produces two different types of personalities.
1.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have studied the meaning and nature or personality. We have also studied
the various approaches to the study of personality and the determinants of personality like
genetic determinants, social determinants, the role of home, school and teacher, cultural
and other determinants. We also learned that early childhood experiences have a definite
impact on the development of the personality.
Q.4 What are the different determinants of personality?

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Q.5 Describe the role of the home in the shaping of personality.

a. Cultural determinants refer to the influence of total life activities of a society
on a person. True/False
b. Self concept is not an important determinant of personality. True/False
Friedman, H. S., & Schustack, M. W., (eds.). (2008). The Personality Reader (2nd ed.).
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Eysenck, M. W., (1994). Individual Differences: Normal and Abnormal. Philadelphia, PA:
Psychology Press.
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UNIT 2 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY: TYPES AND TRAIT THEORIES
STRUCTURE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Theories of Personality

2.3.1 The Type Approach
2.3.1(a) Jungian Type Theory
2.3.2 The Trait Approach
2.3.2.1 Gorden Allport’s Trait Theory
2.3.2.1 (a) Cardinal Traits
2.3.2.1 (b) Central Traits
2.3.2.1 (c) Secondary Traits
2.4 Hans Eysenck Trait Theory
2.5 Raymond Cattell Trait Theory
2.6 Let us Sum Up
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The study of personality is quite fascinating. No two individuals are same. Even twins
born in the same family are not exact replica of each other or their parents, differences
may appear even among twins and siblings. The personality theories are the ways in
which psychologists analyse the personality differences among different individuals.
Psychologists belonging to various schools of thought have described personality
according to their own viewpoints and each one of these theories has their own
assumptions about human beings and behaviour. In this unit we shall study two popular
theories of personality.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you would be able to:

1. Know the meaning of theories of personality
2. Explain types and trait theories of personality
3. Distinguish between types and trait theories of personality
2.3 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
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The basic function of a theory is to explain what is already known and to predict things
not yet known to be true. While explaining existing phenomena or predicting, different
views may arise. A theory is a set of ideas, constructs and principles that are proposed to
explain certain observations of reality. It is always explanatory in nature and therefore,
strictly speaking cannot be right or wrong. Any theory becomes valid and factual only
when data supports the theory.
The study of personality is a fundamental concern in psychology. The various systems

and approaches that attempt to explain human mental and behavioural processes could be
considered as theories of personality. Theories of personality actually elaborate the notion
about what people are like, how they become what they are and why they behave as they
do. Some of these theories are discussed below:
2.3.1 THE TYPE APPROACH
Type approach to personality is based upon the classification of people according to their
prominent characteristics like optimism, irritable patience etc. Hippocrates was the first
to give, what can be considered typological theory of personality during 400 B C.
Kretschmer, Sheldon and Jung belong to this approach. This approach states that human
personality can be classified into different types. For Hippocrates, the human body
consisted of four types of humours or fluids, the blood, yellow bile, phlegm (mucous) and
black bile. The proportion of these fluids in the human body determines the
temperamental characteristics of a person. The following table presents the dominant
fluid and the corresponding personality type and its associated temperamental
characteristics.
Dominance of Fluid Type Personality Temperamental Characteristics

in the Body Type
Blood Sanguine Light hearted, optimistic, happy, jovial,
active, adjusting
Yellow Bile Choleric Angry, irritable, impulsive
Phlegm Phlegmatic Slow, sluggish, cool, lazy
Black Bile Melancholic Sad, pessimistic, depressed, dejected
Another theory by Kretschmer (1921) classified human beings on the basis of their
physical structure as given by him in his work entitled Körperbau und Charakter. The
following table presents the physical body type and its various characteristics.
Type Body Types Characteristics

Pyknic having plump Social, jolly, good natured, easy going,
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bodies popular
Asthenic having slender type Weak, thin, sensitive, pessimistic,
unsociable, shy
Athletic having balanced Strong, energetic, optimistic
body
Dysplastic having unusual Mixed type
body
Sheldon’s classification of the personalities according to the body types corresponds to
Ernest Kretschmer. His classification is given below:
Type Body Type Characteristics

Endomorphic Soft, round, fatty Viscerotonic (sociable,
extrovert, affectionate, love to
enjoy)
Mesomorphic Muscular and strong Somatotonic (energetic,
bashful, assertive, boastful,
adventurous)
Ectomorphic Thin and tall Cerebrotonic (fearful,
introvert, shy, unsocial,
reserved)
2.3.1 (a) Jung, though an analytical psychologist, had also offered a classification of
personality based on typology. According to him, all human beings can be classified into
two distinct types, introvert and extrovert. Introverts tend to be shy, aloof, self centred
people who dislike social gatherings and pursue their own interests. On the other hand,
extroverts are those who tend to be social, jolly, outgoing and friendly. There is another
type proposed by Jung’s, the ambivalent, people who are neither introvert nor extrovert.
Jung approached personality and 'psychological types' from a perspective of

psychoanalysis. Jung asserted that a person is always working at the conscious and the
unconscious levels, which are in a way 'self-balancing'. If a person's conscious part (or
'attitude') becomes dominant or extreme, then the unconscious will manifest itself in
some way to rectify the balance so as to reduce too much inclination towards other type.
The other type may express itself in dreams or images, or through more physical,
externally visible illness or emotional disturbances.
Jung proposed psychic energy flows into two basic 'general attitude: Introverted and
extroverted. Jung described the introverted as those who turn inwards, and are reflective.
The extroverts, on the contrary, maintain a positive relation with others, and spend their
energy in outward relationships.
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Both the kinds of personality orientation- extra version and introversion - are present in
every person, in different degrees. No-one is pure extravert or pure introvert, and more
recent studies indicate that a big majority of people are actually a reasonably well-
balanced mixture of the two types, `however with a preference for one or the other.
Those who are strongly oriented towards either extraversion or introversion see things in
quite different ways, which can cause conflict and misunderstanding. Two people may
look at the same situation and come to very different conclusion
Jung developed a framework of four functions- thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition.
These four 'Functional Types' as being those from which the "Out of these the most
dominant function plays the principal role in an individual's adaptation or orientation to
life.”
Thinking: This function is a 'rational or a logical and analytical process of understanding

reality and its implications, causes and effects in. Thinking is based on personal
intelligence and comprehension, the opposite of 'Feeling'.
Feeling: ‘Feeling’ function involves making subjective judgements. Forming personal

subjective opinions about something is good or bad, right or wrong, acceptable or
unacceptable, etc. Sentimentality makes it the opposite of 'Thinking'.
Sensation: 'Sensation' function depends on factual data. There is no judgement of right or

wrong, good or bad, implications, causes, directions, context, possibilities, themes, or
related concepts. Sensation is descriptive and opposite of 'Intuition'.
Intuition: 'Intuition' function organises things, facts and details into larger conceptual
pictures, possibilities, opportunities, imaginings, mysticism and new ideas. Intuition may
ignore essential facts and details, logic and truth. 'Intuition' is the opposite of 'Sensation'.
Jung proposed that individuals have a dominant natural conscious orientation towards
one of the four functions (their ‘superior’ or most ‘differentiated’ function), and the
opposite function (the ‘inferior’ or ‘unconscious’ function) would be represented and
compensated within the person’s unconscious. The other two functions could generally
‘serve’ [ as an auxiliary function in support of the person's 'superior' function.
Quite a few psychologists have criticized this ‘type’ classification. They have emphasized
that the notion of categorizing people into two extreme categories ignores other aspects
of human nature. However, this does not mean that the ‘type’ approach is baseless.
Typology has its own value and has generated a great deal of research in the area of
personality.
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2.3.2 THE TRAIT APPROACH
Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined
as stable and enduring patterns of behaviour, thought, and emotion. Theories propounded
by Allport and Catell belong to this approach. The trait approach to personality uses a set
of terms that describe patterns of behavior which are consistent across situations like
cheerfulness to describe and appraise individuals. When we describe a person, we often
do so in terms of specific personality traits - stable dimension of personality along which
people vary, from very low to very high. This strong tendency to think about others in
terms of specific characteristics is reflected in trait theories of personality. These theories
focus on key dimension of personality - the most important ways in which people differ.
Gorden Allport (1961) he was the first one to identify several traits. He proposed that
personality traits could be categorised at three levels that varied in their importance.
2.3.2.1 (a) Cardinal Traits are the most powerful and pervasive single trait that
dominate an individual’s entire personality. According to Allport very few people
actually possess cardinal traits. For example, if we characterize some famous
personalities according to their cardinal trait, we will find that Hitler had a craving for
power, Mother Teresa had the trait of altruism, Mahatma Gandhi the trait of Ahimsa and
non violence and Lord Buddha, the search for truth.
2.3.2.1 (b) Central traits – According to Allport, there are five to ten traits that best
describe an individual’s personality for example, describing an individual’s
personality as calm, sober, sophisticated, kind, friendly, etc.
2.3.2.1 (c) Secondary traits – These are the traits that exert relatively specific and
weak effects on behavior. These traits are limited in frequency and least important in
understanding individual’s personality. Basically these traits are associated with attitudes
and preferences of a person such as liking and disliking particular food, dress or music.
2.4 Raymond Cattell: Another trait theory has been given by Cattell. He conducted
extensive research on thousands of persons who responded on different measures
and situations. Their responses were then analyzed by statistical technique known
as factor analysis. Cattell defined traits as relatively permanent reaction
tendencies that are the basic structural units of the personality.
Cattell classified traits in several ways -

Common traits – These are the ones that are possessed by everyone to some degree e.g.
honesty, cooperation, aggression gregariousness, intelligence, etc. Everyone has these
traits but the degree of these traits may differ from person to person.
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Unique traits - These are the traits shared by few people, unique traits may appear in our
interactions and attitudes.
Traits can be further subdivided into ability, temperament and dynamic traits. Ability
traits determine how efficiently a personal will be able to work towards a goal.
Intelligence is an ability trait. Temperament trait describes the general style and
emotional tone of our behaviour e.g. assertiveness, easy going or irritable nature of
person means the way we act or react in a situation. Dynamic traits are the dynamic
forces of one’s behaviour and define motivations, interests and ambitions.
A third way of classifying traits is to identify them as surface and source traits. Surface
traits are composed of several elements; they are less stable and permanent. They are not
determined by a single source, such as anxiety, indecision and emotional fear from the
surface trait of neuroticism. Source traits are stable, permanent traits that give rise to
some aspect of behavior. These are underlying structures or sources that determine one’s
behavior such as dominance, submission emotionality, etc.
2.5 Hans Eysenck’s personality inventory and the four temperaments: Eysenck's
approach to personality assessment was the first popular scalable mathematical
methodology. Eysenck's 1950s theory measures personality using two scales:
introversion-extra version and stability-instability (unemotional-emotional).
Eysenck's theory refers to instability as unstable, emotionally unstable, or
neurotic. By surveying thousands of people, using many and various adjectives
(traits) representing behaviours and types, Eysenck built a scalable model that
also formed the basis of what became the Eysenck personality test.
Eysenck's theory regards the choleric and melancholic temperaments as being

emotionally unstable ('emotional'), and the sanguine and phlegmatic
temperaments as being emotionally stable (unemotional). The theory sees the
phlegmatic and melancholic temperaments as being introverted, and the choleric
and sanguine temperaments as being extra verted.
The Eysenck theory produces four main types of personality:
 Unstable-introverted (emotional-introverted): moody, anxious, rigid, sober,

pessimistic, reserved, unsociable, quiet (melancholic)
 Unstable-extraverted (emotional-extraverted): touchy, restless, aggressive,
excitable, changeable, impulsive, optimistic, active( choleric)
 Stable-introverted (unemotional-introverted): calm, even-tempered, reliable,
controlled, peaceful, thoughtful, careful, passive (phlegmatic)
 Stable-extraverted (unemotional-extraverted): sociable outgoing talkative
responsive easy-going lively carefree leadership (sanguine)
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2.6 LET US SUM UP
In this section we have studied that there are two main streams of personality theories.
One is the type theory and the other is the trait theory. Under type theory, we have seen
that human personality can be classified into different types. We have also studied that
several psychologists have given different traits as habitual patterns of behavior, thought,
and emotions and that it is possible to find types of personality based on the traits.
a. Describe Jung’s type classification of personality.

b. Describe cardinal, central and secondary traits.
c. Distinguish between common and unique traits.
d. State whether the following statements are true or false
a. Eysenck’s theory does not refer to melancholic, choleric and sanguine types.
True / False
b. Secondary traits have weak effects on behaviour. True/False
(i) False (ii) True
Hall, C. S., Lindzey, G., & Campbell, J. B., (1998). Theories of Personality (4th ed.) New
York: Wiley
Derlega, V. J., Winstead, B. A, & Jones, W. H., (Eds.; 1991). Personality:

Contemporary Theory and Research: Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
Kretschmer, E., (1921). Körperbau und Charakter. Untersuchungen zum
Konstitutions problem und zur Lehre von den Temperamenten. Springer Berlin.
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UNIT 3 RECENT TRENDS IN MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
STRUCTURE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Measurement of Personality
3.3.1 Projective Tests
3.3.1.1 Rors chach Ink Blot Test
3.3.1.2 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
3.3.1.3 Limitations
3.3.2 Self Report Tests
3.3.2.1 MMPI
3.3.2.2 Limitations
3.4 Recent Trends
3.4.1 Big Five or OCEAN
3.4.2 Myers Briggs Type Indicator
3.5 Let us Sum Up
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Historically, assessment of personality was done on the basis of observable

characteristics; gradually efforts were made to quantify those characteristics. For instance
the size of the head, face, etc. would be related to the personality characteristics and the
circumference of head and other physical features were assessed to relate and predict
temperaments, interests and other personality dimensions. With the advancements in
measurement and statistical procedures like factor analysis, as well as the emergence of
different theoretical frameworks of understanding personality, new ways of measuring
personality came into being. This unit will introduce you to some recent trends in the
assessment of personality as well as a few techniques of personality assessment.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

 Describe different techniques to measure personality
 Describe the recent trends in explaining personality
3.3 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT
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Before describing specific personality tests, two important points need to be mentioned
about the nature of personality assessment.
First, personality tests are designed to assess stable, enduring characteristics free of
situational influence. Second, generally the assessment of personality is based on the
approach or the theory of personality adopted.
Personality assessment started with the use of rating scales, and later self report
questionnaires on selected traits were developed which contained sampled out statements
that differentiated between a select group of traits such as aggressive or emotional or
anxious, and the normal group. An important consideration in the development of these
personality tests was the reliability and the validity of these measures. The assessor needs
to know the confidence that can be placed in the assessment using the questionnaires.
These tests were rendered less reliable due to the social desirability of the items, and the
motivation of the persons to hide their true selves. These tests are used along with other
indicators which substantiate or refute the personality revealed. There are other
assessment procedures emanating from the different theories of personality. For example
the dynamic theories believe in unconscious motivation and the tests like Rorschach
Inkblot are used, trait factor theories gave rise to other self report inventories, and
cognitive-behavioural theory based and others.
Personality assessment has three main streams: Projective Tests, Self Report Tests and
Behavioural and Cognitive Assessment. There are several types of personality measures.
A few projective, some others are self report questionnaires and tests which are described
below.
3.3.1 Projective Tests present an individual with an ambiguous stimulus and

instructions to describe it or tell a story about it. The assumption behind these tests is that
individual tends to project his/her own meaning on to the stimulus. The ambiguity of the
stimulus allows the individuals to project on to it their feelings desires, needs and
attitudes. The test uncovers the unconscious hidden feelings and conflicts within the
person. Projective tests attempt to get inside of the mind of a person to discover how he
really feels and thinks. The ambiguity encourages the individual to go beyond to overly
express him/herself.
3.3.1.1 Rorschach Inkblot Test consists of 10 cards with inkblots which are vague
figures. Five of the inkblots are black and grey and the remaining others are of different
colours. Each card is shown to the subject separately, one at a time. The person taking the
Rorschach test is asked to describe what he or she sees in each of the inkblot. After the
individual has responded to all 10 inkblots, the examiner presents each of the inkblot
again and enquires about the earlier response and further investigates. Besides recording
the responses the examiner notes the mannerism, gesture and attitudes of the subject. The
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examiner first analyses the test record by scoring each response in terms of form features
as:
Location response as follows
W - Whole blot
D - Major detail
d - Small usual detail
Dd - Unusual detail
S - White space
Determinant: Form (F), Colour (C) or combination of the two (FC, CF), texture &
shading, movement in progress of the cards.
Content: Animal (A), human being (H) and inanimate objects seen by the subjects in the
cards.
Originality – original responses (O) and popular response (P)
None of the above four categories should be interpreted singly, however each must be
considered in relation to the others. From a scientific perspective researchers are sceptical
about the Rorschach. If the test is reliable, two different scores should agree on the
personality characteristics of the individual being tested. If the Rorschach is valid, the
individual’s scores should be able to predict behaviour outside of the testing situation,
i.e., you will get along well with other people, or you will successfully cope with stress.
Many psychologists have serious reservations about the use of Rorschach in diagnosis
and clinical practice. However, the Rorschach continues to enjoy widespread use in
clinical circles. The interpretation of Rorschach test is a complicated task which requires
special training in its administration, scoring and interpretation.
3.3.1.2 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – This test was developed by Murray and
Morgan (1935). It is designed to elicit stories that reveal something about an individual’s
personality. TAT consists of a series of pictures each on an individual card. It is shown to
the subject who is asked to tell a story about each of the pictures, including events
leading up to the situation depicted, the thoughts and feeling of the characters, and the
way situations will eventually turn out. The tester assumes that the person projects his or
her own unconscious feelings and thoughts on to the story. TAT is being used as a
projective test in clinical practice. It is also used in research on people’s need for
achievement.
Other projective tests used in clinical assessment are:
Children’s Apperception Test (CAT)
Blocking Pictures List
Cloudy Pictures List
The Word Association Tests (free and controlled)
Sentence Completion Test
Psychodrama
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Socio-drama
Draw-a-man Test
Toy and doll play Test
Clay modelling
Graphology – use of hand writing analysis to determine an individual personality.
3.3.1.4 Limitations of Projective Tests
These tests have very low reliability and validity in spite of the fact that the
psychologists using the tests have been trained specially, and they make use of a lot of
auxiliary data recorded during testing. The cause of such low reliability and validity, lies
in the subjectivity of scoring which relies on the judgement of the scorer. The process of
scoring is very tedious and time consuming, in comparison with the self-report
inventories.

Q.1 Describe TAT test of personality
a. Roscharch Ink Blot Test consists of 10 cards with inkblots. True/False
3.3.2 Self Report Tests: These are easy to administer, do not need special training.
The reliability and validity of these scales is much higher in comparison to the projective
techniques. Unlike projective techniques, self report tests do not attempt to assess an
individual’s hidden, unconscious personality. Rather self report test are objective tests,
directly asking people whether items describe their personality traits or not. Self-report
tests include a large number of statement or questions like I love to go to shopping, I like
to cook, I am a lonely person, etc. The respondent has a limited number of answers to
choose from i.e. yes or no, true or false, agree or disagree. Some of the self-report tests
are:
3.3.2.1 Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The most widely used self-report test which was initially constructed in 1940 is used to
assess ‘abnormal’ personality tendencies and to improve the diagnosis of individuals with
mental disorders. MMPI has 550 items, each of which can be answered as true, false or
can’t say. The subjects’ answers could lead to their categorisation into 10 clinical
categories that reveal measure of depression, psychopathic deviation, schizophrenia,
social introversion and so on. MMPI uses 4 validity scales in addition to the 10 clinical
scales. The validity scales are designed to indicate whether an individual is lying,
answering carelessly, being defensive or evasive while answering the test items. MMPI
was revised for the first time in 1989 and was called MMP I2 with a number of new
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items. New content scales that were added to MMP I2 include substance abuse, eating
disorders, anger, self esteem, family problems and inability to function in a job.
MMPI is a popular test and has been translated in more than 20 languages. It is widely
used by clinical psychologists to assess a person’s mental health. It is also used to predict
which individual will make the best job candidate or which career an individual should
pursue.
3.3.2.2 Problems with Self-Report Inventories

In spite of the reliability and validity, the disadvantage of going wrong is high because of
reliance on the self-report by the individual. The people’s perception of their own
qualities suffers from overgeneralisations, biases, need to fake, social desirability etc; all
these reasons render self report inventories less effective in presenting real picture of
personality.

Q.3 Describe the MMPI
a. Self-report list attempts to assess an individual’s hidden unconscious personality.
True/False
3.4 RECENT TRENDS
Personality assessment based on selected identified traits could become possible only
after the use of factor analysis. Earlier the psychologists like Allport (1936) had listed
large number of traits, and the way these traits were identified was by observing people
behave consistently in different situations or the set patterns of behaviour of an
individual. However, using factor analysis the large number of traits were reduced to
fewer traits that were the key composite behaviour across a number of situations such
aggression combines a number of discrete behaviours. Factor analysis made possible an
unwieldy number of traits to be brought under few components; one such classification
was known as ‘Big Five’ which is described below.
3.4.1 'The Big Five' is the commonly used term for the model of personality that
describes the five fundamental factors of our personality. The big five include:
1. Openness to experience: the tendency to be imaginative, independent, and
interested in variety vs. practical, conforming, and interested in routine.
2. Conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, careful, and disciplined vs.
disorganized, careless, and impulsive.
3. Extraversion: the tendency to be sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate vs.
retiring, sombre, and reserved.
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4. Agreeableness: the tendency to be soft-hearted, trusting, and helpful vs. ruthless,

suspicious, and uncooperative.
5. Neuroticism: the tendency to be calm, secure, and self-satisfied vs. anxious,
insecure, and self-pitying
The Big Five (also referred to by the acronym, OCEAN corresponding to the first letters
of the Openness, Conscientiousness, etc) contain important dimensions of personality.
However, some personality researchers argue that this list of major traits is not
exhaustive. Some support has been found for two additional factors: excellent/ordinary
and evil/decent. However, no definitive conclusions have been established. The Big Five
has established itself as a significant and fundamental personality testing model.
Psychologists and psychometrics practitioners use the term 'Factor' to describe each of
these five 'large traits' or scales. In turn, each of the Big Five Factors contains several
behaviours, which are clustered under the five main Factor headings. Of course each
main Factor can be further broken down into 'sub traits' or 'facets', for
example, Extraversion could have sub-traits such as Sociable, Competitive, Energetic and
Seeking Recognition. Each factor is named according to the 'high scoring' end of each
scale. Low scores logically indicate behaviours at the opposite side of the scale.
High scores are not good or bad.

Low scores are not good or bad.
The majority of us actually tend to score close to the middle (the 'norm'). The higher a
person scores for the behavioural elements shown within each of the five factors, the
more (logically) they will exhibit these behaviours, and be less able to sustain the
tendencies of the low scorer and vice versa.
Again, there is no good or bad. It's simply a measure of what we are. Each of the Big Five
factors consists of 'sub-traits', for example, 'Agreeable' consists of sub-traits (behavioural
elements) such as 'Tactful', 'Diplomatic', 'Team-centred', 'Submissive', 'Warm', 'Friendly',
'Tolerant' and 'Democratic'. In typical use of the Big Five model and tests, a person's score
on the 'Agreeable' scale will be an average of how they match the sub-traits. The strengths
of the Big Five Factor model lie in its speed and ease of use and this makes it a very useful
tool for gaining a rapid overview of a person's key drivers.
3.4.2 Myers Briggs [MBTI]

The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a widely used and highly regarded system
for understanding and interpreting personality, and derives most of its underpinning
theory from Carl Jung's Psychological Types ideas and to a lesser extent the Four
Temperaments (or Four Humours). The purpose of the MBTI 'personal inventory' system
is to "make the theory of psychological types described by Carl G Jung understandable
and useful in people's lives..."
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Myers Briggs theory and the MBTI model is a method for understanding personality and
preferred modes of behaving. It is not a measurement of intelligence or competence,
emotional state or mental stability, 'grown-upness' or maturity, and must be used with
great care in assessing aptitude for jobs or careers: people can do most jobs in a variety of
ways, and the MBTI gives little or no indication of commitment, determination, passion,
experience, ambition, etc., nor 'falsification of type', all of which can have a far greater
influence on personal success than a single personality test.
The Myers Briggs MBTI system uses a four-scale structure for identifying and
categorising an individual's behavioural preferences, based almost entirely on Carl Jung's
theories and his descriptive words. Each of the four MBTI scales represents two opposing
'preferences' (in other words, preferred styles or capabilities). All abbreviations are
obvious first letters, other than N for Intuition, which causes the word to be shown
sometimes as iNtuition - just in case you were wondering. The Myers Briggs Judging-
Perceiving dimension basically equates Jung's Rational/Irrational categories of the two
pairs of Jungian Functional types.
Myers Briggs added a fourth dimension to the three Jung dimensions (Introvert-
Extravert, Thinking-Feeling, Sensation-Intuition), namely Judging-Perceiving, which is
related to a personality's approach to decision-making, and particularly how the
personality deals with the outer world (Extraverted) as distinct from the inner world
(Introverted). The Myers Briggs Judging-Perceiving dimension can also be used to
determine functional dominance among the two preferred functional types (aside from
Introvert-Extravert, which are not functions but 'Attitudes', or orientations). Aside from
determining functional dominance, irrespective of the way decisions are made (by
Thinking or Feeling) the Judging type makes decisions sooner than the Perceiving type.

Q.5 Define the concept of Big Five.
Q.6 State if the following are true or false
i. Each one of the big five traits are further composed of sub traits. True/False
ii. The Big Five Factor model is very easy to use and score. True/False
3.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we discussed that the aim of assessment of personality is to assess the
enduring characteristics of the personality, and assessment is linked to the ways in which
personality is assessing personality. First of all, the personality assessment based on
dynamic theories of personality was described also known as projective tests. Prominent
tests described were Rorschach test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Another test
based on Jung’s Theory of personality was Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) which
uses a four-scale structure for identifying and categorising an individual's behavioural
preferences, based almost entirely on Carl Jung's theories and his descriptive words. Self
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report tests which are objective tests, directly asking people whether items describe their
personality traits or not were made use of based on the trait theories of personality.
Prominent among them is Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI). Factor
analysis reduced the number of traits that described personality and the latest trend in
assessment was called ‘Big Five’ that refer to five fundamental.
ANSWERS
Q.2 (a) True

Q.4 (a) False
Q.6 (i) False (ii) True

Allport, G. W., (1961). Pattern and Growth in Personality. Holt Rinehart Winston,
New York.
Feldman, R. S., (1996). Understanding Psychology. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
Kundu, C., (1977). Personality Development: A Critique of Indian Studies. Vishal,
Kurukshetra.
Western, D., (1999). Psychology: Mind, Brain and Culture. Wiley, USA.
*****
351

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PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF GUIDANCE

POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN GUIDANCE AND

Centre for Distance and Open Learning

JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA

New Delhi - 110025

Prof. Mohammad Miyan

Prof. Jessy Abraham

Unit 3: Perspectives in Psychology

Dr. Nisha Singh, IGNOU

Unit 2: Principles of Growth, Stages of Development, Unit 3: Prenatal, Physical, Emotional,

Dr. Asma Parveen, Deptt. of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim University

Unit 3: Conflict and Frustration

Dr. Sheema Aleem, Deptt. of Psychology, Jamia Millia Islamia

Cover Credits: AnupmaKumari, Faculty of Fine Arts, Jamia Millia Islamia

Unit 1: Meaning and Applications of Psychology 7

Unit 2: Methods in Psychology 19

Unit 3: Perspectives in Psychology 33

Block 2: Growth and Development

Unit 1: Nature of Growth, Development and Maturation 54

Unit 2: Principles of Growth, Stages of Development 72

Unit 3: Prenatal, Physical, Emotional, Cognitive and Social

Block 3: Intelligence and Learning

Unit 1: Concept and Theories of Learning 108

Unit 2: Mental Retardation and Giftedness 116

Unit 3: Nature of Learning and Memory 131

Unit 4: Memory 145

Unit 5: Creativity and Giftedness 158

Block 4: Motivation and Emotion

Unit 1: Motivation and Emotion 180

Unit 2: Theory of Motivation 196

Unit 3: Conflict and Frustration 206

Unit 1: Nature and Detemination of Personality 218

Unit 2: Theories of Personality: Types and Trait Theories 227

Unit 3: Recent Trends in Understanding Personality: Measurement

Unit 1: Meaning and Applications of Psychology

Unit 2: Methods in Psychology

Unit 3: Perspectives in Psychology

POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

1. Unit 1: Meaning and Applications of Psychology

Unit 3 is entitled, ‘Perspectives in Psychology’ mentions briefly the different

UNIT-I MEANING AND APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.5 Applications of Psychology

1.6 Core Areas of Psychology

1.7 Emerging Areas of Psychology

1.8 Main Fields of Psychology

1.9 Let us Sum Up

1.10 Unit End Exercises

1.11 Suggested Readings

After reading this unit you should be able to –

Describe the meaning of psychology.

Describe the main fields of application of psychology.

Make yourself aware of the emerging areas of psychology.

1.3 MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.4.1 PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Science uses scientific or empirical methods to study natural phenomenon. Psychology

The letter O, looks like two eyes observing

As a science psychology also involves study and measurement of behavioural attributes

Check your progress.

 Write your answers in the space given below.

(1) Psychology is the science of _________________ behaviour.

1.5 APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

and treatment of mental illnesses, selection, allocation and human resource

The application of knowledge to practical problems is an art based on acquisition of