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International Journal of Tourism Policy 1.2
Scopus coverage years: from 2007 to 2021
Publisher: Inderscience Publishers
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ISSN: 1750-4090 E-ISSN: 1750-4104
Subject area: Business, Management and Accounting: Tourism, Leisure and Hospitality Management
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Refereeing Process: Editor comments IJTP-277810 - sabil@ub.ac.id - Universitas Brawijaya Mail 23/01/22 22.45

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Dear Dr. Ananda Hussein,
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We have received the review reports for your paper "CITY BRANDIN
Sent
We require now that you implement in your submission the following
Drafts 64

_Sent Reviewer A Comments:

==================
All-UB 24 This paper provides an interesting research topic and analysis. Howe
and/or residuals are normally distributed. If I am not mistaken, the sta
Chat normality can be exempted if the sample size is large enough concer
would say not large, testing for normality is necessary.
Spaces Besides the methodological issue, it is also necessary to include the
implications are not spelt what the policymakers need to do with resp
benefit or provide a guideline for the policymaker. This is not satisfac
policymakers benefit from the findings and what are the recommenda
explain how was the process of city branding…”, but I notice that the
No spaces yet
it.
Create or !nd a space
Reviewer B Comments:
==================
CITY BRANDING AND TOURIST REVISIT INTENTION: AN EMPIRI
1. Overall, this paper is interesting, assessing city branding and revis
improvements in order the paper is suitable for publication.
2. The main problem of this paper is novelty. Although the argument
supported with the recent articles (2017-2020). It is recommended th
Meet study is sound.
3. The use of SOR for theoretical basis is suitable but not enough exp

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REVIWER A

Comments Respond

However, I have some reservation to the Normality test using both ZSkewness and
estimation results as I am not sure the variables Zkurtosis as well as Simple K-S have been
and/or residuals are normally distributed. If I am conducted. The results indicated that data and its
not mistaken, the statistical inferences and residual are normally distributed
results may be not reliable. Some may argue that
testing for normality can be exempted if the
sample size is large enough concerning the
central limit theorem. Given the sample of this
study is about 180 observations, I would say not
large, testing for normality is necessary.

Besides the methodological issue, it is also Some paragraphs have been added to extend
necessary to include the practical implication practical implications. Please see the manuscript
derived from the findings of this study. The
current practical implications are not spelt what
the policymakers need to do with respect to the
findings of this study. However, the study only
mentions the findings would benefit or provide a
guideline for the policymaker. This is not
satisfactory. For simplicity, the conclusion of this
paper needs to answer the question of “how” the
policymakers benefit from the findings and what
are the recommendations of policy.

Page 1 (last paragraph), the author argued that
“previous studies did not explain how was the
process of city branding…”, but I notice that the
same mistake happens in this study. Therefore,
the author should pay more attention to it.
In theoretical contribution has been explained
that city branding consisting city authenticity and
city uniqueness do not directly affect visitor
revisit intention. In affecting individual
behavioural intention, city branding should be
mediated by both city image and visitor
satisfaction. It has been explained in the second
theoretical contribution
REVIEWER B

Comments Respond

The main problem of this paper is novelty. Some recent articles were added
Although the argument to choose the topic (city
branding) has been well developed, the paper is
not enough supported with the recent articles
(2017-2020). It is recommended that the
authors strengthen the paper with recent
references so that the novelty basis of the study
is sound

The use of SOR for theoretical basis is suitable Some points have been added to linkage the S-O-R
but not enough explanation. Why this theory is framework with findings. The S-O-R framework has
used but not the other needs explanation. In
also been referred to develop mediation analysis.
developing the hypotheses, SOR theory has also
not been referred to. Similarly, in the discussion, Please see the manuscript
SOR has not been sufficiently discussed related
to the finding. Thus, the authors' conclusion that
theoretically this paper adds to the SOR
applications in city branding is not quite
supported. Please refer the theory properly in
the hypothesis development as well as in the
discussion part.

The number of respondents 180 is very small for
this research. The author needs to develop an
argument to justify that the number of
respondents is sufficient for the study.
Following (Wolf et al., 2013). SEM model with at
least three factors with each factors have 4 to 8
indicators will have factor loading around 0.65 if
the sample between 150 and 200. Thus, 180
sample is sufficient for this study

Wolf, E. J., Harrington, K. M., Clark, S. L., & Miller,

M. W. (2013). Sample Size Requirements for
Structural Equation Models: An Evaluation of
Power, Bias, and Solution Propriety.
Educational and Psychological Measurement,
73(6), 913–934.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164413495237

The indirect relationships, although indicating
the mediation, is not sufficient to draw
conclusions about mediation. It is recommended
that a mediation test with an appropriate
procedure to be carried out separately from the
overall model testing, so fully or partly
mediation can be identified.
There are several ways testing mediation analysis.
This study following Kenny and Baron (1986)
mediation test analysis. Different with Hayes,
Kenny and Baron did not request to test mediation
test analysis separately from the main model.
However, the further explanation about whether
 the mediation is partial or full will be explained in
the manuscript

Managerial implications are too general, more Amendment made as suggested. Please see the
specific implications need to be made to make it manuscript
useful for industry.

Please consider rewrite the title of the paper. I The title has been modified as suggested
suggest the ‘The mediation role of city image
and visitor satisfaction’ is added into the title

References need to be corrected and completed References have been corrected using mendeley
APA 6th

he paper needs professionally proofread Professionally proofread conducted as suggested

REVIEWER C

Respond

Comments

Abstract need to be rewritten. It contains some Abstract has been re-written as suggested
sentences which are hard to understand. For
example, in first sentences the “scrutinize” is
used. Please consider the academic writing
approach and may use the word “examine”
instead of scrutinize. Similar is the case with word
“elements”. In addition to this the sentence
“these two constructs must be mediated by
both…” does not make sense. Please rewrite the
whole abstract in proper academic writing style.

Theoretical and contextual gap need to be
strengthened. Study is claiming the theoretical
foundation on SOR model. Once looked in depth
the research framework does not comply with this
model. For example, study claims city
authenticity as stimulus, while defining city
authenticity in literature review it described
“authenticity as a comprehensive judgement
decision which affect by social belief, hope,
preference and social background or tourist
personal perception”. Social belief, hope and
preferences etc cannot be stated as stimulus as
these are internal to human and are organism in
SOR. Similarly, intentions cannot be response
again relate to organism, yes if it was behavior
then can be response in SOR. Further hypothesis
development approach is poor. It does not
represent any uniqueness in hypothesis.
This study measures an individual’s perception by
using Likert scale. This study considers city
uniqueness and city authenticity as a stimulus
because they are elements of city branding. City
branding is about stimuli create by the
place/destionation/city. It is impossible for an
organism/individual perceived uniqueness and
authenticity without stimuli from the place/city.
These two variables are different from
satisfaction and image. These two variables are
emotional arousal as they are the results of the
stimulus received.

Methodology does not define unit of analysis, Some details have been added. Please see the
sampling and accordingly the criteria of selection manuscript
of respondents. Such things might be required for
the readers.

Correlation table (Table 2), represents high
correlation (0.80 and above) amongst construct
which indicates the high level of collinearity. To
address this issue the paper may consider the
Fornell Larcker criteria to evaluate discriminant
validity amongst constructs
There are few methods to evaluate discriminant
validity. Kline 2005 suggested that if the
correlation among constructs below 0.85 the
construct is still considered free from discriminant
validity problem. Apart from this book, many
articles such as Suhartanto et al. 2013, Clemes et
al. 2013 and Hapsari et al. 2017 used this rule of
thumb to evaluate discriminant validity.
Results and approach on evaluating results for t- value for mediation is estimated by using
hypothesis dealing with mediation are missing, sobel’s test. To strengthen the results, p-value is
only t-values do not support the acceptance or added
rejection of mediation.

Based on these results discussions and Professional copy edit has been conducted
conclusions cannot be claimed. The paper needs
to reconsider for its sentence structure,
grammatical errors and need adhere with
academic writing.
Final Refereeing Decision IJTP_277810 - sabil@ub.ac.id - Universitas Brawijaya Mail 23/01/22 22.50

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acceptance of your article for publication in the journal reflects the hig
_Sent
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All-UB 24 submission and complete the following tasks:

Chat 1. Save the "Editor's post-review version" on your local disk so you ca
revised version, making sure to include there all the review recomme
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262 Int. J. Tourism Policy, Vol. 10, No. 3, 2020

City branding and urban tourist revisit intention: the

mediation role of city image and visitor satisfaction

Ananda Sabil Hussein

Faculty of Economics and Business,
Department of Management,
Universitas Brawijaya,
JL. MT Haryono, No. 165,
Malang, 65141, Indonesia
Email: sabil@ub.ac.id

Abstract: Two research objectives have been addressed in this study. The first
objective aims to determine the relationships among city branding, city image,
visitor satisfaction and revisit intention. The second objective is to examine the
mediation role of visitor satisfaction and city image in the relationship between
city branding and revisit intention. Data were collected from several urban
tourism spots in Malang City, Indonesia. Structural equation modelling (SEM)
was used to analyse the data. The results indicated that both dimensions of city
branding (i.e., city uniqueness and city authenticity) do not have direct effects
on revisit intention. However, it was found that these two dimensions
significantly affect visitor satisfaction and city image. The mediation analysis
indicated that city image and visitor satisfaction fully mediate the effect of city
branding dimensions on revisit intention.

Keywords: city branding; city uniqueness; city authenticity; city image;

visitor satisfaction; revisit intention; urban tourism; Indonesia; SEM; structural
equation modelling; stimulus-organism-response framework.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Hussein, A.S. (2020)

‘City branding and urban tourist revisit intention: the mediation role of
city image and visitor satisfaction’, Int. J. Tourism Policy, Vol. 10, No. 3,
pp.262–279.

Biographical notes: Ananda Sabil Hussein is an Associate Professor in

Department of Management, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas
Brawijaya, Indonesia. He earned his PhD in marketing from Faculty
of Commerce Lincoln University Canterbury New Zealand. He has published
some works at some reputable journals. His research interests cover the
area of consumer behaviour, service marketing, marketing strategy and tourism
marketing.

1 Introduction

The notion of revisit intention has been recognised widely as an essential construct in the
area of tourism studies, including in the domain of urban tourism. In the relationship
marketing paradigm, a formal marketing program aims not only to attract new customers
but also to improve on the feelings of existing customers by creating customer loyalty

Copyright © 2020 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

 City branding and urban tourist revisit intention 263

(Berry, 2002). Having loyal customers will benefit the business since loyal customers
provide more profit than the effort of attracting new customers. Creating tourism revisit
intention as part of loyalty is one of the concerns of both tourism and marketing
researchers and practitioners.
To this day, the idea of city or place branding is a popular strategy used by city or
place management to attract visitors and to encourage them to revisit a destination in the
future (Bouchon, 2014; Hurriyati, 2015; Zhang and Zhao, 2009). In general, the central
concept of place or city branding was developed from the idea of corporate branding
as scholars (Kavaratzis, 2009; Trueman et al., 2008) argued that there are significant
similarities between these notions. The notion of city branding has been used widely
by many cities to attract visitors. Qu et al. (2011) suggested that city or place branding
aims to communicate the city’s unique identity by differentiating the place from others.
Theoretically, city branding has two essential elements, namely city authenticity and city
uniqueness (Riza et al., 2012). City authenticity is about the originality offered by a city
while city uniqueness is about the unique identity owned by the city. In the domain of
tourism marketing studies, especially urban tourism, city branding has been found to
have an essential role in affecting visitor revisit intention (Andriani, 2017) and brand
advocacy/positive word of mouth (Sahin and Baloglu, 2014). Qu et al. (2011), in their
study of urban tourism, found that destination branding creates visitor loyalty. This study
explains that the better the brand of a city, the higher the visitor revisit intention.
While city branding has been recognised as a strategy involved in creating visitor
revisit intention, a research gap has been identified from the literature. The previous
studies (Andriani, 2017; Qu et al., 2011) suggest that city branding has a significant
direct effect on revisit intention. However, these studies did not explain how the process
of city branding as a city strategy affects an individual’s intention to revisit a particular
city. There is a missing link between these two notions that should be explained.
This study builds a comprehensive theoretical model rooted in the S-O-R framework
(Mehrabian and Russell, 1974) to address this research gap. The S-O-R framework
contends that an individual’s response is the result of the stimuli processed by the
organism. Based on this framework, three elements have been included in this model,
namely stimulus – an influence stimulating individual, organism – an individual’s
internal process intervening the external stimuli and final actions or reactions and
response – which is the reactions given by an individual (Chang et al., 2011).
In this study, city branding is considered to be the stimuli, and visitor revisit intention is
the response. This study inserts the notion of city image and visitor satisfaction as the
organism’s affective arousal.
In the area of tourism studies, previous research has investigated the important role
of tourist satisfaction. City image was found to affect visitor revisit intention. The studies
by Keshavarz and Jamshidi (2018), Mujihestia et al. (2018a) and Um et al. (2006)
showed that in order to have repeat visitors, a destination – especially an urban area –
should be able to satisfy its visitors. The higher the level of visitor satisfaction, the
higher the revisit intention will be. Similar to tourist satisfaction, destination image
also plays an important role in enhancing tourist revisit intention. The studies by Chen
and Tsai (2007), and Chi and Qu (2008) explained that tourists prefer to visit destinations
that have a positive image.
The idea of a city image and tourist satisfaction cannot be separated from city
branding. Riza et al. (2012) explained that city image is the result of city branding.
In accordance with this contention, the study by Foroudi et al. (2016) suggested that
264 A.S. Hussein

city branding essentially creates both a city image and city reputation. Furthermore,
this study explained that the better the branding of a place, the more positive its image
will be. Apart from its role in creating the city image, city branding has been recognised
to be the antecedent of visitor satisfaction. The study by Lee et al. (2016) suggested that
object-based authenticity as part of Singapore’s Chinatown city branding has a significant
effect on tourist satisfaction.
Malang city is one of the urban areas that is developing the concept of urban tourism.
Visitors coming to Malang city can enjoy many urban attractions such as culinary
tourism, heritage walks, green tourism, and thematic villages. Data from the Malang
Tourism Bureau (Statistics of Malang Municipality, 2018) noted that the number
of tourists visiting Malang increased significantly from 3.4 million in 2015 to 4.3 million
in 2017. As a city offering urban tourism, Malang city has been equipped with
many supporting infrastructures such as an airport, restaurants, hotels, and other public
services. Thus, studying urban branding and revisit intention in Malang city comes with
benefits.
Based on the theoretical gap identified in the literature, two research objectives
are proposed by this study. The first research objective is to investigate the direct
relationships among the proposed constructs, and the second research objective is to
scrutinise the mediation role of city image and tourist satisfaction. Upon the completion
of these objectives, this study provides both theoretical and practical contributions. From
a theoretical standpoint, this study contributes to tourism marketing by building a
comprehensive model explaining the relationship between city uniqueness, city
authenticity, city image, visitor satisfaction, and visitor revisit intention, and how it is
rooted in the S-O-R framework. From a practical perspective, this study provides insights
for the government or urban tourism practitioners to allow them to set up a program to
attract visitors.

2 Literature review

2.1 City uniqueness

The notion of city uniqueness was derived from the idea of product uniqueness.
In marketing literature, the idea of uniqueness has been acknowledged as a vital element
of marketing. Cheema and Kaikati (2010) suggested that customers will be more loyal
to unique products. Kemp et al. (2012) stated that a city or destination utilises its
uniqueness in order to differentiate it from other cities or places. Scholars (Kemp et al.,
2012; Netemeyer et al., 2004) have suggested that city uniqueness can be indicated
through elements such as being distinct, different, standing out, and unique.
In the domain of urban tourism, Riza et al. (2012) stated that every city has its own
uniqueness formed by the images and memories stored in the visitors’ minds. A tourism
destination should have uniqueness. Kavaratzis (2005) explained that a tourism
destination needs to be differentiated through its unique brand identity. By having
a unique brand identity, the visitor will recognise the tourism destination as a place that
has better value compared to other places. Ashworth (2009) stated that destination
uniqueness as part of destination branding is critical to differentiate one destination from
another.
 City branding and urban tourist revisit intention 265

Prior empirical studies have shown that city uniqueness has a significant positive
effect on visitor revisit intention. The study by Chen and Tsai (2007) found that
landscape uniqueness as a part of destination quality significantly affects visitor revisit
intention. Similar to this study, Mujihestia et al. (2018a) explained that city uniqueness as
an element of city branding positively affects visitor revisit intention. These studies
showed that the more unique a city is, the higher the visitor revisit intention will be.
Apart from its effect on revisit intention, destination or city uniqueness has a
significant effect on visitor satisfaction. Kim et al. (2009), in their study of Japanese
outbound travellers, found that uniqueness played an essential role in satisfying the
tourist. A city that has uniqueness will have a more positive image compared to a city
that does not have any specificity. The study of tourism in China and Taiwan found that
destination uniqueness plays an essential role in creating an affective image (Chen et al.,
2016). This study explained that an emotional image can change upon a change in
destination uniqueness.
Based on these arguments, three hypotheses can be proposed. They are:
H1: City uniqueness has an effect on revisit intention.
H2: City uniqueness has an effect on visitor satisfaction.
H3: City uniqueness has an effect on city image.

2.2 City authenticity

Reisinger and Steiner (2006) explained that there is no consensus among scholars about
the concept of authenticity, especially in the tourism sector. This paper relied on the
perspective of existential authenticity as proposed by Steiner and Reisinger (2006).
In the existential perspective, authenticity is not evaluated based on objective criteria.
It is judged by the experience as it is received by individuals. Thus city authenticity
is about the authentic attributes and features offered by the city, and how they are
experienced by the visitors. From a tourism perspective, Riza et al. (2012) said that city
authenticity is an important element of city branding as authenticity is usually linked with
the visitor experience upon visiting a place, destination, or city.
City authenticity might become a part of a marketing strategy that can be used by the
decision-maker in order to promote the destination or city. Authenticity is one
of the critical components used to create a meaningful experience for the tourists
(Hargrove, 2002), especially for the heritage tourists who seek an authentic experience,
nostalgia, and social distinction (Poria et al., 2001; Zeppel and Hall, 1991). Previous
studies found out the importance of authenticity when creating customer loyalty
(Bryce et al., 2015; Hernández-Mogollón et al., 2013; Ramkissoon and Uysal, 2011).
These studies explained that the more authentic a destination is, the higher the visitor
revisit intention will be.
Apart from its role in creating loyalty, authenticity is recognised as having
an essential role in creating satisfaction. Some marketing studies have noted that the
more authentic a product is, the higher the customer satisfaction will be (Lee et al., 2016;
Lee and Phau, 2018). In accordance with the marketing perspective, scholars in the area
of tourism studies explained that there is a significant relationship between destination
authenticity and visitor revisit intention (Hernández-Mogollón et al., 2013).
266 A.S. Hussein

The desire for authenticity motivates the tourists to engage in tourism. As a result,
perceived authenticity meets the tourists’ expectations and contributes to their formation
of a favourable destination image. Naoi (2004) explained that authenticity is a critical
factor that may influence the tourists’ overall evaluation, which also means that
authenticity is expected to be a significant antecedent of a positive image. Hence, it is
hypothesised that:
H4: City authenticity has an effect on revisit intention.
H5: City authenticity has an effect on visitor satisfaction.
H6: City authenticity has an effect on city image.

2.3 The mediating effects of city image

The idea of a city image is derived from the notion of destination image. Some of the
previous researchers have claimed that within a visitor’s perspective, a city is considered
to be a destination (Hong-bumm, 2015). Scholars (Baloglu and Brinberg, 1997; Basaran,
2016) have defined place image as having three components, namely cognitive, affective,
and conative. Cognitive refers to the individual’s own knowledge and beliefs about
the destination. Affection refers to their personal feelings, or the emotional response of
individuals towards the destination. Conative refers to how one acts on information and
how they feel about the destination.
In line with the previous definition, Basaran (2016) explaining that all of the image
components can be used to predict visitors’ behavioural intentions toward a destination in
the future such as the visitor’s revisit intention and the visitors’ willingness to
recommend the destination to others through positive word of mouth. This theory is also
supported by the studies by Chen and Tsai (2007), Kim et al. (2015), and Mujihestia et al.
(2018b) stating that city image has a positive effect on visitor revisit intention.
While the effect of city image on visitor revisit intention has been acknowledged
by some studies, scholars have also predicted the role of image in satisfying visitors
(Chi and Qu, 2008; Prayag, 2009). Previous studies have explained that visitors having a
positive perception of the image of tourism destination tend to be more satisfied than the
visitors that perceive a negative destination image. The more positive the image of an
urban tourism destination, the more satisfied the visitors will be.
The previous section explains the importance of both city uniqueness and city
authenticity when shaping a positive city image. It was explained that the more unique
and authentic a city is as a destination object, the more positive the city image will be.
Since it is explained that city image plays an important role in affecting visitor
revisit intention, there is a possibility that both city uniqueness and authenticity have an
indirect effect on visitor revisit intention through city image. This indirect effect can
also be proposed based on the S-O-R framework (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974), as this
framework suggests that city branding as an external stimulus will create a perception of
the city image and satisfaction. In this study, these constructs are considered to be an
emotional response. This enhances visitor revisit intention. Based on the previous
empirical studies and the S-O-R framework, four hypotheses are proposed.
H7: City image has an effect on revisit intention.
H8: City image has an effect on visitor satisfaction.
 City branding and urban tourist revisit intention 267

H9: City image mediates the effect of city uniqueness on revisit intention.
H10: City image mediates the effect of city authenticity on revisit intention.

2.4 The mediating effect of visitor satisfaction

Guntoro and Hui (2013) defined visitor satisfaction as the visitors’ evaluation of a place
or destination based on what their expectations are. One of the crucial factors that
determine the visitors’ revisit intention is the visitors’ past experience. Choi and Chu
(2001) noted that customers considered satisfied if the weighted total of experiences
shows a feeling of gratification when compared with his expectations. Generally,
if customers have a good experience with places or destinations, the customers will
feel satisfied. In contrast, if the customers have a bad experience with places or
destinations, the customers will feel unsatisfied (Reisinger and Turner, 2012).
In the domain of tourism marketing studies, the idea of visitor satisfaction has been
recognised as the antecedent of visitor revisit intention. The study by Um et al. (2006)
found that the satisfaction of Hong Kong inbound tourists affected their revisit intention.
Following this study, Chi and Qu (2008) explained that visitor satisfaction positively
affects destination loyalty. These two studies found that the more satisfied tourists are,
the higher their revisit intention will be. As the determinant of revisit intention, visitor
satisfaction cannot be separated from the construct of destination branding. Previous
studies have shown that both destination authenticity (Liu and Jang, 2009; Nguyen and
Cheung, 2016) and uniqueness (Jun, 2016) as the elements of destination branding played
an essential role in satisfying visitors.
Based on the previous section, it is evident that visitor satisfaction has an essential
role in creating satisfaction. Moreover, to enhance the level of visitor satisfaction, a city
or destination needs to have good branding. Apart from its direct effect on visitor
satisfaction, it is predicted that visitor satisfaction mediates the impact of both city
uniqueness and authenticity as elements of destination branding on visitor satisfaction.
The indirect effect of city uniqueness and city authenticity on revisit intention via
visitor satisfaction can also be explained through the S-O-R framework (Mehrabian and
Russell, 1974). As mentioned earlier, both city uniqueness and city authenticity are
recognised as an external stimulus. Individuals will receive these stimuli as emotional
arousal, which is finally generating revisit intention as a response.
H11: Visitor satisfaction has an effect on revisit intention.
H12: Visitor satisfaction mediates the effect of city authenticity on revisit intention.
H13: Visitor satisfaction mediates the effect of city image on revisit intention.

3 Methods

3.1 Samples
The respondents in this study were the visitors to Malang City with leisure as the primary
purpose. The respondents were recruited at some of the urban tourism spots. In order for
them to be chosen as a respondent, the participants had to be older than 17 years old
and visiting Malang City through willingness. Two hundred and five self-administered
268 A.S. Hussein

questionnaires were distributed using a convenience sampling method, but only

180 questionnaires were useable for further analysis. This yields an 87% response rate.
This 180-strong sample is considered to be enough for this study as Wolf et al. (2013)
suggests that in order to have a factor loading of 0.65, a research model with at least
three factors and four and eight indicators requires a sample size between 150 and 200.
Thus having 180 participants is considered to be sufficient for this study.
The following demographic profile emerged from the sample: 58% were female,
46% were aged between 26–35, 70% had an undergraduate background, and 69% were
labourers. Table 1 summarises the demographic profile of the respondents.

Table 1 Profile of respondents

Variable Frequency Percentage

Gender
Male 76 42
Female 104 58
Age
18–25 11 6
26–35 83 46
36–50 56 31
Over than 50 30 17
Education
High school 7 4
Diploma 13 7
Undergraduate 126 70
Postgraduate 34 19
Occupation
Student 3 2
Labour 125 69
Entrepreneur 15 8
Unemployment 30 17
Unspecified 7 4

3.2 Measures
The questionnaire used in this study was divided into two sections. The first section
asked about the demographic profile of the respondents, and the second section captured
the respondent’s perception of city authenticity, city uniqueness, city image, satisfaction,
and revisit intention. A five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to
strongly agree (5) was employed for the measurements.
The measures were adapted from the literature. The questions on city uniqueness
were adapted from Kemp et al. (2012) and Netemeyer et al. (2004). City authenticity was
adapted from Kim and Bonn (2016) and Ram et al. (2016). City image was adapted from
Boo et al. (2009), adapted from Correia et al. (2013), and revisit intention was adapted
from Quintal and Polczynski (2010).
 City branding and urban tourist revisit intention 269

3.3 Data analysis

Structural equation modelling (SEM) with the maximum likelihood method was used by
this study to answer the proposed research objectives. Two step analysis was conducted
to analyse the data. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted first to ensure
the robustness of the measurements and model. The fit of the model was reflected
through three fit indices. These were absolute fit indexes (Goodness of Fit/GoF and Root
mean square error of approximation/RMSEA), incremental fit indexes (Normed Fit
Index/NFI, and Comparative Fit Index) and parsimonious fit indexes (Normed square and
Parsimony Goodness-of-Fit Index/PGFI). The cut-off value for GFI, NFI, and CFI was
above 0.9, normed square was less than 2, PGFI was more than 0.5, and RMSEA was
less than 0.08 (Kline, 2005). Apart from the model fitness evaluation, this study also
tested convergent validity, discriminant validity, and reliability to ensure the robustness
of the measurements. Upon the completion of CFA, hypothesis testing was conducted as
the second step in answering the research objectives.

4 Results

4.1 Confirmatory factor analysis

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted in order to assess the robustness of
the measures and the fitness of the model prior to testing the proposed hypotheses. Before
conducting CFA, a normality test was conducted to ensure that the data and residuals
were both normally distributed. The results of ZSkewness and ZKurtosis for all variables
ranged between +/–1.960. For ZSkewness, the score ranged between 0.974 and –1.874
and for ZKurtosis, the score ranged between 0.832 and –1.067. These results indicate that
the data is normally distributed. To enhance the data as it is normally distributed, simple
K-S was performed to test the normality of the residuals. The finding showed that the
p-value is larger than 0.05 (p = 0.200). This means that the residuals have a normal
distribution.
As the data is normally distributed, CFA can be performed. The initial analysis
showed a poor model. Thus, there is a need to modify the model. The model modification
was done by excluding CI4, CI5, VS4, VS5, VS6, VS7, and VS9, and drawing
the covariance between er1 and er2, er16 and er17, and er24 and er25. The results
of the model modification showed a fit model (x2/df = 1.748, GFI = 0.864, PGFI = 0.658,
RMSEA = 0.065, NFI = 0.911 and CFI = 0.959).
Apart from testing the model fit indices, to ensure the robustness of the measurement
and fitness of the model, validity, and reliability were also tested to show that the model
fits the actual data. For this study, construct validity was reflected by factor loading
(cut-off value was more than 0.6), and average variance extracted (AVE). The cut-off
value was more than 0.5. The CFA indicates that the factor loading for each item ranged
between 0.681 and 0.956 while AVE was ranged between 0.552 and 0.832. Based on
these results, both factor loading and AVE were above the cut-off value.
In addition, to ensure that there was no discriminant validity problem, the collinearity
among the constructs was assessed. The measures used might have a discriminant
validity problem if the collinearity between constructs is above 0.850 (Kline, 2005).
In this study, no construct had collinearity with other constructs, which were all above
270 A.S. Hussein

0.850. Therefore no discriminant validity problem was identified in this model. The
reliability of the constructs was measured by testing the construct’s reliability. The results
of the testing of the estimation showed that the alpha values ranged between 0.786 and
0.939. This shows that there are no reliability problem faced by these constructs. Table 3
summarises the results of the CFA.

Table 2 Correlation between constructs

Image Uniqueness Authenticity Satisfaction Revisit intention

Image 1
Uniqueness 0.714 1
Authenticity 0.832 0.728 1
Satisfaction 0.820 0.733 0.810 1
Revisit intention 0.819 0.660 0.703 0.819 1

Table 3 Confirmatory factor analysis

Construct Code Factor loading AVE Alpha

City uniqueness CU1 0.770 0.744 0.920
CU2 0.885
CU3 0.886
CU4 0.905
City authenticity CA1 0.692 0.552 0.786
CA2 0746
CA3 0.787
City image CI1 0.833 0.721 0.939
CI2 0.860
CI3 0.838
CI4 0.853
CI6 0.819
CI7 0.893
Visitor satisfaction VS1 0.855 0.596 0.897
VS2 0.858
VS3 0.798
VS8 0.681
VS10 0.741
VS11 0.681
Revisit intention RI1 0.866 0.832 0.908
RI2 0.956

4.2 Hypotheses testing

Nine direct effects and five indirect effects were tested in relation to the 13 hypotheses in
this study. The following section discusses the results of these 13 hypotheses.
 City branding and urban tourist revisit intention 271

The first hypothesis predicted the direct effect of city uniqueness on visitor revisit
intention. However, the statistical analysis found there to be no significant direct effect of
city uniqueness on visitor revisit intention. While city uniqueness does not have a direct
effect on visitor revisit intention, this study showed there to be a significant effect of this
variable on both visitor satisfaction (β = 0.206; t = 2.446) and city image (β = 0.232;
t = 2.441) as proposed by Hypotheses 2 and 3.
Hypothesis 4 states the significant direct effect of city authenticity on visitor revisit
intention. Similar to the direct effect of city uniqueness on revisit intention, the statistical
estimation found there to be an insignificant direct effect from city authenticity on visitor
revisit intention. Thus Hypothesis 4 is not accepted. However, the estimation showed that
city authenticity has a direct effect on visitor satisfaction (β = 0.385; t = 2.761) and city
image (β = 0.662; t = 5.828). These findings support Hypotheses 5 and 6.
While both city uniqueness and authenticity do not have a direct and significant effect
on visitor revisit intention, this study supported Hypothesis 7 which proposed the direct
effect of city image on visitor revisit intention (β = 0.532; t = 4.359). Similar to its effect
on visitor revisit intention, city image was also found to have a significant effect on
visitor satisfaction (β = 0.349; t = 2.918), supporting Hypothesis 8. Apart from its direct
effect on both visitor revisit intention and satisfaction, this study showed the mediating
effect of city image on the relationship between city uniqueness and revisit intention
(β = 0.123; t = 2.223) and on city authenticity and revisit intention (β = 0.352; t = 3.506).
Thus, Hypotheses 9 and 10 are supported.

Table 4 Hypothesis test

Hypothesis Path Coefficient t-statistics

Hypothesis 1 CU → RI 0.050 0.608 Not supported
Hypothesis 2 CU → VS 0.206 2.446 Supported
Hypothesis 3 CU → CI 0.232 2,441 Supported
Hypothesis 4 CA → RI –0.189 –1.273 Not supported
Hypothesis 5 CA → VS 0.385 2.761* Supported
Hypothesis 6 CA → CI 0.662 5.828** Supported
Hypothesis 7 CI → RI 0.532 4.359** Supported
Hypothesis 8 CI → VS 0.349 2.918* Supported
Hypothesis 9 CU → CI → RI 0.123 2.223 Supported
Hypothesis 10 CA → CI → RI 0.352 3.506** Supported
Hypothesis 11 VS → RI 0.497 3.902** Supported
Hypothesis 12 CU → VS → RI 0.102 2.186 Supported
Hypothesis 13 CA → VS → RI 0.191 2.322 Supported
*Significant at p < 0.01.
**Significant at p < 0.001.

The direct effect of visitor satisfaction on revisit intention was proposed by

Hypothesis 11. The statistical test indicates that there is a significant direct effect of
satisfaction on revisit intention (β = 0.497; t = 3.902). This supports Hypothesis 11. In
272 A.S. Hussein

this study, apart from being predicted to have a direct effect on revisit intention, visitor
satisfaction was also predicted to have mediating effects. The statistical estimation
showed that visitor satisfaction mediates the effect of city uniqueness on visitor revisit
intention (β = 0.102; t = 2.186). This finding supports Hypothesis 12. In addition to its
mediating effect on the relationship between destination uniqueness and revisit intention,
visitor satisfaction mediates the effect of destination authenticity on revisit intention
(β = 0.191; t = 2.322) as proposed by Hypothesis 13. Table 4 summarises the results of
the hypothesis test.

5 Discussion and conclusions

This study addressed two research objectives. The first research objective is to examine
the direct relationship among the variables. The second research objective is to scrutinise
the mediating effects of destination image and visitor satisfaction on the relationship
between city branding and revisit intention. Figure 1 depicts the result of the analysis.

Figure 1 Structural model

As an essential variable in destination branding, city uniqueness does not have an

essential role in increasing visitor revisit intention. This insignificant direct effect
possibly happens because when affecting revisit intention, city uniqueness needs to have
mediating variables. The indirect effects will be discussed further in the second research
objective section.
While city uniqueness does not have a significant effect on revisit intention, this study
found that city uniqueness has a significant positive effect on visiting satisfaction. This
means that the higher the uniqueness owned by an urban tourism destination, the higher
the visitor satisfaction will be. This significant effect strengthens the previous studies
(Hanzaee and Rezaeyeh, 2013; Suhartanto and Triyuni, 2016), showing the importance
 City branding and urban tourist revisit intention 273

of uniqueness in satisfying individuals. Apart from its significant effect on satisfaction,

city uniqueness also has a significant positive effect on city image. The image of the
destination will be more positive when the destination has a particular uniqueness. This
finding is similar to Najafi and Alvandi (2017) and Salniza et al. (2016) who also found
out the importance of uniqueness to the city image.
From the perspective of marketing studies, the literature has noted the importance
of authenticity in terms of how it affects loyalty (Lee et al., 2016; Park et al., 2018).
However, this study failed to determine the importance of city authenticity when shaping
urban tourism revisit intention. This insignificant effect possibly happens because when
creating revisit intention, city authenticity needs to have mediating variables. The indirect
effect relationship will be discussed further on in this study.
Although city authenticity does not have a direct effect on revisit intention, this study
suggested its direct effect on visitor satisfaction. This finding means that the more
authentic an urban tourism destination is, the more satisfied the visitor will be. The effect
of city authenticity on visitor satisfaction supports the previous studies suggesting the
effect of authenticity on satisfaction (Lee et al., 2016; Nguyen and Cheung, 2016).
Similar to its effect on satisfaction, this study found the effect of city authenticity on city
image. This result similar to those of previous studies such as the ones by Lu et al. (2015)
and Marine-Roig (2015) who also determined the essential role of city authenticity in
city image. Practically, this finding implies that urban tourism destination management
should enhance its authenticity and originality to have a proper city image.
City image is a vital city branding element. Scholars have explained the importance
of destination image and how it affects both the visitor’s revisit intention and satisfaction.
For this study, the urban tourism destination image was found to have a significant effect
on revisit intention. It implies that the more positive the image of an urban tourism
destination, the higher visitor revisit intention will be. These results theoretically
strengthen the findings of the previous studies on the relationship between image and
customer loyalty (Basaran, 2016; Chen and Tsai, 2007; Mujihestia et al., 2018b). Similar
to its effect on revisit intention, this study found there to be a significant effect
from urban tourism destination image on visitor satisfaction. This means that the better
the image of the destination, the more satisfied the visitors will be. The significant effect
of destination image on visitor satisfaction is in accordance with the previous studies
such as those by Chi and Qu (2008), Mujihestia et al. (2018b) and Prayag (2009) who
determined the importance of image in satisfying visitors.
Apart from its direct effect on both revisit intention and satisfaction, this study
determined the importance of city image in terms of mediating the effect of destination
uniqueness and authenticity as stated in the second research objective. Based on the
mediating effect test, this study found that city image significantly mediates the effect of
both city authenticity and uniqueness on visitor revisit intention. These mediating effects
explain the insignificant direct effect of both destination authenticity and uniqueness on
revisit intention. These results mean that both city uniqueness and authenticity have an
essential role in creating a positive image which will retain visitors. As this research did
not indicate the direct effects of city authenticity and city uniqueness on revisit intention,
the mediating roles offered by city image are full mediation effects. This finding supports
the framework of S-O-R, suggesting that the stimulus received externally will generate
perception and lastly, create a behavioural response.
As an essential determinant of visitor revisit intention, visitor satisfaction also
mediates the effects of both city authenticity and city uniqueness on revisit intention.
274 A.S. Hussein

Similar to city image, this study revealed that visitor satisfaction fully mediates the effect
of city authenticity and city uniqueness on revisit intention. This full mediation effect
means that without a mediating variable, city authenticity and city uniqueness will not
affect revisit intention. The mediating effect of visitor satisfaction strengthens the
framework of S-O-R, suggesting that an external stimulus will create emotional arousal,
which generates a response.
Upon the completion of the research objectives, this study contributes to both
theoretical and practical perspectives. For the theoretical contribution, the main
contribution provided by this study is about the conceptual model explaining the
relationship between city authenticity, city uniqueness, city image, visitor satisfaction,
and visitor revisit intention in the domain of urban tourism in Indonesia. This conceptual
model is considered to be comprehensive as the conceptual model has combined the
elements of city branding (city authenticity and city uniqueness), city image, and visitor
satisfaction in relation to predicting behavioural intention.
The second theoretical contribution is the relationship between city branding and
visitor revisit intention. This is because the theoretical framework built in this study was
rooted in the S-O-R framework. This study can explain the process of city branding and
how it affects visitor revisit intention. The model fills the identified research gap by
explaining the missing link in the previous studies regarding the relationship between city
branding and visitor revisit intention. While the previous studies suggested the direct
effects of both city authenticity and city uniqueness on visitor revisit intention, this study
revealed that in terms of affecting visitor revisit intention, there is a need to insert
mediating variables such as city image and visitor satisfaction.
While previous studies have indicated a direct effect from city branding on revisit
intention, this study contends that in terms of affecting revisit intention, both city
uniqueness and authenticity as dimensions of city branding should be mediated by either
destination image or visitor satisfaction. According to the S-O-R framework, both city
authenticity and uniqueness are considered to be stimuli experienced by a visitor. Hence
when creating a reaction or response as part of the revisit intention, these stimuli must
affect organism elements such as the perception of the city image and visitor satisfaction.
From a practical standpoint, it is suggested that the government and other
stakeholders need to do several things to enhance the tourist revisit intention. The first
thing to do is to present a positive city image to the visitors or potentials. This is as
experts suggest that the image of a city consisting of cognition, affection, and conation
factors affects tourist revisit intention. To enhance its positive image, the city government
and other stakeholders can conduct several programs. First, the government can provide
comprehensive information about the city. This information will enhance the cognitive
image element for the visitors. The city information can be blasted through flyers,
television or radio adverts. To increase the visitor’s cognitive image elements, the
government can build several visitor centres. From the affective image perspective, a city
must be able to provide pleasant emotions and feelings for its visitors. The positive
emotions and senses of the visitors can be enhanced by providing them with a friendly
city atmosphere. For the conative image element, the government and stakeholders
should regularly offer both the potential visitors and previous visitors updates on events
in the city.
The government and other stakeholders have a vital role in enhancing the city’s
image and reputation. In urban tourism, they are expected to contribute to the creation
of the city’s unique aspects. The uniqueness of a tourist destination city is useful to
 City branding and urban tourist revisit intention 275

distinguish the city from others. The nature of city uniqueness is built based on its
identity. For instance, Christchurch in Canterbury, New Zealand, has an identity as a
garden city. As a garden city, Christchurch showcases its uniqueness by having gardens
scattered across almost all of its suburbs. Apart from Christchurch, other tourist
destinations such as Venice in Italy or Bali in Indonesia have unique identities and
characteristics that distinguish them from other cities. Therefore with its uniqueness,
these cities will stand out compared to other tourist destination cities.
City authenticity is also an essential factor affecting visitor revisit intention.
A tourism destination should have an authenticity that cannot be replicated by other
cities. Generally, city authenticity is not only about the originality of the town. City
authenticity is a significant element affecting the tourist experience when visiting a place.
The city government must create the authenticity of the city. Creating city authenticity
can be focused on several aspects. First, it is suggested that the government enhance the
interactions between the local people and visitors. The warm and friendly welcome from
the local people will heighten the authentic character of the city. Apart from the people's
interactions, the government should also package physical objects such as buildings,
parks, and general facilities into authentic elements. Upon the creation of the authentic
elements, the government and city council should be able to communicate these things to
both visitors and potential visitors.

6 Limitations and future study

In addition to its theoretical and practical contributions, this current study also has some
limitations. The first limitation is the convenience sampling method used in the study.
Since this study used a convenience sampling method, the finding cannot be widely
generalised. The second limitation is related to the self-administered questionnaire used
in this study. As a lack of researcher control in the data collection, the participants might
be misinterpreted in terms of responding to the questionnaire. The last limitation is about
the language used in developing the questionnaire. Initially, the questionnaire was
developed in English. However, as the respondents are Indonesian, the English
questionnaire must be translated into Bahasa. The translation process from English to
Bahasa Indonesia has the potential to change the meaning of the questionnaire. However,
this distortion was minimised by doing a back-translation to English to ensure that the
meaning is retained.
As this study determined the urban tourism visitor revisit intention, to gain more
of an understanding of consumer behaviour, future studies are suggested to use the notion
of loyalty instead of revisit intention. In addition, in order to have a broader level of
knowledge about urban tourism city branding, future studies might replicate this study
in other urban tourism destinations and also insert other variables such as experience
quality and city engagement.

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