machines
Article
Electromagnetic Characteristics Analysis and Structure
Optimization of High-Speed Fuel Solenoid Valves
Liu Yang 1,2,3, * , Tianxiong Gao 1 , Xinming Du 1 , Fugang Zhai 1,3 , Chang Lu 4 and Xiangdong Kong 1,3
Citation: Yang, L.; Gao, T.; Du, X.;
Zhai, F.; Lu, C.; Kong, X.
Electromagnetic Characteristics
Analysis and Structure Optimization
of High-Speed Fuel Solenoid Valves.
Machines 2022, 10, 964. https://
doi.org/10.3390/machines10100964
Academic Editors: Qun Chao,
Ruqi Ding and Min Cheng
Received: 21 September 2022
Accepted: 19 October 2022
Published: 21 October 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Machines 2022, 10, 964. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines10100964
1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China
2 State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
3 Hebei Heavy Machinery Fluid Power Transmission and Control Laboratory, Qinhuangdao 066004, China
4 AVIC Changchun Control Technology Co., Ltd., Changchun 130102, China
* Correspondence: yangliu_ysu@ysu.edu.cn
Abstract: High-speed fuel solenoid valves (HFSVs) are the key control elements of aero-engine
vane regulators. A strong electromagnetic force generated from the HFSVs is essential to achieve
precise control over timing and quantification for fuel supply. In this paper, the Taguchi method is
adopted to improve the HFSV’s static electromagnetic characteristics. First, an electromagnetic model
of the HFSV was established and experiments were conducted to modify and validate the model.
Effects of key structural factors on the static electromagnetic characteristics of the HFSV are then
investigated via the finite element method (FEM). Based on the optimization, an HFSV prototype is
finally manufactured and tested. The experiment results are in good agreement with those of the
simulations. It provides a significant guideline for the manufacturing process of such HFSVs.
Keywords: high-speed solenoid valve; static electromagnetic force; Taguchi method; FEM
1. Introduction
Due to the rapid growth of China’s national economy, the number of aircraft in
service has increased dramatically with the development of civil aviation. China’s civil
aviation passenger volume is predicted to be second only to the United States in the next
20 years [1–5]. Along with the pursuit of faster, safer and more convenient demands,
people are paying more attention to flight safety. As to the aircraft failure, more than
50% of accidents are reported to come from the engines, while the gas path failure could
account for 90% of the total engine failure [6]. High speed fuel solenoid valve (HFSV) is an
important control element in the aerospace field, which is mainly used in aero-engine guide
vane regulating systems [7,8]. With the help of HFSV, the real-time and accurate adjustment
of stator blade angle could be achieved to improve the surge margin of compressors and
expand the stable working range of engines, which ensures the safe and reliable operation
of aero-engines. The improved requirements in aircraft stability and reliability require
strong static electromagnetic forces generated from HFSV to meet the demands for the
precise control of fuel. Therefore, studying for the influence of valve structure factors on
static electromagnetic characteristics is of great significance.
As for HFSVs, the static electromagnetic force is generated from the interactions
between armature current and the magnetic core. At present, the static characteristic
of HFSV is mostly researched by the magnetic field analysis method and finite element
method (FEM) [9,10]. In [11], influence of the pole shoe shape, guide sleeve thickness,
magnetic material, iron core structure and other parameters of the electromagnet on the
static electromagnetic force was analyzed and the optimal structural parameters of the
electromagnet was obtained. In [12], the effects of structural parameters of a solenoid valve
pole shoe on static characteristics were determined by FEM, and the optimal structural
parameters of a pole shoe were determined by evaluation strategy algorithm. In [13], the
armature structural parameters of the solenoid valve on the static electromagnetic force
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/machines
Machines 2022, 10, 964 2 of 16

were investigated and optimized by genetic algorithm. In [14], iron core was optimized
through the study of the influence of the core cross-sectional area and ampere turns on static
electromagnetic characteristics. In [15], a mathematical model of electromagnetic force of a
high-speed solenoid valve (HSV) was established, and the influence of valve key parameters
on an electromagnetic force of a common rail injector was further studied. Besides the
influence of key parameters (e.g., magnetizer height, width of working air gap and damping
hole angle) on the working characteristics of an electromagnetic injector, driving current
and structural parameters of a solenoid valve on the static electromagnetic characteristics
were also implemented [16–18]. Considering the magnetic saturation phenomenon, an
electromagnetic mathematical model of the high-speed solenoid valve was established [19].
The above study for influence of gap and material magnetoresistance on the elec-
tromagnetic characteristics were mainly based on univariate analysis. Multi-objective
optimization technology was used to optimize the dynamic response characteristics of
HSV [20–22]. In [20], optimization of five selected key factors, which is related to the
dynamic response characteristics of high-speed solenoid valves, was achieved by the Krig-
ing model. In [21], optimal parameters of a proportional electromagnet were found by
studying the influence of the basin mouth depth. According to the dynamic behavior of
proportional electromagnets of different models, a natural model test method was used to
fit the measurement on the physical object, and natural model experiments were proposed
to verify the dynamic properties [22].
Great efforts have been devoted to the optimization of static electromagnetic forces.
However, most of them are limited to the improvement of static electromagnetic forces at a
certain position in the working stroke. To the best of our knowledge, the multi-objective
optimization of static electromagnetic forces at different working positions has not been
studied under the full working cycle.
In this paper, the static characteristics of the HFSV for blade regulator are studied
and optimized. Firstly, the working principle of the HFSV is introduced. Secondly, the
mathematical model of the HFSV is established and corrected by experiments. On this
basis, the influence of a single factor on static electromagnetic force is analyzed. Thirdly,
the Taguchi method is used for the optimization of static electromagnetic force at different
working positions in the working stroke, considering the coupling effect of multiple factors
on the static electromagnetic force. Finally, a sample HFSV is manufactured and tested.

2. Structure and Working Principle

The HFSV introduced in this paper is a normally closed valve. This is an on–off valve
that relies on the spring return. The flow of the valve is 1.5 L/min when entrance pressure
difference is 1 MPa. The structure, which is divided into electromagnet and valve body, is
shown in Figure 1a. The electromagnet part is mainly composed of the screw plug, plug
frame, shell, coil winding, skeleton, limit core, guide sleeve, armature and iron sealing
components. The armature is guided by the axial sliding of the sealing iron, the screw plug
is connected with the plug frame through the screw thread. An adjustable non-working air
gap δ between the screw thread rotation and the limiting core could be formed in the screw
plug. The working air gap h is formed between the armature and the limiting core.
 Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

overcomes the forces of spring, friction and damping, and then the valve begins opening.
Machines 2022, 10, 964 3 of 16
In the state of power failure, the armature would be reset under the action of spring force.
The armature is pressed and reaches to the valve seat to keep the valve port be closed.

Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

1-screwed plug
2-blockage
adjustable overcomes the forces of spring, friction and damping, and then the valve begins opening.
3-coat
axial non- In the state of power failure, the armature would be reset under the action of spring force.
working air 4-skeleton
The armature is pressed and reaches to the valve seat to keep the valve port be closed.
gap δ 5-limit core
6-guide bush

axial 7-coil plug

1-screwed
working air 8-armature
2-blockage
adjustable
gap h 9-spring
3-coat
axial non-
working air 10-sealing iron
4-skeleton
gap δ 5-limit core
6-guide bush
(a) structure diagram
7-coil (b) magnetic flux lines and magnetic density
axial
working air 8-armature
Figure 1. Structure
Figure 1. Structure
diagram and magnetic field distribution of the HFSV.
diagram and magnetic field distribution of the HFSV.
gap h 9-spring
Six
Whendifferent measured
the coil positions
is excited, a closedof surface magnetic
magnetic circuit willdensity
be formedof the HFSV
along theare shown
minimum
10-sealing iron
in
path of magnetoresistance, through the magnetic components of a screw plug, limit and
Figure 2. The real magnetic density of the HFSV was measured by Gauss meter core,
compared
armature,with iron the simulation
seal, shell andvalues,
screwed asplug.
shownThatin Table 1. It can
is shown be seen1b.
in Figure thatAxial
the simula-
electro-
tion resultsattraction
magnetic are in good agreement
will be generatedwithinthe test
the results,
axial workingwhich airverified the correctness
gap. Then, the armature of
(a) structure
the diagram simulation model.
established (b) magnetic flux lines and magnetic density
overcomes the forces of spring, friction and damping, and then the valve begins opening.
Figure
In 1.the
Structure
state ofdiagram and magnetic
power failure, field distribution
the armature would be of the
resetHFSV.
under the action of spring force.
The armature is pressed and reaches to the valve seat to keep the valve port be closed.
p1 different
Six different
Six measuredp6 positions
measured of surface
positions magnetic
of surface density
magnetic of the
density ofHFSV
the HFSVare shown
are shown
in Figure
in Figure2. The real real
2. The magnetic density
magnetic of the
density of HFSV was was
the HFSV measured
measuredby Gauss
by Gaussmeter and and
meter
compared
compared withwith
the simulation values,
the simulation as shown
values, as shown in Table
in Table1. 1.
It can
It canbebe
seen
seenthat
thatthe
thesimula-
simulation
tion results
results are in good agreement with the test results, which which verified
verified the
the correctness
correctness of of the
the established
establishedsimulation
simulationmodel.
model.
p2 p5
p1 p6

p3 p4

p2 p5
Figure 2. The measured positions of surface magnetic density of the HFSV.

Table 1. The simulation value compared with experimental results.

p3 p4
Test Point Simulation Experiment
p1 0.011 T 0.013 T
p2 0.552 T 0.572 T
Figure 2. The
p 3 0.022 T 0.030 T
Figure 2. measured positions
The measured of surface
positions magnetic
of surface density
magnetic of theofHFSV.
density the HFSV.
p4 0.031 T 0.021 T
p 00561 T
Table 1. The simulation value compared with experimental results.
5 0.541 T
p6 0.015 T 0.016 T
Test Point Simulation Experiment
p1 0.011 T 0.013 T
p2 0.552 T 0.572 T
p3 0.022 T 0.030 T
p4 0.031 T 0.021 T
p5 00561 T 0.541 T
p6 0.015 T 0.016 T
 Machines 2022, 10, 964 4 of 16

Table 1. The simulation value compared with experimental results.

Test Point Simulation Experiment

p1 0.011 T 0.013 T
p2 0.552 T 0.572 T
p3 0.022 T 0.030 T
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW p4 0.031 T 0.021 T 4 of 16
p5 00561 T 0.541 T
p6 0.015 T 0.016 T

3. Dynamic Mathematical Model of HFSV

3. Dynamic Mathematical Model of HFSV
The force of armature in the working state is the combined action of electromagnetic
The force of armature in the working state is the combined action of electromagnetic
force Fm, spring force Fk, friction force Ff and damping force Fv. The gravity of armature
force Fm , spring force Fk , friction force Ff and damping force Fv . The gravity of armature
assembly ∑mg is very small, which can be ignored. The armature undergoes four states
assembly ∑mg is very small, which can be ignored. The armature undergoes four states
during the working process, which are kept closed, opening, kept open and closing. The
during the working process, which are kept closed, opening, kept open and closing. The
force analysis of armature in the four states is shown in Figure 3.
force analysis of armature in the four states is shown in Figure 3.

upper limit upper limit

F0 Fk Fv

∑m ∑m
Ff

Fn Fh lower limit Fm Fh lower limit

(a) keep closed (b) opening

upper limit upper limit

Fk Fnʹ Fk

∑m Ff ∑m

Fm Fh Fv Fh
lower limit lower limit

(c) closing (d) keep open

Figure 3. Stress
Figure analysis
3. Stress diagram
analysis of armature
diagram in each
of armature state.
in each state.

TheThe force
force analysis
analysis of the
of the armature
armature closing
closing state
state is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 3a. 3a.
TheThe
coilcoil is not
is not
the electromagnetic force F is zero, and the spring preload F
excited, the electromagnetic force Fm ismzero, and the spring preload F0 is 0greater than the the
excited, is greater than
hydraulic
hydraulic pressure
pressure Fh Fath at
thethe initial
initial position,sosothat
position, thatthe
thearmature
armatureisis statically
statically pressed
pressed onon the
thevalve
valveseat.
seat. The
The force
forcebalance
balanceequation
equationis:is:

nn +
FF h h−−
+FF F0 F=00= 0 (1) (1)
where Fn isF the force of valve seat on armature (N); Fh is the hydraulic pressure (N); F0 is
where n is the force of valve seat on armature (N); Fh is the hydraulic pressure (N); F0 is
the the
spring
springpreload (N),(N),
preload 4.5 4.5
N. N.
TheThe
force analysis of armature
force analysis of armature opening
openingstate is shown
state is shownin Figure 3b. 3b.
in Figure When Whenthe thecoilcoil
is is
excited, the electromagnetic force F m is not zero, electromagnetic force F m
excited, the electromagnetic force Fm is not zero, electromagnetic force Fm and hydraulicand hydraulic
pressure
pressureFh overcome
Fh overcome thethe
spring force
spring Fk and
force friction
Fk and Ff and
friction damping
Ff and damping force Fv. FThen
force the
v . Then the
valve port opens, and then the dynamic equation
valve port opens, and then the dynamic equation is: is:
Σ..mx = Fm + Fh − Fk − F f − Fv = Fm + Fl (2)
Σm x = Fm + Fh − Fk − Ff − Fv = Fm + Fl (2)
where m is the mass of armature assembly (kg); x is acceleration of armature (N); Fk is
spring force (N); Ff is the friction force of armature (N); Fv is damping force of armature
(N); Fl is load force on armature.
The force analysis with the valve port kept open is shown in Figure 3c. After the
 Machines 2022, 10, 964 5 of 16

..
where m is the mass of armature assembly (kg); x is acceleration of armature (N); Fk is
spring force (N); Ff is the friction force of armature (N); Fv is damping force of armature
(N); Fl is load force on armature.
The force analysis with the valve port kept open is shown in Figure 3c. After the
opening state, the armature moves upward, and the air gap becomes zero. The coil
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16
continues to be excited, the electromagnetic force Fm is not 0, the electromagnetic force Fm
and the hydraulic pressure Fh are greater than the spring force Fk , the valve port remains
open, and the force balance equation is:

Fn ′Fn 0
0 =0 =FmFm++ FFhh −−FFk k−− (3)
(3)
where Fnʹ is the force of upper limit on armature (N).
where Fn 0 is the force of upper limit on armature (N).
The stress analysis of the armature return state is shown in Figure 3d. The coil is not
The stress analysis of the armature return state is shown in Figure 3d. The coil is not
excited. The electromagnetic force Fm is 0. The spring force Fk overcomes the hydraulic
excited. The electromagnetic force Fm is 0. The spring force Fk overcomes the hydraulic
pressure
pressureFF
h to make the armature closed, and dynamic equation is:
to make the armature closed, and dynamic equation is:
h
Σ mx
.. = Fh + F f + Fv − Fk
 (4)
Σm x = Fh + Ff + Fv − Fk (4)
The working load of the spring can be expressed as:
The working load of the spring can be expressed as:
Fk =F0 +kx (5)
where k is spring coefficient (N/mm), 500 = F0 +xkxis displacement of armature (mm). (5)
FkN/mm;
The armature generates friction between the sealing iron and the inner wall of the
where k is spring coefficient (N/mm), 500 N/mm; x is displacement of armature (mm).
guide sleeve during the action, and forming a friction force against the armature. Because
The armature generates friction between the sealing iron and the inner wall of the
the valve
guide bodyduring
sleeve is immersed in fuel
the action, and medium,
formingthe frictionforce
a friction coefficient
againstisthe
small, and theBecause
armature. qual-
ity of armature assembly is also small, the friction of armature can usually be
the valve body is immersed in fuel medium, the friction coefficient is small, and the qualityignored in
previous studies. In this paper, the friction F f is ignored when analyzing the dynamic char-
of armature assembly is also small, the friction of armature can usually be ignored in
acteristics
previous of high-speed
studies. solenoid
In this paper,valve.
the friction Ff is ignored when analyzing the dynamic
The damping force of
characteristics of high-speed thesolenoid
armature assembly is the viscous resistance between the
valve.
armature
Theassembly
dampingand the
force offuel medium during
the armature assembly the ismovement.
the viscousThe calculation
resistance expres-
between the
sion is:
armature assembly and the fuel medium during the movement. The calculation expres-
sion is: F =ζv (6)
Fvv= ζv (6)
where ζ is the damping coefficient of velocity (N/(m/s)); v is the speed of armature (m/s).
where ζ is the damping coefficient of velocity (N/(m/s)); v is the speed of armature (m/s).
4.4.Electromagnetic
ElectromagneticModeling
Modeling
Magnetic
Magnetic equivalentcircuit
equivalent circuitofofthe
theHFSV
HFSVisisdivided
dividedbybymagnetic
magneticcircuit
circuitsegmentation
segmentation
method, as depicted in Figure 4. The red virtual line represents
method, as depicted in Figure 4. The red virtual line represents the path ofthe path ofthe
themain
mainflux
fluxΦ.
Φ.NINIisisdefined
definedasasthe
themagnetomotive
magnetomotiveforce force
ofof the
the electrified
electrified coil.
coil.

Rm1 : shell magnetoresistance

Rf3 Rb1
Rm2 Rm2 : screw blocking magnetoresistance

Rm3 : limit core magnetoresistance

Rf1
Rm1 Rm4 : armature magnetoresistance
Rm3
Fm Rb1 : blocking frame magnetoresistance
Φ
Rb2 : sealing iron magnetoresistance
Rδ1
NI
Rf1 : non-working air gap magnetoresistance
Rm4
Rf2 and Rf3 : radial non-working magnetoresistance

Rf2 Rb2 Rh1 : axial working air gap magnetoresistance

Magneticequivalent
Figure4.4.Magnetic
Figure equivalentcircuit
circuitofofthe
theHFSV.
HFSV.

It can be found from Figure 2, due to all the magnetoresistances being series con-
nected, that the total magnetoresistance ∑Rc can be calculated as below.
ΣRc =ΣRm +Rh +ΣRf +ΣRb (7)
Machines 2022, 10, 964 6 of 16

It can be found from Figure 2, due to all the magnetoresistances being series connected,
that the total magnetoresistance ∑Rc can be calculated as below.

ΣRc = ΣRm + Rh + ΣR f + ΣRb (7)

where ΣRm is the axial reluctance of magnetic element (H−1 ); Rh is working air gap magne-
toresistance (H−1 ); ΣRf is non-working air gap magnetoresistance (H−1 ); ΣRb is a magnetic
element with radial magnetoresistance (H−1 ). The specific sub-items of each reluctance are
ΣRm = Rm1 + Rm2 + Rm3 + Rm4 , ΣRf = Rf1 + Rf2 + Rf3 , ΣRb = Rb1 + Rb2 , Rh = Rh1 .
The axial magnetoresistance of magnetic elements is:

Lmi
Rmi = (8)
µi · Smi

where µi is the permeability of the magnetic material (H/m); Lmi is magnetic element length
(mm); Smi is the cross-sectional area of magnetic components (mm2 ).
The two parallel circular planar non-working air gap reluctance Rf1 between the limit
core and the screw plug is deduced as:

δ
Rf1 = (9)
µ 0 · S0

where δ is the length of non-working air gap (mm); µ0 is vacuum permeability (H/m), and
equals to 4 π × 10−7 H/m; S0 is non-working air gap flux area (mm2 ).
The non-working air gap magnetoresistance Rf2 formed by radial concentric annular
surface between armature and seal is deduced as:
 
ln r f 2 /r f 1
Rf2 = (10)
2π · µ0 · L f 1

where rf1 is the inner diameter of radial air gap annular plane between armature and sealing
iron (mm); rf2 is the outer diameter of radial air gap annular plane between armature and
sealing iron (mm); Lf1 is the axial thickness of radial air gap of armature and sealing
iron (mm).
The non-working air gap reluctance Rf3 formed by the radial concentric annular
surface between the screw plug and the plug frame is deduced as:
 
ln r f 4 /r f 3
Rf3 = (11)
2π · µ0 · L f 2

where rf3 is the inner diameter of the radial air gap between the screw plug and the plug
frame (mm); rf4 is the outer diameter of the annular surface of the radial air gap between
the screw plug and the plug frame (mm); Lf2 is the axial thickness of the radial air gap
between the screw plug and the plug frame (mm).
The magnetoresistance Rb formed by the radial concentric annular surfaces of screw
plug and iron seal is deduced as:

ln(rbi /rbo )
Rb = (12)
2π · µi · Lbi

where rbi is the inner diameter of the annular surface of the radial magnetic material
between the screw plug and iron seal (mm); rbo is the outer diameter of the annular surface
of the radial magnetic material between screw plug and iron seal (mm); Lbi is the axial
thickness of the radial magnetic material of screw plug and iron seal (mm).
 Machines 2022, 10, 964 7 of 16

The magnetoresistance Rh1 of axial conical surface working air gap between armature
and limiting core can be deduced as:

1
Rh1 = (13)
πd2c
 
0.157dc
µ0
4h sin2 α
− sin2 α
+ 0.75dc

where dc is the diameter of conical cylinder (mm); α is the cone angle of the conical surface
(◦ ); h is the cone axial spacing (mm).
The flux Φ in the magnetic circuit is calculated as:

NI
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW Φ= 7 of 16(14)
ΣR
where Φ is magnetic flux (Wb).
Thus,
Thus, assuming
assuming thatthat the magnetic
the magnetic fluxflux is uniformly
is uniformly distributed
distributed on conical
on the the conical surface
surface
of the
of the armature,
armature, the the axial
axial electromagnetic
electromagnetic force
force Fmthe
Fm of of armature
the armature
can can be calculated
be calculated as: as:
Ф 2 Φ2
FFm == (15)(15)
m 2μ ⋅ S
2µ
0 m·4 S
0 m4
where Fm is the electromagnetic force of the armature (N); Sm4 is the radial cross-sectional
where Fm is the electromagnetic force of the armature (N); Sm4 is the radial cross-sectional
area of armature (mm2).
area of armature (mm2 ).
5. FEM Modeling
5. FEM andand
Modeling Experimental Modification
Experimental Modification
5.1. 5.1.
FEMFEM
Modeling
Modeling
TheThefinite-element
finite-element methodmethod(FEM), which
(FEM), considers
which accurate
considers geometrical
accurate geometricalshapes, can can
shapes,
provide accurate
provide results.
accurate Therefore,
results. FEMFEM
Therefore, waswas
preferred for the
preferred for investigation
the investigationof the
ofHFSV.
the HFSV.
According
Accordingto theto actual structure
the actual size ofsize
structure coilof
and magnetic
coil components
and magnetic in HFSV,inthe
components pro- the
HFSV,
portional model was built in the static electromagnetic field. Taking
proportional model was built in the static electromagnetic field. Taking the magneticthe magnetic leakage
intoleakage
consideration, the whole entity
into consideration, of the
the whole valve
entity wasvalve
of the set aswas
a balloon
set as a boundary, and theand
balloon boundary,
calculation domaindomain
the calculation area isareaestablished, as shown
is established, in Figure
as shown 5a. A5a.
in Figure triangular element
A triangular waswas
element
selected to mesh
selected the model
to mesh the model adaptively, andand
adaptively, the the
mesh refinement
mesh refinementis carried out out
is carried at the
at place
the place
where the the
where magnetic
magnetic fieldfield
intensity changes
intensity greatly,
changes involving
greatly, involvingthe the
working
workingair gap h, the
air gap h, the
non-working
non-working air gap δ between
air gap δ between screw plugplug
screw andand
limiting core,core,
limiting andandradial air gap
radial between
air gap between
armature
armatureandandsealing iron,iron,
sealing as shown
as shownin Figure 5b. 5b.
in Figure

blockage
(DT4) screw plug - radial
screwed plug air gap
(1J50)
coat (DT4)
limit core
screw plug - limit core
coil (copper) non-working air gap δ
(DT4)

armature sealing iron

(DT4)
working air-gap h
(DT4)
air
armature - sealing iron
radial air gap

(a) 2D model (b) mesh subdivision

Figure 5. Static
Figure magnetic
5. Static fieldfield
magnetic model and and
model meshing of valve.
meshing of valve.

TheThe
magnetization
magnetization curves of of
curves DT4 and
DT4 and1J50
1J50are
areshown
shownin
in Figure The material
Figure 6. The materialofofDT4
DT4isishigh-quality
high-qualitysteel
steelwhich
whichisiscommonly
commonlyusedusedsoft
softmagnetic
magneticmaterial
materialin
inelectromagnetic
electromag-
components.
netic components.1J50
1J50isisFe-Ni
Fe-Nisoft
softmagnetic
magneticalloy.
alloy.They
Theyhave
have fine
fine magnetic
magnetic property and are
are widely used in solenoid valve. The coil is applied as the excitation input terminal. The
excitation condition is 710 ampere-turn, and the excitation current range is 0~950 mA.

2.0

1.5
 (a) 2D model (b) mesh subdivision
Figure 5. Static magnetic field model and meshing of valve.

Machines 2022, 10, 964 The magnetization curves of DT4 and 1J50 are shown in Figure 6. The material 8 ofof
16
DT4 is high-quality steel which is commonly used soft magnetic material in electromag-
netic components. 1J50 is Fe-Ni soft magnetic alloy. They have fine magnetic property and
are widely
widely used
used in solenoid
in solenoid valve.
valve. Thecoil
The coilisisapplied
appliedasasthe
theexcitation
excitation input
input terminal. The
The
excitation
excitationcondition
conditionisis710
710ampere-turn,
ampere-turn, and
and the
the excitation
excitation current
current range
range is
is 0~950
0~950 mA.
mA.

2.0

1.5
DT4
B (T)

1.0 1J50

0.5

0.0
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 8 of 16
H (A/m)

Magnetizationcurves
Figure6.6.Magnetization
Figure curvesof
ofsoft
softmagnetic
magneticmaterials
materialsDT4
DT4and
and1J50.
1J50.
5.2. Experimental Modification
5.2. Experimental Modification
A serial assistant program was used to gather dates. As shown in Figure 7, the test
A serial assistant program was used to gather dates. As shown in Figure 7, the test
bench is composed of the tested HFSV, pull-pressure sensor, displacement sensor, stepper
bench is composed of the tested HFSV, pull-pressure sensor, displacement sensor, stepper
motor, host, DC power supply, motor drive module and controller. The right end of the
motor, host, DC power supply, motor drive module and controller. The right end of the
armature and pull-pressure sensor is fixedly connected by a short screw rod. The stepper
armature and pull-pressure sensor is fixedly connected by a short screw rod. The stepper
motor at the leftmost end, controls the position of the pull-pressure tension bracket
motor at the leftmost end, controls the position of the pull-pressure tension bracket through
through a ball screw. The position of the pull-pressure sensor could be adjusted through
a ball screw. The position of the pull-pressure sensor could be adjusted through the sliding
the sliding rail on the base under action of step motor, realizing the relative position
rail on the base under action of step motor, realizing the relative position change between
change
the between
armature and the
the armature and It
limiting core. thecan
limiting
adjust core. It can adjust
the relative distancethebetween
relative the
distance be-
sensor’s
tween the sensor’s holder and the solenoid valve. Voltage signals at different
holder and the solenoid valve. Voltage signals at different working air gap (i.e., relative working air
gap (i.e., relative distance) and excitation currents are collected by pull-pressure
distance) and excitation currents are collected by pull-pressure sensor. The signals can be sensor.
The signalsinto
converted canthe
be converted into the staticforce,
static electromagnetic electromagnetic force, which
which can acquire static can acquire static
electromagnetic
electromagnetic force with a different working air gap. The indicators of the
force with a different working air gap. The indicators of the experimental device are shown experimental
device
in Tableare2. shown in Table 2.

stepper motor ball screw tension sensor HFSV motor drive controller

experiment bench displacement transducer acquisition equipments DC power

Figure7.7. HFSV
Figure HFSVelectromagnetic
electromagneticforce
forcetest
testbench.
bench.

Table2.2.Specifications
Table Specificationsofofthe
theexperimental
experimentalsystem.
system.

Item
Item Value
Value
DC power supply
DC power supply 24VV
24
Current
Current 10 AA
10
Power
Power 250
250WW
divisions of
divisions ofpull-pressure sensor
pull-pressure sensor 2000
2000
Displacement of core 0~0.3 mm
Displacement of core 0~0.3 mm

The
Thetest
test and
and simulation
simulation values
values of
of armature
armature static
static electromagnetic
electromagneticforce
forcewith
with different
different
working
workingair gaphhare
airgap areshown
shownin
inFigure
Figure8.8.

28 28
24 24
20 20
)

)
 Power 250 W
divisions of pull-pressure sensor 2000
Displacement of core 0~0.3 mm

Machines 2022, 10, 964 The test and simulation values of armature static electromagnetic force with different
9 of 16
working air gap h are shown in Figure 8.

28 28
24 24
20 20

Fm (N)

Fm (N)
16 16
12 12
8 simulation 8 simulation
4 experiment experiment
4
Machines
Machines2022, 10,10,
2022, x FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 0 0 9 9ofof1616
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
I (A) I (A)

(a) h = 0 mm (b) h = 0.1 mm

2828 2828
2424 2424
2020 2020
Fm (N)

Fm (N)
1616 1616
Fm (N)

Fm (N)
1212 1212
88 simulation
simulation 88 simulation
simulation
44 experiment
experiment 44 experiment
experiment
00
0.20.2 0.40.4 0.60.6 0.80.8 1.01.0 00
0.20.2 0.40.4 0.60.6 0.80.8 1.01.0
I (A)
I (A) I (A)
I (A)
(c)(c)h =h 0.2 mm
= 0.2 mm (d)
(d)h =h 0.3 mm
= 0.3 mm
Figure 8. 8.
Figure
FigureTest
Test
8. and
and
Test simulation
andsimulation
simulation results ofof
results
resultsthe
of static
the
the electromagnetic
static force
electromagnetic
static along
force
electromagnetic along
force with
with
along the
with coil
the coil
the exciting
exciting
coil exciting
current under
current
currentunder different
underdifferentair gaps.
differentairairgaps.
gaps.

When
When
Whenthe h is
the
the hkept
h is kept
is constant,
kept constant, the
constant, static
the static
the electromagnetic
electromagnetic
static electromagnetic force
forceofof
force the
ofthearmature
armature
the armatureincreases
increases
increases
with
withthe
withtheincrement
theincrement
increment ofofthe
ofthecoil
the excitation
coil
coilexcitation
excitationcurrent.
current.When
current. When
When thethecoil
thecoilexcitation
coilexcitation
excitation current
currentkeeps
current keeps
keeps
constant,
constant,the
constant, static
the
the staticelectromagnetic
static electromagnetic
electromagnetic force increases
force
force asas
increases
increases the
astheworking
the working
working airairgap
air h decreases.
gap
gap h hdecreases. The
decreases. The
The
maximum
maximum error between
error between simulation and
simulation test
and values
test valuesis 6.7%.
is Thus,
6.7%. Thus,
maximum error between simulation and test values is 6.7%. Thus, it is believed that the it is believed
it is believedthat the
that the
established HFSV’s
establishedHFSV’s
established static
HFSV’sstatic electromagnetic
staticelectromagnetic model
electromagnetic model is is correct
is correct and
correctand can
andcan accurately simulate
can accuratelysimulate simulate the
the static
static
the electromagnetic
electromagnetic
static electromagnetic force.
force.
force.

6.Key
6.6.Key Key Influence
Influence
Influence Factors
Factors
Factors ononon Static
Static Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic
Static Electromagnetic Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
TheThe
The study
study
study ofstatic
static
ofofstatic characteristics
characteristics
characteristics isthe
isisthe the foundation
foundation
foundationand and
and steady
steady
steadystatestate ofthe
ofofthe
state the dynamic
dynamic
dynamic
response.
response.
response.Base Base on
Baseononthis,this, the
this,the influence
theinfluence of key
influenceofofkey parameters
keyparameters on the
parametersononthestatic characteristics
thestatic
staticcharacteristics of HFSV
characteristics ofof
HFSV was studied. The structural parameters of HFSV electromagnet components arein
HFSV was studied.
was The
studied. structural
The parameters
structural parameters of HFSV
of electromagnet
HFSV components
electromagnet are
components shown
are
shownFigure
shown 9.Figure9.9.
ininFigure

limit core
limit core

hl hl αα

hdhd

Lm2
Lm2

dm2dm2

armature
armature screwed plug
screwed plug

Figure 9. 9.
Figure
Figure Key9.
Keystructural
Key parameters
structural
structural ofof
parameters
parameters the
of HFSV.
the
the HFSV.
HFSV.

The
Thelength
lengthand andradius
radiusofofthe
theplug
plugscrew
screwentry
entrysection
sectionare
areLm2
Lm2and
anddm2
dm2, which
, whichcan
canbebe
converted
convertedinto intothe
themagnetic
magneticfluxfluxcross-sectional
cross-sectionalarea
areaSm2
Sm2and
andthe
thenon-working
non-workingairairgap gap
length δ. And the key structural parameters, which is between the armature
length δ. And the key structural parameters, which is between the armature and limiting and limiting
core,
core,are
arethose
thoseofofthe
theconical
conicalmagnetic
magneticpolepoleangle
angleα,α,armature
armatureopening
openingradius
radiushdhdand
andhole
hole
depth
depthhl.hl.
Machines 2022, 10, 964 10 of 16

The length and radius of the plug screw entry section are Lm2 and dm2 , which can
be converted into the magnetic flux cross-sectional area Sm2 and the non-working air gap
length δ. And the key structural parameters, which is between the armature and limiting
core, are those of the conical magnetic pole angle α, armature opening radius hd and hole
depth hl.
Magnetic circuit was firstly chosen to investigate the influence of various key factors
on the static electromagnetic force. The variation range of the above factors (i.e., magnetic
flux cross section area, non-working air gap length, cone angle of armature magnetic pole
surface, radius of opening hole of armature and hole depth of armature) is shown in Table 3.
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
Univariate analysis was adopted, which is when a certain factor variable is investigated,
the other parameters will keep constant.

Table 3. Variation range of key structural parameters.

Table parameters.

Parameter
Parameter Description
Description Unit
Unit Fiducial
Fiducial Value
Value Range
Range
Sm2
Sm2 magneticflux
magnetic fluxcross
crosssection
sectionarea
area mm
mm
2
2 39.6
39.6 25.70~39.59
25.70~39.59
δδ non-workingair
non-working airgap
gaplength
length mm
mm 0.2
0.2 0~0.3
0~0.3
αα coneangle
cone angleofofarmature
armaturemagnetic
magneticpole
polesurface
surface °◦ 45
45 30~90
30~90
hd
hd radiusofofopening
radius openinghole
holeofofarmature
armature mm 0.5 0.5~1
0.5~1
hlhl hole
holedepth
depthofofarmature
armature mm 1.5 1~5
1~5

6.1.
6.1. Magnetic
Magnetic FluxFlux Cross
Cross Section
Section Area
Area
Six
Six groups of ofstatic
staticelectromagnetic
electromagneticforce force under
under different
different magnetic
magnetic flux flux cross-sec-
cross-sectional
tional area S were obtained by adjusting the magnetic pole radius d
area Sm2 were obtained by adjusting the magnetic pole radius dm2 , as shown in Figure
m2 m2 , as shown in Figure
10.
10. In this
In this study,
study, thethe range
range of of
Sm2Sm2 wasset
was settoto25.70~39.59
25.70~39.59mm 2
mm .. Under
2 Under the same working
working airair
gap,
gap, the
the static
static electromagnetic
electromagnetic force Fm m of
of the
the armature
armature decreases
decreases with the decrease in Sm2 m2. .
This
This might
might be be attributed
attributed toto the
the excessive
excessive saturation
saturation of
of the
the magnetic
magnetic induction
induction intensity
intensity in
in
the
the spiral
spiral section.
section.

28
Sm2 (mm2)
26
39.59 36.82
24
34.04 31.26
22 28.48 25.70
Fm (N)

20
18
16
14
12
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
h (mm)
Figure 10.
Figure Static electromagnetic
10. Static electromagnetic force
force varies with SSm2
varies with m2. .

6.2. Non-Working Air Gap Length

6.2. Non-Working Air Gap Length
After the connection of screw thread with the plug frame, the non-working air gap δ
After the connection of screw thread with the plug frame, the non-working air gap δ
between the screw thread and the limiting core changed with adjustment of the length Lm2 .
between the screw thread and the limiting core changed with adjustment of the length
Changing of δ in 0–0.3 mm resulted in the adjustment of the static electromagnetic force on
Lm2. Changing of δ in 0–0.3 mm resulted in the adjustment of the static electromagnetic
the armature. Variation curves of the static electromagnetic force under different value of δ
force on the armature. Variation curves of the static electromagnetic force under different
is shown in Figure 11.
value of δ is shown in Figure 11.

30
δ (mm)
28 0 0.05 0.1
26 0.15 0.2 0.25
0.3
24
Fm (N)

22
20
18
 6.2. Non-Working Air Gap Length
After the connection of screw thread with the plug frame, the non-working air gap δ
between the screw thread and the limiting core changed with adjustment of the length
Lm2. Changing of δ in 0–0.3 mm resulted in the adjustment of the static electromagnetic
Machines 2022, 10, 964 11 of 16
force on the armature. Variation curves of the static electromagnetic force under different
value of δ is shown in Figure 11.

30
δ (mm)
28 0 0.05 0.1
26 0.15 0.2 0.25
0.3
24

Fm (N)
22
20
18
16
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16
h (mm)

Static electromagnetic
Figure 11. Static electromagnetic force varies with δ.
The curves showed that the static electromagnetic force Fm of the armature decreased
The curves showed that the static electromagnetic force Fm of the armature decreased
with the increase in the non-working air gap δ under the same working air gap. From
with the increase in the non-working air gap δ under the same working air gap. From
Formula (3), with the increase in the adjustable δ, the adjustable non-working air gap re-
Formula (3), with the increase in the adjustable δ, the adjustable non-working air gap
luctance Rf1 increases. When the coil excitation current is constant, the magnetic induction
reluctance Rf1 increases. When the coil excitation current is constant, the magnetic in-
intensity in the magnetic circuit decreased, and resulted in the armature static electromag-
duction intensity in the magnetic circuit decreased, and resulted in the armature static
netic force Fm decreasing.
electromagnetic force Fm decreasing.
6.3.
6.3. Angle
Angle of
of Conical
Conical Magnetic
Magnetic Pole
Pole
The shape of
The shape ofthe
thearmature
armature magnetic
magnetic pole
pole surface
surface waswas designed
designed as a which
as a cone, cone, which
makes
makes theof
the trend trend of theelectromagnetic
the static static electromagnetic forceflatter.
force curve curve flatter. The reference
The reference value ofvalue of
conical
conical polar angle ◦α is 45°, and the adjustment range is 30–90°.
◦ The static
polar angle α is 45 , and the adjustment range is 30–90 . The static electromagnetic force electromagnetic
force
underunder the change
the change of conical
of conical polarpolar
angle angle α was
α was be obtained
be obtained by by
thethe model,
model, as as shown
shown in
in Figure 12. Within this working stroke range, the static electromagnetic
Figure 12. Within this working stroke range, the static electromagnetic force Fm of the force F m the
armature increasedwith
armature increased withthetheincrease
increase in in
thethe magnetic
magnetic polarpolar
conecone angle
angle α. increase
α. The The increase
trend
trend decreased
decreased withincrease
with the the increase
in theinequivalency
the equivalency of theofpolar
the polar
conecone
angleangle α. Therefore,
α. Therefore, the
the dynamic
dynamic response
response performance
performance of the
of the solenoid
solenoid valve
valve could
could be improved
be improved by adjusting
by adjusting the
the
cone cone angle
angle α ofαthe
of the magnetic
magnetic polepole to match
to match the the reaction
reaction characteristics.
characteristics.

45
α (˚)
40
90 75 60
35 45 30
30
Fm (N)

25
20
15
10
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
h (mm)
Figure 12.
Figure Static electromagnetic
12. Static electromagnetic force
force varies
varies with
with α.
α.

6.4. Opening Size of Armature

6.4. Opening Size of Armature
As a moving part of HFSV, the armature electromagnetic force has direct influence
As a moving part of HFSV, the armature electromagnetic force has direct influence
on the dynamic response characteristics of armature. Thus, the influence of the hole size
on the dynamic response characteristics of armature. Thus, the influence of the hole size
parameters on the static electromagnetic force of the armature was studied. The hole radius
parameters on the static electromagnetic force of the armature was studied. The hole ra-
hd is 0.5 mm, the hole depth hl is 1.5 mm, the hole radius hd is 0.5~1 mm and the hole depth
dius hd is 0.5 mm, the hole depth hl is 1.5 mm, the hole radius hd is 0.5~1 mm and the hole
hl is 1~5 mm. The static electromagnetic force with the change of the hole radius hd and the
depth hl is 1~5 mm. The static electromagnetic force with the change of the hole radius hd
hole depth hl was recorded, as shown in Figure 13.
and the hole depth hl was recorded, as shown in Figure 13.
 As a moving part of HFSV, the armature electromagnetic force has direct influence
on the dynamic response characteristics of armature. Thus, the influence of the hole size
parameters on the static electromagnetic force of the armature was studied. The hole ra-
dius hd is 0.5 mm, the hole depth hl is 1.5 mm, the hole radius hd is 0.5~1 mm and the hole
Machines 2022, 10, 964 12 of
depth hl is 1~5 mm. The static electromagnetic force with the change of the hole radius hd16
and the hole depth hl was recorded, as shown in Figure 13.

Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

(a) h = 0 mm (b) h = 0.1 mm

(c) h = 0.2 mm (d) h = 0.3 mm

Figure
Figure13.
13.Static
Staticelectromagnetic
electromagneticforce
forcealong
alongwith
withopening
openingradius
radiusand
anddepth.
depth.

Figure1313shows
Figure showsthatthatthethe static
static electromagnetic
electromagnetic force
force Fm under
Fm under eacheach working
working air
air gap
gap h decreased with the increase in hl and hd. That’s because the magnetic
h decreased with the increase in hl and hd. That’s because the magnetic induction intensity induction
ofintensity
the ringofarea
the at
ring
thearea
upperat the
endupper
of theend of the reaches
armature armature reaches saturation
saturation as hd and as hl hd and
grow.
hl grow. Additionally,
Additionally, reductionreduction of thearea
of the contact contact area in
resulted resulted in the decrease
the decrease in the
in the static static
electro-
electromagnetic
magnetic force Fmforce Fmarmature.
of the of the armature.
However, However, the magnetic
the magnetic induction
induction linealmost
line was was almost
un-
unable
able to pass
to pass the opening
the opening at the at the end
upper upper endarmature,
of the of the armature,
resultingresulting in the
in the limited limited
variation
ofvariation
the staticofelectromagnetic
the static electromagnetic
force Fm of force Fm of the armature.
the armature.

7.7.Taguchi
TaguchiMethod
MethodBased
BasedStructural
StructuralOptimization
Optimization
TheTaguchi
The Taguchi method
method can
can be
be used
usedtotorealize
realizemulti-objective
multi-objectiveoptimization
optimization design [23–26].
design [23–
By establishing an orthogonal table, the results of multi-objective optimization design
26]. By establishing an orthogonal table, the results of multi-objective optimization design
parameters can be searched in less test time. The core idea of the Taguchi method is to
parameters can be searched in less test time. The core idea of the Taguchi method is to
apply the robust design to the product [25–28]. To optimize the products, it is necessary
apply the robust design to the product [25–28]. To optimize the products, it is necessary
to look for the best combination of controllable factors, which could make the response
to look for the best combination of controllable factors, which could make the response
variables more in line with the test requirements.
variables more in line with the test requirements.
The specific calculation process of the Taguchi method is as follows:
The specific calculation process of the Taguchi method is as follows:
The total mean of all tests:
The total mean of all tests: 1 n
M(S) = ∑ S (16)
n1 =n1 i
M (S ) = i Si (16)
where M(S) is the total mean; i is the number of n tests;
i =1 Si is the result of the experiment i; n
where M(S) is the
is the number total mean;experiments.
of orthogonal i is the number of tests; Si is the result of the experiment i; n
is the Average
number of orthogonal
value analysisexperiments.
can be expressed as:
Average value analysis can be expressed as:
1 ττ
MX ( j) (S ) = 1 ∑ S (17)
M X ( j ) (S ) = τ i Si
=1 i (17)
τ i =1

where MX(j)(S) is the average of the optimization objectives at the level j of the specific
control factor X; X is a specific control factor; j is a certain level of the specific control
factor; τ is the test result data of a specific control factor at this level.
Analysis of variance is:
N 2
1
SSDX ( S ) =  M ( S ) − M ( S )
X ( j) (18)
Machines 2022, 10, 964 13 of 16

where MX(j) (S) is the average of the optimization objectives at the level j of the specific
control factor X; X is a specific control factor; j is a certain level of the specific control factor;
τ is the test result data of a specific control factor at this level.
Analysis of variance is:
2
1 Nh i
SSDX (S) = ∑
N j =1
MX ( j) (S ) − M (S ) (18)

where SSDX (S) is variance of optimization object of factor X; n is the level number. SS0 , SS1 ,
SS2 and SS3 are variance of optimization object of factors, which is SSDX (S) in Equation (12).
In the above single-factor analysis, the levels and ranges of the optimization variables
of the experimental design model are determined. The number of test calculations is set
to 9. The model of HFSV was numerically simulated according to the test scheme. The
number of coil excitation turns is 674.5 A. The factors and levels of test design optimization
variables are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Factors level of the key influence parameters.

Parameter Unit Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Magnetic flux cross section area Sm2 mm2 25.7 32.65 39.6
Non-working air gap length δ mm 0 0.15 0.3
Cone angle of armature magnetic pole surface α ◦ 30 60 90
Radius of opening hole of armature hd mm 0.5 0.75 1
Hole depth of armature hl mm 1 3 5

The test matrix and finite element simulation results are shown in Table 5. The average
test values under the four different working air gaps are 29.06 N, 21.35 N, 17.87 N and
15.35 N, respectively. The proportion of the influence of optimization variables on the
static electromagnetic force under four working air gaps is shown in Table 6. In this
table, when h = 0 mm, the proportion of α is the largest, so it can be obtained that its
influence on the electromagnetic force is the largest at the suction position, so the angle
with large electromagnetic force is preferred. Similarly, in other positions, the influencing
factors with a large proportion are preferentially selected, and then the parameters that can
generate a large electromagnetic force are selected according to their influence law on the
electromagnetic force.

Table 5. Test matrix and finite element analysis results.

Test Matrix
Test Times Fm0 (N) Fm1 (N) Fm2 (N) Fm3 (N)
Sm2 (mm2 ) δ (mm) α (◦ ) hd (mm) hl (mm)
1 1 (25.7) 1 (0) 1 (30) 1 (0.5) 2 (3) 16.53 10.91 9.96 9.4
2 1 2 (0.15) 2 (60) 2 (0.75) 1 (1) 29.67 22.03 17.97 15.11
3 1 3 (0.3) 3 (90) 3 (1) 3 (5) 32.83 22.5 17.4 13.91
4 2 (32.65) 1 2 3 1 33.33 25.57 21.6 18.76
5 2 2 3 1 2 38.16 28.78 23.28 19.09
6 2 3 1 2 3 17.06 11.22 10.22 9.6
7 3 (39.6) 1 3 2 3 41.29 32.01 26.66 22.77
8 3 2 1 3 2 19.66 13.49 12.2 11.43
9 3 3 2 1 1 32.98 25.61 21.54 18.08
 Machines 2022, 10, 964 14 of 16

Table 6. Proportion of influence of optimization variables on static electromagnetic force at four

working air gaps.

h = 0 mm h = 0.1 mm h = 0.2 mm h = 0.3 mm

Variable Specific Specific Specific Specific
SS0 SS1 SS2 SS3
Gravity (%) Gravity (%) Gravity (%) Gravity (%)
Sm2 4.22 7.68 4.67 7.68 4.33 11.85 3.67 16.65
δ 1.28 2.55 1.55 2.55 1.53 4.18 1.63 7.38
α 68.85 76.75 46.73 76.75 25.76 70.56 13.83 62.77
hd 0.10 0.56 0.34 0.56 0.32 0.89 0.23 1.03
hl 9.56 12.46 7.59 12.46 4.57 12.52 2.68 12.18

Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16

The influence trend of five variables on the static electromagnetic force Fm under four
working air gaps is shown in Figure 14. It can be seen that the most obvious variable
affecting the static electromagnetic force is the cone angle α, followed by the depth of the
armature
armatureopening
opening hole
holehl,hl,
thethe
magnetic fluxflux
magnetic cross-sectional areaarea
cross-sectional Sm2, the
Sm2length of the of
, the length non-
the
working air gap
non-working airδ gap
and δthe
andradius of theof
the radius armature opening
the armature hole hd.
opening hole hd.

40 32
Sm2 (mm2) δ (mm) Sm2 ( mm2 ) δ (mm)
36 α (˚) hd (mm) α (˚) hd (mm)
28
hl (mm) hl (mm)
32
24
F m (N)

F m (N)

28
20
24
16
20
12
16
1 2 3 1 2 3

(a) h = 0 mm (b) h = 0.1 mm

26 22
Sm2 (mm2) δ (mm) Sm2 (mm2) δ (mm)
24
α (˚) hd (mm) 20 α (˚) hd (mm)
22 hl (mm) hl (mm)
18
20
F m (N)

Fm (N)

18 16
16
14
14
12 12

10 10
1 2 3 1 2 3
(c) h = 0.2 mm (d) h = 0.3 mm
Figure
Figure14.
14.The
Theinfluence
influencetrend
trendchart
chartofoffive
fiveoptimization
optimizationvariables
variableson
onstatic
staticelectromagnetic
electromagneticforce.
force.

Theoptimal
The optimal structural
structural design factors
factors combination
combinationfor forthe
themaximum
maximum static electromag-
static electro-
netic force
magnetic is Sism2Sm2
force (3)(3)δ δ(1) (3)hd
(1)αα(3) (2)hl
hd(2) hl(1).
(1). Meanwhile, thethe optimized
optimizedHFSV HFSVprototype
prototype
wasmanufactured
was manufacturedand andtested.
tested.InInFigure
Figure15,
15,the
theexperimental
experimentalvaluevalueisiscompared
comparedwith withthe
the
simulationunder
simulation underdifferent
differentworking
workingairairgap.
gap.TheTheexperiment
experimentresults
resultsare
areiningood
goodagreement
agreement
withthe
with thesimulation
simulationones. ones.The Theresults
results before
before and
and after optimization are are shown
shown in inTable
Table7.7.It
can be found that the static electromagnetic forces are increased by 60.65%,
It can be found that the static electromagnetic forces are increased by 60.65%, 61.56%, 61.56%, 51.04%
and 42.48%,
51.04% when when
and 42.48%, the working air gap
the working airposition is 0 mm,
gap position 0.1 mm,
is 0 mm, 0.2 mm
0.1 mm, and and
0.2 mm 0.3 mm,
0.3
respectively.
mm, respectively.

45

40 simulation
experiment
35
m(N)

Machines 2022, 10, 964
magnetic force is Sm2 (3) δ (1) α (3) hd (2) hl (1). Meanwhile, the optimized HFSV prototype
was manufactured and tested. In Figure 15, the experimental value is compared with the
simulation under different working air gap. The experiment results are in good agreement
with the simulation ones. The results before and after optimization are shown in Table 7.
It can be found that the static electromagnetic forces are increased by 60.65%, 61.56%,
51.04% and 42.48%, when the working air gap position is 0 mm, 0.1 mm, 0.2 mm and 15 of0.3
16
mm, respectively.

45

40 simulation
experiment
35

Fm(N) 30

25

20
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
h(mm)

Figure 15. The

The experimental
experimental value is compared
compared with the simulation
simulation under different working air gap.

Table 7. Simulation results of static electromagnetic force before and after optimization.

Working Air Gap (mm) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Electromagnetic force before optimization (N) 26.58 20.66 18.43 16.74
Optimized electromagnetic force (N) 42.70 33.38 27.84 23.85
Increase percentage (%) 60.65 61.56 51.04 42.48

8. Conclusions
In this paper, the static electromagnetic characteristics of HFSV were studied and opti-
mized based on the Taguchi method. From the deduced axial electromagnetic force acting
on the armature and FEM simulation results, five key influence parameters (i.e., magnetic
flux cross-sectional area Sm2 , non-working air gap length δ, conical magnetic pole angle
α, armature opening radius hd and hole depth hl), were determined and the effects on the
electromagnetic characteristics were obtained. The Taguchi method was adopted to the
structural optimization by considering the coupling effect of the multiple factors at four
locations in the working stroke. The range of armature’s electromagnetic force increases
about 42.48~61.56% at the working air gap position of 0~0.3 mm. The response speed of
HFSV is also improved after the optimization of the electromagnetic force. The response
speed of the valve is 2.01 ms and 1.63 ms before and after optimization, which is increased
by 18.9%. The simulation and experimental results showed good agreement.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.Y. and T.G.; methodology, L.Y.; software, X.D.; valida-
tion, L.Y., T.G. and X.D.; formal analysis, T.G. and X.D.; investigation, F.Z.; writing—original draft
preparation, T.G. and X.D.; writing—review and editing, L.Y., F.Z. and X.K.; project administra-
tion, C.L.; funding acquisition, L.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Open Foundation of the State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power
and Mechatronic Systems (grant number GZKF-202124).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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