SOCIAL FORMATIONS NOTES – KANIKA MA’AM

animal bones

Indirect evidence: Animals found outside natural habitats eg. Mt. goats in plains

Identification of wild/domesticated varieties: The morphological changes occurred only thousands of

years after their first domestication.

Size: Early types of Domesticated tend to be smaller than wild variety

Skull change: Faunal part of skull is shortened in relation to cranial

Dental structure: Teeth are smaller than wild forms

Horn size also decreases

Hair also short

D involves three factors namely: human who carries it out; the wild animal that has been
domesticated; and domesticated animal is the result

It started in Mesolithic in Holocene

S. Bokonyi: D as the capture and taming by man of animals of a species with particular behavioral
characteristics, their removal from their natural living areas and breeding community and their
maintenance under controlled breeding conditions for profit

There are two phases of D: Animal Keeping and Animal Breeding

D has increased dramatically the number of species, who have paid price for it-they have lost their
genetic independence and are subjected to breed at human will

Reasons for D: D not a sudden occurrence but an on-going process

Hunters as authors of D model

Regular supply of food (Binford) led to D. The evidence for first domestic animals were meat
producers. In Binford’s view, to ensure a regular food supply for a growing population seems to have
been a motivating factor for animal domestication, along with other factors

Fagan’s view, having one own herd of domesticated animals ensured regular meat supply.

Later, D animals provided by products such as milk, egg and skin for clothes, tent etc. Eventually,
specialized like ploughing.

Climate

Strategy: D is a survival strategy. Man always adopting strategies that proved best in existing
circumstances.

Cultural choices

Catal Huyuk-several animals domesticated, but 80 km away Suberde-no D

area of domestication south W. Asia

ertile crescent-being heart area of D and cradle of civilization.

Levant

Natufean in Mesolithic

highly mobile hunter-gatherer bands In 13000 BCE

general cultural name of Kebaran. Kebaran sites, marked by thousands of small geometric microliths.

Plant foods not important as tool-kit devoid of grinders and pounders

Plant foods not important as tool-kit devoid of grinders and pounders

simple hunter-gatherer strategy

tools like pestles

Increase in site, population growth

Kebaran 13000 to 11000

Natufians emerged from Keberan culture

Bogucki mentions two phases: Early and Late.

Kebaran 13000 to 11000 B.C.

Natufian Culture (11,000-8,500 BCE):

no domestication of plants

exploitation of wild plants

It was discovered by A. E. Garrod in 1928

abundance of cereal and nut resources

Tool-kit: All kinds of specialized plant processing tools like querns, sickles (period of the activity at
the time of plant harvest); sickles, grinding stones, pestles, mortors,-bone sickles with flint blades
bear sickle gloss-caused by silica in cereal grass stalk.

broad spectrum of food resources namely plant and animals, they also had personal ornamentation.

burials

complex hunter-gatherers

Sedentary lifestyle, larger settlement, associated with transitory camps (food collected and food
processed).

trategic locations-coastal plains or any place advantageous for tool making, Thus, they enjoyed
abundant food for months.

exploited wild emmer and barley and almond, pistachio (which could be stored).

Hunted/targeted migratory gazelle herd

Evidence of social differentiation in Natufian cultures

Burials in between settlements

Social ranking

dentalium seashell, is confined to a few burials

the stone slab grave covers and mortar markers associated with the cemeteries may have served as
ritual markers of territorial boundaries,

exchange networks

Special Shaman Burial

Hilazon Tachtit is a small cave in Israel

burial ground for at least 28 Natufians

circular structures built of limestone cobbles contained the remains of at least 25 people.

woman about 45 years old

ten large stones were placed on her body at the time of burial as well as a series of remarkable grave
goods

50 complete tortoise shells

Wing tip bones from a golden eagle

A male gazelle horn, known to have had spiritual associations to Natufians,

After nearly 2,000 years of close involvement with cereal plants, they would have been well aware of
what was needed to plant and grow cereal grasses deliberately

ABU HUREYA

plant remains, pulses, wheat, lentils-a sedentary settlement with unique strategy of collecting
diverse plants and gazelle killed during spring migrations: plant foraging and specialized hunting

2000 years of close involvement with cereal plants, they acquired knowledge of how to grew plants
deliberately-to compensate for declining wild varieties.

Persian Gazelle was a reliable source of meat as 80 % of Gazelle and half a dozen of wild plants and
200 other species

From a settlement of few families, it slowly increased to size of 300-400

Beidha (Jordon):

Hearths and roasting

Wild goat and Nubian ibex

8 marine shell species-acquired from red sea

El-Wad caves: Barley, Einkorn were harvested as revealed from reaping knive blades.

Mureybit-no domestication a meat diet of deer, cattle, gazelle or goat-one or other last two
concentrated main share. Thus, close herding of particular species.

Ain Mallaha
Hayonim cave

Ain Mallaha: hearths, storage pits and burials, most diverse faunal remains-Gazelle dominates 55%
of remains; remaining of wild cattle, pig, red deer, wild horse

Hayonim cave-limestone pit burial

humans and domestic dog buried together

commensal

species live in areas where food available throughout the yea

seasonal coastal sites, too, many for specific activities such as deepwater fishing

coastal settlements year round and diverse food resource base

Tool technology-wide variety of antler, bone, wood tools for specialized tasks

sea mammal hunting, including dug out canoes up to 10m long

Aggersund site in Denmark

collected oysters and migratory swans

seasonal visit sites, special purpose coastal sites

buried their dead in cemeteries, placing the bodies in various positions, with dog

occasional social differentiation revealed by elaborate burials

intensified the food quest by exploiting many more marine species, terrestrial animals, plant foods

technology,
exchange of materials
cultural differences between people
regional variations in artifact forms and styles
Vedback Bogebakken cemetery in Denmark

graves of 22 people of different ages-buried in extended position, 3 after injury or violent death.
red deer antler are the grave goods

Large amount of red ochre sprinkled over dead

wore necklaces and belts of beads from shells and animal teeth

projectile points in ribs

Skatebolm (Sweden)-57 graves with 62 individuals

diversity in burial site-extended, seated and contracted-knew cremation

8 dog graves-same careful treatment as humans and accompanied by antlers and grave goods and
red ochre

dogs at some distance from human burials.

Mollegabet

canoe with skeletal remains

boat burial

Star Carr (England)

1947 till 2015

tools, settlements and art objects

191 barbed antler points and 21 red deer frontlets

3 large timber platforms

Presence of hearths

tool manufacture, axe resharpening, working of bone and antler.

the lake side location reflects the choice of site.

Base camp, hunting camp, kill site or a place for tanning hides

3 small circular structures

oldest house in Britain

base camp but place where rituals took place

Clark mentioned significant roles of graves in Mesolithic society.

both cremation and burial were known

cemeteries increased in late Mesolithic

form of territorial marking

a mental relationship between people and environment

Mesolithic cultures are much less well defined elsewhere in Europe

fewer opportunities for coastal adaptation

dense forests

Spain, there appears to have been intensified exploitation of marine and forest resources.

minimize the impact of environmental uncertainty

extensive exploitation of food resources

strategy

burials

evidence of localized adaptation

Lars by Larrson

Lars Larrson
Palaeolithic replaced by Mesolithic

nland and coastal sites

result of adaptation
Ahrenburgian as first N. European culture with both inland and coastal sites
Ahrensburg culture was replaced by Early Mesolithic in Scandinavia.
When farming did come to Europe, this preadaptation was an important catalyst for rapid economic
and social change.

Egypt unit

Old kingdom

2680-2134 BCE

King becomes supreme territorial element centralized nature of kingship

well being of the common people depended on the ruler

ruler was supported by their labour

centralized absolutism

Paul Johnson

Old kingdom lasted 500 uyears

was matrix of entire culture, statecraft, religion, architecture, sculpture, writing

Publica pperances

Large open space

elevated pace

people made to believe king higher than them

Third Dynasty pharaoh Djoser

Step Pyramid

at Saqqara

opposite royal capital at Memphis

continuation of ritual ceremonies

smearing of hippopotamus a common theme in royal tombs

uphold maat

Coronation ceremony

King was firing arrows in four cardinal directions

birds were released to announce

announce his rule

All land belonged to Egypt pharaoh by divine right

Egypt was the center was the earth

Power of the pharaoh grew from early dynastic to the old kingdom

reached its peak with fourth dynasty

official intermediary

Old kingdom pharaoh was all gods

Pyramid building

reasons

Fagan

Role of scribe was very important

driving force behind construction of pyramids

scribes acquired immense importance

Kurt Mendekssotin

pyramids were a means of linking people with their king and to Gods

reciprocal and spiritual

Pharaoh was a divine king

annual labour

Pyramid building created public works

define authority of ruler and make his subjects dependent on him

military lines

named into troops and governed by generals

their families were provided with food and clothing

Pyramid building was to burb unemployment

Religious

duty of the people to work here

I made this tomb in return for bread and beer and I gave it to all manual labours who worked on it