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International Conference on Applied Mathematics and Physics (ICAMP 2022) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2282 (2022) 012004 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2282/1/012004

Study on eigenvalue and eigenvector introduction

Yinshan Jiang
School of Information Science and Technology, Nanguo Business School, Guangdong
University of Foreign Studies, Guangzhou, Guangdong P.R. China
email: 1076618037@qq.com，
*Corresponding author：email: ngzhaoban@21cn.com

Abstract. The eigenvalue and eigenvector of matrix is one of the key contents of linear algebra,
and it is also the hot topic of postgraduate entrance examination. First of all, we must
understand the concept of eigenvalue and eigenvector and master the method of solving
eigenvalue and eigenvector of matrix.

1. Introduction
This paper mainly discusses the matrix eigenvalue and eigenvector problems which are widely used in
practice. All the methods have a certain universality. It also aims at transforming thinking in
mathematics. We can appreciate the extensive use of eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrices in
practice, The eigenvalue problem is not only related to the transformation of conic surface and conic
equation into standard form by rectangular coordinate transformation in geometry, Moreover, It has
been further applied in differential equation theory, information system design, nonlinear optimization
and economics. This shows the importance of mathematics in our daily life.

2. The basic concepts of eigenvalues and eigenvectors of square matrices

Definition 1  Let A be A matrix of order n . If there exists A number  and A non-zero column
1

vector  of dimension n , the relation is obtained

A =  (1)
So, such A number  is called the eigenvalue of matrix A , The non-zero vector  is called the
eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue  of A .
( )
Definition 2  Set the matrix A = aij of order n , then
2

f ( ) = E − A

a11 −  a12 a13

a21 a22 −  a23
= ( 2)
an1 an 2 ann

Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
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Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
International Conference on Applied Mathematics and Physics (ICAMP 2022) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2282 (2022) 012004 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2282/1/012004

A characteristic polynomial called matrix A ,  E − A is called the eigenmatrix of A , f (  ) = 0

is called the characteristic equation of A .

3. Properties of eigenvalues and eigenvectors

The properties of eigenvalues and eigenvectors are summarized as follows. Please refer to the
references for the properties and their proof     .
1−3

( )
Property 1: n eigenvalues of the n solution matrix A = aij are 1 , 2 , , n , then
n n n

 = a ; 
i =1
i
i =1
ii
i =1
i = A ( 3)
n
Where a
i =1
ii
is the sum of the principal diagonal elements of A , called the trace of A , denoted as

tr ( A ) .
Property 2: If  is the eigenvalue of matrix A of order n and  is the eigenvector of A
belonging to eigenvalue  , then
① k  is the eigenvalue of kA , where k is an arbitrary constant；
②  m is the eigenvalue of Am , where m is any positive integer;
③When A is invertible,  −1 is the eigenvalue of A−1 ;
A
④ When A is invertible, is the eigenvalue of the adjoint matrix A , and  is still the

A
eigenvector of kA, A , A , A to k  ,  ,  and
m −1  m −1
, respectively.

Property 3: If  is the eigenvalue of matrix A of order n , then  (  ) is the eigenvalue of  ( A ) ,
where
 (  ) = an m + + a1 + a0 ( 4)
It's polynomial in 
 ( A) = an Am + + a1 A1 + a0 A0 ( 5)
is the characteristic polynomial of matrix A .
Property 4: The eigenvectors that belong to different eigenvalues are linearly independent.
Property 5: Let 1、2 be two different eigenvalues of the matrix A of order n , and the
corresponding eigenvectors are 1 ,  2 respectively, then 1 +  2 is not an eigenvector of A .
Property 6: The eigenvalues of real symmetric matrices are real numbers, and the eigenvectors
corresponding to different eigenvalues are orthogonal to each other.
Property 7: ①The n -order matrix A is similar to the diagonal matrix if and only if A has n
linearly independent eigenvectors.
②If the matrix A of order n has n N unequal eigenvectors, then A is similar to the diagonal
matrix.

4. The method of finding eigenvalue and eigenvector

4.1 Find the eigenvalue and eigenvector of the digital matrix

The steps of finding the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the digital matrix are as follows:
Step 1: Calculate the characteristic polynomial f (  ) =  E − A of A ;

2
International Conference on Applied Mathematics and Physics (ICAMP 2022) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2282 (2022) 012004 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2282/1/012004

Step 2: Solve the characteristic equation  E − A = 0 and find all its eigenroots 1 , 2 , , n
which are all the eigenvalues of A ;
Step 3: For each eigenvalue i ( i = 1, 2, , n ) , find A basic solution to the eigenequation
( i E − A) x = 0 of the homogeneous linear system of equations  i1 , i 2 , , ir is the linearly
independent eigenvector of A belonging to i , Then all the eigenvectors of A that are A member of
i are non-zero linear combinations of this solution system.
k1 i1 + k2 i 2 + kr ir ( 6)
 −1 2 2 
Example 1 Let A =  2 −1 −2  try to find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix A .
 
 −2 2 −1 
 
 + 1 −2 −2
C3 −C1
 + 1 −2 0
r2 + r3
 + 1 −2 0
solution  E − A = −2  + 1 2 = −2  + 1 1 −  = −4  + 3 0
−2 2  +1 −2 2  −1 −2 2  −1
 +1 −2
= (  − 1) = (  − 1) (  + 5)
2

−4  +3
Let  E − A = 0 , get all the eigenvalues 1 =2 =1，3 = − 5 .
When 1 =2 =1 , solve the homogeneous linear system ( E − A ) x = 0 , and obtain the basic
1 1
 
solution system 1 = 1 ,  2 =  0  , and all the eigenvectors corresponding to eigenvalue 1 =2 =1
   
0 1
   
1 1
Thus, all eigenvectors corresponding to eigenvalue are k11 + k2 2 = k1 1 + k2  0  ,
 
   
0 1
   
(Where k1 , k2 is a constant that is not all zero).
When 3 = − 5 , solve the homogeneous linear system of equations ( −5E − A ) x = 0 , and obtain
 −1  −1
the basic solution system 3 = 1 . Thus, all eigenvectors corresponding to eigenvalue 3 =  1  ,
 
   
1 1
   
 −1
All eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalue 3 = − 5 are k33 = k3  1  ( k 3 is a constant that
 
1
 
is not zero).

4.2 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the abstract matrix

To solve the problem: If the matrix A of order n satisfies f ( A) = 0 , then A =  ,   0 can
know that any eigenvalue K ratio of A satisfies f (  ) = 0 .

3
International Conference on Applied Mathematics and Physics (ICAMP 2022) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2282 (2022) 012004 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2282/1/012004

Example 2 Let A be A real symmetric matrix of order 3, given r ( A ) = 1, A2 − 3 A = 0 , find the

eigenvalue of A  .
4

Solution: Let the eigenvalue of matrix A be  , and  2 − 3 = 0 can be obtained from

A − 3 A = 0 , thus  = 0 or  = 3 . The matrix A can only be evaluated from 0 and 3, because
2

r ( A ) = 1 , so 1 = 2 = 0, 3 = 3 .

4.3 Find the inverse problem of eigenvalues and eigenvectors

To solve the problem: If you know the vector  , you usually use A =  to analyze it; If the
eigenvalue 0 is known, it is generally discussed with  E − A = 0 .
1  2 −1 2 
Example 3 Given that  = 1 is an eigenvector of matrix A =  5
  
a 3  , try to determine
  
 −1   −1 b −2 
   
 5
the eigenvalue of the parameter a, b and the eigenvector  .
 2 −1 2  1  1  −1    

Solution: A =  goes to 5        
 a 3  1  =   1  , namely  2 + a  =    , available
 −1 b −2  −1  −1  b + 1   − 
        
 = −1, a = −3, b = 0 .

4.4 Proof of eigenvalues and eigenvectors

To solve the problem: Using the definition
2
Example 4 Let  be a nonzero column vector of n dimensions, A = E −  T , Proof:  is
 T
the eigenvector of matrix A .
 2 
Prove: because A =  E −  T  = E − 2 =  = −1   , So  is the eigenvector of A ,
  
T

and its eigenvalue is negative 1.

4.5 Given the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of square matrix A , find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors
of matrix B related to A .
To solve the problem: Calculate directly using the table below.

Table 1: A diagram of the eigenvalues and eigenvalue vectors of A matrix associated with matrix A
A An kA f ( A) A−1 A P −1 AP

 n k f ( ) 1 A 
 

      P −1

Example 5 Let the eigenvalue of the third-order matrix A be 2，-2, 1,B = A − A + E ,

2

where E is the identity matrix, What is the eigenvalue of B ?

4
International Conference on Applied Mathematics and Physics (ICAMP 2022) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2282 (2022) 012004 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2282/1/012004

Solution: Let the eigenvalue of A be  , and f ( A ) = am A + am −1 A +

m −1
m
+ a1 A + a0 E , then
Because the eigenvalue of A is  , the eigenvalue of B is
f ( 2 ) = 22 − 2 + 1 = 3, f ( −2 ) = ( −2 ) − ( −2 ) + 1 = 7, f (1) = 12 − 1 + 1 = 1.
2

4.6 Given all eigenvalues and eigenvectors of square matrix A , the method of inverse matrix A
Given the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of square matrix A ( n linearly independent eigenvectors),
the method of inverse matrix A .
Method 1: Use diagonalization to find the reversible matrix P , so that P −1 AP = B is true, then
A = PBP −1
−1
Method 2: Use diagonalization to find the orthogonal matrix Q ( Q = QT ), so that Q −1 AQ = B is
true, then A = QBQ
T

Example 6 Let A be A real symmetric matrix of order 3, the rank of A is 2, and

 1 1   −1 1 
   
A 0 0  =  0 0 .
 −1 1   1 1 
   
⑴ Find all the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A ; ⑵ Solve the matrix A  .
5

Solution: (1)Since the rank of A is 2, 0 is the eigenvalue of A , which can be obtained from the
question
 1   −1 1 1 1 1
           
A 0  =  0  = −  0  , A 0  =  0  = 1   0 
 −1  1   −1 1 1  −1
           
So minus 1 is an eigenvalue of A , and 1 = (1,0, −1) is an eigenvector that belongs to minus 1,
T

All the eigenvectors of minus 1 are k11 ( k1  0 ) ,1 is an eigenvalue of A , and  2 = (1,0,1) is an

T

eigenvector belonging to 1, and all eigenvectors of 1 are k11 ( k1  0 ) , Because r ( A ) is 2, 0 is the

third eigenvalue of A . Let  3 = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) be an eigenvector that is A member of 0, and since A
T

is A real symmetric matrix, Tthen

( 3，1 ) = 0  x1 − x3 = 0
 , namely  , then
( 3， 2 ) = 0  x1 + x3 = 0
1 1
2 0 −2
 −1 0 0   1 1 0  −1 0 0    0 0 1
  −1    1 1   
A = P  0 1 0  P =  0 0 1  0 1 0  0 = 0 0 0
2 2 
 0 0 0  −1 1 0  0 0 0    
     0 1 0  1 0 0
 
 
 

5
International Conference on Applied Mathematics and Physics (ICAMP 2022) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2282 (2022) 012004 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2282/1/012004

4.7 Calculate eigenvalue and eigenvector by elementary row transformation

Solution steps:
(
①write out the   E − AT
 ) E  ⎯⎯
r
→  D (  ) P (  )  . Where D (  ) is the upper triangular
matrix containing  . P (  ) is the elementary matrix obtained by elementary row transformation of
E;
②Find the eigenvalues from D (  ) , and let the product of the main diagonal elements of D (  )
be zero, So  is the eigenvalue i ( i = 1, 2, , n) ;
③Substituting i ( i = 1, 2, , n ) into  D ( I ) P ( i )  , and then performing the elementary
row operation to put D ( i ) into row echelon form, when the number of non-zero row vectors is r .
The transpose of the next n − r row vectors in P ( i ) is the eigenvector for i .
 −1 1 0 
  6
Example 6 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrix A =  −4 3 0  .  
 1 0 2
 
 + 1 4 −1 1 0 0
Solution: (  E − A )
T 
E  =  −1  − 3 0 0 1 0 

 0 0  −2 0 0 1 
 −1  − 3 0 0 1 0
r2  r1
⎯⎯⎯ 
→  + 1 4 −1 1 0 0 
 0 0  −2 0 0 1 
 −1  − 3 0 0 1 0
r2 + (  +1) r1  
⎯⎯⎯⎯ →  0 (  − 1) −1 1  + 1 0  =  D (  ) P (  ) 
2

0 0  −2 0 0 1
 
0
 
r ( D ( 2 ) ) = 2, So the eigenvector for 1 = 2 = 1 is zero 1 = ( 0,0,1) =  0 
T

1
 
 −1 −2 0 0 1 0   −1 −2 0 0 1 0 
When 2 = 3 = 1 ,  D (1) P (1)  = 0
 
0 −1 1 3 0  ⎯⎯⎯ r3 − r1
→  0 0 −1 1 3 0 

 0 0 −1 0 0 1   0 0 0 0 0 0 
 −1 
r ( D (1) ) = 1 , So the eigenvector of 2 = 3 = 1 is  2 = ( −1, −2,1) =  −2 
T

1
 

5. Practical application of eigenvalue and eigenvector

In practical teaching, students need a long time to calculate the eigenvalue and eigenvector of matrix
because of the complicated calculation methods. If the calculation results need to be further applied to
practical problems, the long process will make it difficult for students to understand. In order to solve

6
International Conference on Applied Mathematics and Physics (ICAMP 2022) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2282 (2022) 012004 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2282/1/012004

this problem, MATLAB's built-in function EIg (A) can be used to quickly calculate the
eigenvalues.Then combine it with practical application. The following introduces the application of
eigenvalue and eigenvector in predictive analysis, and gives the MATLAB implementation method of
practical problems.
Question: Assume that there are a total of 200,000 people employed in IT, education and media
industries in a city. Assume employment The total number of personnel of 200,000 will remain
unchanged in several years. According to the survey : (1) among the 200,000 employed personnel,
there are about two70,000 work in IT and 90,000 in education; (2) About 2% of IT workers per yearTo
education, 1% to media; (3) Each year, about 2% of the education industry moves into THE IT
industry and 1% into the media industry; (4) Each year, about 1% of people in the media industry
move into THE IT industry and 1% into the education industry. Try to predict 10 years
later to solve the problem:With transfers between people engaged in three occupations, obviously
x1 = Ax0 , x2 = Ax1 , , xn = Axn −1 , So xn = An x0 , , notice that A is A real symmetric matrix, There
must be an invertible matrix P such that P −1 AP =  ,Where  is the eigenvalue of A as the
diagonal matrix formed by the main diagonal elements; P is the matrix of linearly independent
eigenvectors corresponding to eigenvalues as column vectors. Thus, An = P n P −1 , that is, the
situation of personnel engaged in these three occupations in the 3 year, can be calculated from
xn = P n Px0 .
The solving process of the problem can be realized by MATLAB program, the specific program is:
A =  0.97 0.02 0.01;0.02 0.97 0.01; 0.01 0.01 0.987 ;
 P, D  = eig ( A) ; % of the eigenvalue D and the eigenvector matrix P
x = P D1010 inv ( P )  7;9; 4 % get the number of people in 3 occupations 10 years later


The output is x = ( 7.0512,8.2486, 4.7002 ) , That is, 10 years later, IT, education and media
T

workers are predicted to be 70215,82486,47002 respectively.

6. Conclusion
In science and engineering calculation, solving eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrices is one of the
most common problems. The eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrices are often used in many
applications. At present, there are two methods for solving eigenvalues and eigenvectors:
transformation method and iteration method. Although these two methods have achieved great success
in solving the problem, they generally have some defects such as low accuracy and slow convergence
speed, so it is necessary to further change the method and improve the calculation speed and
convergence speed.

Acknowledgments
Wang Junhua, Jiang Yinshan Ministry of Education project "Mobile Application Development
Technology" curriculum reform.

References
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International Conference on Applied Mathematics and Physics (ICAMP 2022) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2282 (2022) 012004 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2282/1/012004

[4] Tang J f(2015), Take an examination of grind mathematics relay problem code 1800  M  , China
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