LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS

Reviewer in Professional Education

Focus: Curriculum Development and Educational Technology

Competencies:
For Curriculum Development
1. Apply approaches to curriculum
2. Align curriculum components to instruction and assessment
3. Distinguish the roles of stakeholders in the delivery of the curriculum

For Educational Technology

4. Identify varied and appropriate use of technology;
5. Employ instructional materials and technology appropriate for a chosen subject-area, that is, for
teaching; and
6. Apply principles in the preparation and utilization of the conventional and non-conventional technology
tools as well as the traditional and alternative strategies.

Part I. Content Update in Curriculum Development

A. Understanding Curriculum

a decision making process aninstruction basic of study

a syllabus
forces and preparation of teaching a plan

transmission of knowledge a course of study

CURRICULUM

blueprint of philosophy of a written guide

education and strategies

a guide for teaching acollection of learningexperiences

the heart of teaching

1. Curriculum is defined as

 the learning experiences and intended outcomes formulated through systematic reconstruction of knowledge and
experiences, under the auspices of the school for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal-social
competence; the cumulative tradition of organized knowledge (Tanner, D. and Tanner, L.)

 the sum total of all learning content, experiences and resources that are purposely selected, organized and
implemented by the school in pursuit of its peculiar mandate as a distinct institution of learning and human
development.

 that what is taught in school; set of subjects, materials and performance objectives; everything that goes on within
the school, including extra-class activities, guidance and interpersonal relationships in the school (Oliva)

 The planned and guided learning experiences and intended learning outcomes, formulated through the
systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences, under the auspices of the school, for the learners’
continuous and willful growth in personal social competence.”

2. Different Levels of Curriculum

  Societal Level of Curriculum–the farthest from the learners since this is where the public stakeholders
(politicians, special interest groups, administrators, professional specialists) participate in identifying the goals, the
topics to be studied, time to be spent in teaching/learning, and materials to aid instruction

 InstitutionalLevel of Curriculum – refers to the curriculum derived from the societal level, with modification by
local educators or lay people; often organized according to subjects and includes topics and themes to be
studied; may also include standards, philosophies, lesson plans, and teaching guides
 Instructional Level of Curriculum–refers to how teachers use the curriculum developed in the societal level and
modified in the institutional level, or what authorities have determined; involves the teachers’ instructional
strategies, styles and materials used.

 Experiential Level of Curriculum – the curriculum perceived and experiences by each student and may,
therefore, vary among learners because of individual differences.

3. Three Major Types of Curriculum

Subject-Centered Curriculum Learner-Centered Curriculum
 Emphasis on well-organized  Emphasis on all-around
subject by lecture; on growth of learners; on
improving teaching of subject meaningful immediate use of
matter and on uniformity of learning; on understanding
exposures; on teaching facts and improving through active,
and knowledge for future use; dynamic process; on parts
Questions focus on “What” flow together as whole, with
rather than “Why” or “How”; continuous fusion and
on conformity to patterns set merging
by the curriculum
 Focuses on the learners’
 Subject contains fragmented, interest and the integration of
unique body content, different content from many subject
from other subject/disciplines fields
 Central task: mastery of the  Subject matter selection
subject matter, the amount to based on learners’
be covered of which follows a needs/interests as needed for
set of standards and well- a task
organized context
 High level of cooperative
 Learning sequences in a interaction in which habits
step-by-step pattern and skills integrated in
learning experiences;
 Habits and skills taught as cooperative controls by
separate aspects of learning learners, parents, and
teachers.
 Lacks consideration for the
learners’ capacity for growth  Learners are encouraged to
and has low level of use problem-solving skills,
cooperative interaction since methods, and to set their own
the teacher is in full control tasks.
Problem-BasedCurriculum
(Society/Cultural Based)
 Emphasizes problem-solving
processes and skills on
human and social relations
more than content –
acquisition
 Based on the needs of
society and culture; rooted in
the study of life, social
problems, and activities of
social life
 Promotes social action and
reconstruction theories
whose major goal in the
improvement of the society
through a direct involvement
of both schools and the
learners
 Integrates different subject
matter and their relevance to
students and society
 Content strongly relevant to
learners but has weak scope
and sequence of subjects

 Textbook is the primary  Promotes integration of

instructional tool; and the 7 subject but with scope and
liberal arts comprised the sequence not well-defined
curriculum
 Structures developed as a
result of on-going process

4. Designs and Patterns of Subject-Centered Curriculum

 Subject Design: the oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers, parents and other laymen; easy to
deliver since complementary books are written and support instructional materials are commercially available;
teachers are familiar with the format because they were also educated using the design; the drawback of this
design is that sometimes learning is compartmentalized.It stresses so much the content that it forgets about
students’ natural tendencies, interests and experiences.

 Discipline Design (Separate/Single Subject): related to the subject design, but it focuses only on academic
discipline (or organized subject matter area) which is referred to specific knowledge learned through a method
which the scholars use to study a specific content of their fields; teachers should teach how the scholars in the
discipline will convey the particular knowledge. It is often use in the college in which discipline becomes the
degree program.
  CorrelatedDesign: comes from a core, correlated curriculum that links separate subject design in order to
reduce fragmentation, isolation or compartmentalization, that is, subjects in two or more areas are related in
content and time: maybe factual (facts relate subjects), descriptive, normative, but the subject identities remain
(example: vocabulary/spelling words may be based on science or social studies; literature may be corrected with
history of a given era; when science subject becomes the core Mathematics is related to it, as they are taken in
chemistry, physics and biology).To use this design, teachers should come together and plan their lessons
cooperatively.
 Fused Subjects: similar to correlated subjects but the individual identity of each subject is lost (example: social
studies, which is a combination of geography, and culture, history; Language arts, where reading, speaking,
listening and writing are all taught)

 Broad-Fields Design (Interdisciplinary): broadening and integration orfusion of several subjects on longer time
blocks; may integrate through a) principles or themes; or b) historical integration of subjectlike Humanities
program or General Science (Biology, chemistry and Physics). It combines two or more related subjects into a
single broad field of study like Language Arts combines the separate but related subjects of Reading, Spelling,
Writing, Speaking, Listening, and Composition. It is commonly found in elementary and middle grades. An
attempt to overcome and/or to prevent the fragmentation and compartmentalization characteristic of the subject-
centered design is one emphasis in which the intent is to achieve a greater integration of learning experiences.

 Spiral Curriculum:A spiral concept of the curriculum provides for both horizontal (widening of knowledge) and
vertical (deepening of knowledge) aspects of the curriculum design simultaneously. It recognizes that students
are not ready to learn certain concepts until they reach the required level of development and maturity and have
the necessary experiences; some topics treated with corresponding degree of complexity across levels; provides
for widening horizontal organization of scope, integration and deepening of knowledge (vertical sequence,
continuation).

5. Designs and Patterns of Learner-Centered Curriculum

 Activity-Based:based on child’s needs but there is no advance planning; may necessitate special subjects for
specialized interests; use of problem-solving method; cooperative planning

 Child-Centered: focuses on normal, “custom-made” activities for children, witno advance planning made; use of
experiential rather than rotelearning; researched-based; large use of motivation; learners actively participate in
teaching-learning process; teaching-learning activities draw on experiences and knowledge of learners (ex. Group
projects).It is anchored on the needs and interests of the child; the learner is not considered as a passive
individual but as one who engages with his/her environment; one learns by doing; learners interact with the
teachers and the environment.(Proponents: John Dewey, Rouseau, Pestallozi and Froebel).

 Experience-Centered Design: experiences of the learners become the starting point of the curriculum; the
school environment is left open and free since the interests and needs of learners cannot be pre-planned;
learners are made to choose from various activities that the teacher provides; the learners are empowered to
shape their own learning from the different opportunities given by the teacher; the activities revolve around
different emphasis such as touching, feeling, imagining, constructing, relating, etc.; hence, the emergence of
multiple intelligence theory blends well in this design.

 Process-Oriented: focuses on personal attributes and skills of individual learner in ever-widening circles of self,
others, and society (working well withothers, effective leadership, giving and following directions, making
judgment, decision making, planning, etc.); emphasizes development of skills and traits that will serve the learner
for life; there is a higher degree of carry-over into everyday living experiences than in other designs, and a better
balance between affective and cognitive considerations.(Ex. teaching thinking skills, public speaking skills).

 Humanistic Design: the development of self is the ultimate objective of learning; it stresses the whole person
and the integration of thinking, feeling, and doing; focuses also is the development of positive self-concept and
interpersonal skills; the concept of self-actualization applies here as well as self-directed learning. (Proponents:
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers).

6. Designs and Patterns of Problem-Centered Curriculum

 Life-Situations Design (Social Process and Life Functions-Focused): uses the past and present experiences
of the learners as a means to analyze the basic areas of living; the pressing immediate problems of the society
and the students’ existing concerns are utilized; focuses heavily on society, that is, social processes, functions, or
problems become the center for the design of the curriculum. Centers around major cultural life activity of
mankind; based on analysis of life activities; relates learners and society; uses experiential learning and social
process approach; structured around the various aspects of problems and processes of community. This design
is focused heavily on society. A major goal is the improvement of society through the direct involvement of the
schools.

 Core (social function): focuses on the set of learning experiences that are felt to be essential for all students that
includes common needs, problems, concerns; centers on general education and the problems are based on
common human activities; its underlying purpose is to create a universal sense of inquiry, discourse, and
understanding among learners of different backgrounds and aspirations; broad areas of concern are examined
and set of learning experiences intended to promote a common body of knowledge are carefully prepared.
 Core:
 Aims at creating a universal sense of inquiry, discourse, and understanding among learners of different
background
 Assumes that some content is essential to students; this content would become the core
 Stresses integration and unification of learning by systematic correlation of subject matter around themes
drawn from the contemporary problems of living (Examples: civic responsibility, an understanding of
economic systems and how people relate to one another within these systems, family relationships,
informed consumerism, development of aesthetic appreciations, proficiency in spoken and written
language)
 Encourages problem solving through reflective thinking
 Examines broad areas of concern
 Promotes a common body of learning experiences and knowledge which are carefully prepared

7. Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools

 Recommended Curriculum: most of the school curricula are recommended. The curriculum may come
from a national agency (like DepEd or DOST) or any professional organization (like PAFTE) that has stake in
education.

 Written Curriculum: This includes documents, course of study, or syllabi handed down to the schools,
districts, division, departments, or colleges for implementation. Most of this are written by the experts with
participation of the teachers. Examples are the BEC, written lesson plan and planned activities of the
teachers.

 Taught Curriculum: The different planned activities which are put into action in the classroom and are
implemented in order to arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum.

 Supported Curriculum: These are materials that support or help the implementation of a written curriculum
such as textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, and other facilities.

 Assessed Curriculum: This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum.

 Learned Curriculum: This refers to the learning outcomes achieved by the students, which are indicated by
the results of the tests and changes in behavior.

 Hidden Curriculum: This is unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned but may modify behavior
or influence learning outcomes.

B. Foundations of Curriculum

 The curriculum needs to be securely established in socio-cultural, philosophical, and psychological bases for all-
around development of the learner. The philosophical and socio-cultural foundations provide answer to the
question “Why do we need a curriculum?”; psychological foundations, “How would curriculum be used in
schools?”

1. Sociological Foundations

 Society and culture relate to curriculum in the sense that they are part of the bases and sources of many
curriculum matters and decisions. Whatever changes there are in them, education in general and curriculum
in particular are affected.

 The societal changes/forces affect the school, and hence, the curriculum: these include:

 Cultural Tradition – may become a stumbling block to progress, especially because school stakeholders
are part of the community-at-large

 Textbooks – determine to a large extent the curriculum because of its availability, organized structure and
easy bases for test construction

 Laws – affect curriculum in terms of funding, policies, and programs

 Moral values – are reflected in the curricular especially because of socio-cultural basis

 Schools exist within the context of society and influence culture which in turn shapes curriculum. A curriculum
should be able to prepare students for the present and the future. In other words, a curriculum should address
the wants and needs of learners by responding to social conditions locally, nationally and globally.

 The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to be relevant, the curricula
should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its aspirations. At the same time, society should also
imbibe the changes brought about by the formal institutions called schools.
  Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society influences society through its curriculum.
Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape and mould society and society in turn can impact
the curriculum.

 Society is increasingly becoming diverse. Societies are becoming more multicultural, multiethnic and multi-
religious and it is important that curriculum understands and reflect these changes. As the world moves
towards becoming a global village, society will become even more diverse with people bringing in new values,
new languages and a new way of life. Addressing diversity in the curriculum will continue to be a challenge
for educators. Cultural diversity of pluralism recognizes that most societies are composed of many voices and
many ethnic groups.

2. Philosophical Foundations

 Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision making and is the basis for all subsequent
decisions regarding curriculum. Philosophy gives direction to curriculum and becomes the criteria for
determining the aims, selection, organization and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom and the
school in general; the schools’ underlying beliefs and values have impact on curriculum content and choices
of appropriate strategies activities in implementing the curriculum. Philosophy helps us answer the general
questions such as: “What are schools for?”, “What subjects are of value?”, “How should students learn the
content?”

Areas of
Fundamental Idea(s) Curricular Implications
Philosophy
study of what is beyond the natural (what is real is Curriculum must go beyond its
true); systematic analysis of the question of ultimate content; must consider what the
Metaphysics reality; fundamental existence of reality; developed students can become
during middle age

truth about the nature of knowledge; has to do with Curriculum should revolve around
effective approaches to teaching; recognizes the issues on teaching-learning
Epistemology importance of education; It asks What is true?; Also process
discusses How we know? What we know?

focuses on logical and accurate thought patterns; The goal of all curricula must be the
focuses on the formal structure of truth and argument development of the ability of
Logic
students to think logically

sets values desirable to live by, anytime, or place; Development of a sense of

divided ethics (concerns with good or evil) into moral right/good or wrong/bad
Axiology and aesthetic (values); subjects as GMRC and
Values Education

Major Philosophies

Pragmatism Existentialism
Idealism Realism (Experimentalism) (Kierkegard,
(Plato) (Aristotle) (W. James, Dewey, Marcel,
Rousseau) Sartre)
Spiritual, moral, or Based on natural laws; Interaction of individual Subjective; Freely
mental; objective and with environment; always chosen; based on
unchanging; composed of matter; changing; situational and individual’s
Reality
Absolute and Absolute and eternal; relative; subject to change perception;
(Knowledge)
eternal; (Consisting of and verification; (Based (Knowledge for
(Rethinking latent sensation and on experience; use of personal choice)
ideas ) abstraction) scientific method)
Education must Give direction to For social efficiency; train Focus on individual
exist as an individual’s basic students to continuously humanity; produce
institution of potentialities and and actively quest for individuals who are
human society talents; provide an information and production aware of their
concerned in education that could of new ideas needed to freedom of choice.
one’s spirituality produce individuals adjust to an ever-changing
Educational
and not because who can meet their society.
Aims
of natural principal needs.
necessity alone;
Educ. develops
the individual
spiritually, morally
and mentally.
To bring latent To cultivate rational To cultivate critical thinking To cultivate
Teacher’s knowledge and thought; to be a moral and scientific method personal choice
Role ideas to and spiritual leader; to and individual self-
consciousness; to be a source of Keep order in the class; definition
 be a moral and authority Facilitate group work; Plan
spiritual leader curriculum; Motivate
Help students realize learning
Chief source of the irresistible
inspiration, necessity of earth’s
knowledge and physical forces;
information; a Develop initiative and
reserved person ability to control their
or conversant experiences
Importance of truth can be The world is a world of Reality is a matter
mind and spirit tested/proven; change; man can know of individual
and of developing knowledge derived anything within his existence; the
them in the from sense experience; methods for meaning of life is
Fundamental learner; reality is experience; exercising dealing with changing what each
Ideas in the ideas the mind; logical and environment and scientific individual makes;
(Emphasis independent of abstract thinking are explanations focus on conscious
on Learning) sense and highest form awareness of
experience; choice
Abstract thinking
as the highest
form.
Subject matter, Curriculum is subject- Provisions for direct Curriculum
knowledge-based centered or experiences; Activity or stresses activity;
or content knowledge-based, learner-centered; Basis: recognition of
focused, believing organized from simple problems of democratic individual
that this is to complex, and society focus on problem differences,
essential to stressing mastery of solving inquiry; No opportunities for
mental and moral facts and development permanent knowledge or making choices
Emphasis on
devt.; classics or of process andskills subjects; problem-solving and awareness of
Curriculum
liberal arts; and critical analysis; topics consequence,
hierarchy of choices in subject
subjects. matter, electives;
emotional, esthetic
and philosophical
subjects

questions and Scientific methods and Experimental and scientific Scientific dialog;
discussion, problem solving method, creative and inquiry approach;
Methods of lecture, excursion constructivist projects, Q-A method;
Teaching and field trip, library and laboratory drawing responses;
project method, works, self-activity social heritage over
mediation, reading experience, motivation experiences.

Educational Philosophies

Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism Reconstructionism

Philosophical base:
Realism
To educate the rational
person; to cultivate the
intellect;
internalize truths that are
Aim of universal and constant
Education
Philosophical base: Philosophical base: Philosophical base:
Idealism, Realism Pragmatism Pragmatism
To promote the To promote To improve and
intellectual growth democratic, social reconstruct society;
of the individual; to living; Produce the education for change
educate the “whole man” who will and social
competent person; become a reform;Awareness of
Develops responsible member societal needs and
individuals to of society. problems; quest for a
perform justly and better society
skillfully

Focus on past and
permanent studies;
mastery of facts and
timeless knowledge
Knowledge
Essential skills and Knowledge leads to Skills and subjects
academic subjects; growth and needed to identify
mastery of development; a living- and ameliorate
concepts and learning process; problems of society;
principles of subject focus on active and learning is active and
matter relevant learning concerned with
contemporary and
future society.

Teacher helps students Teacher is authority Teacher serves as a Teacher serves as an

think rationally; based on
Role of
Socratic method (teacher
Education
as a role model), oral
exposition; explicit
in his or her subject guide for problem agent of change and
field; explicit solving and scientific reform; acts as a
teaching of inquiry; teacher acts project director and
traditional values; as resource person, research leader;
 teaching of traditional
values; teacher known
masters of the disciplines
Provides advisers, and Teacher leads the
stimulating counselors; students young in designing
activities for are taught how to programs for social,
learning learn and become educational, practical
active problem and economic
solvers change; Schools are
the chief means for
building new social
structures.

Classical subjects; literary
analysis; constant
curriculum; focused on
Arts and Sciences, Great
ideas or universal
principles
Curriculum
Focus
Essential core skills Based on student’s Emphasis on social
(3 R’s) and interests, that is, sciences and social
essential subjects child-centered; research methods;
(English, Science, involves the examination of social,
History, Math, and application of human economic, and
Foreign language); problems and affairs; political problems;
Teaching the interdisciplinary concerns with social
essential facts in subject matter; change, societal
Science, Literature, activities and needs and problems,
Health, and PE; projects; no focuses on present
Hard sciences, structured curriculum; and future trends as
technical and emphasis on life well as on national,
vocational courses experiences; international and
global issues.

Great books; returning to Back to basics; Relevant curriculum; International

the liberal arts; Paideia cultural literacy; humanistic education; education;
Related
proposal excellence in radical school reform reconceptualism
Curriculum
education equality of
Trends
educational
opportunity
Subject-centered; Deductive method, Problem solving, Problem solving,
disciplining the minds recitation, drill, reflective strategies, democratic
through reading and assimilation, cooperative learning, discussion, socialized
discussion; Lecture assignments, socialized group recitation, forum,
analysis and activities; conferences,
Methods of
synthesis, testing conferences, brainstorming, project
Teaching
and evaluating, consultation, method, conceptual
“race and social observation and approach
heritage” over participation,
experiences. experiential and
social development

3. Historical Foundations:

 The historical foundation of curriculum reflects the educational focus prevalent during a particular period or event
in Philippine history. This focus could be made basis or model for curriculum development of recent years.

Period Characteristics Curricular Focus

Pre Spanish Focused on practical training to satisfy basic Broad; not defined nor written; community-
needs for survival and to transmit social ideas, based; Prescriptive; no educational system
customs, beliefs, and traditions; Training done
in the homes

Spanish Focused on the learning of the Christian Parochial schools: Doctrina,catechetical

Doctrine; religion; the course of study is not instruction;; arithmetic, music, arts,and
centralized; no grade level; rote memorization trades; vernacular was the medium of
instruction

American Focused on establishing the public school Reading,writing,arithmetic, good manners

system, highly influenced by the philosophy of and right conduct, civics, hygiene and
John Dewey; spread of democracy; the sanitation, domestic science, American
course of study is prescribed, uniform and history Philippine history, English as
centralized medium of instruction

Commonwealth Focused on the development of moral Tagalog, and later on Filipino, as another
character, personal discipline civic medium of instruction
conscience, and vocational efficiency as
provided for in the 1935 constitution Provided for 6 – year elementary schools;
school entrance age at 7; compulsory
attendance in Grade I; introduction of
double – single sessions
 Teaching of Filipino as a subject

Japanese Focused on promoting the East Asia co –
prosperity sphere educational objective;
spread of new Asian order; Use of threat and
punishment; course of study is prescribed,
uniform and centralized; rote memorization;
use of threat and punishment
Diffusion of elementary education with the
promotion of vocational education;
Fostering of new Filipino culture based on
the awareness that Filipinos are orientals;
Termination of use of English as medium of
instruction

Third Republic Patterned after the provisions of the 1935 Constitution

New Society Focused on national development goals;
manpower training; high level professions; self
actualization
Promotion of Bilingual Education Policy
Development of moral character; self –
discipline; scientific, technological, and
vocational efficiency; love of country; good
citizenship

Fourth Republic Focused on promotion of the rights of all Strengthening of the teaching of values;
citizens to quality education return to the basics in the new elementary
and secondary schools curriculum

 Curriculum is not an old field. Majority of scholars would place its beginning in 1918 with the publication of
Franklin Bobbit's book."The Curriculum"

 Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be traced back to the glorious history.
Of all foreign educational systems, the American educational system has the greatest influence on our
educational system.

 The following six curriculum theorists contributed their views on curriculum:

1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)- presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes on students' need and it
prepares the students for adult life. For him, objectives with corresponding activities should be grouped and
sequenced.

2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) - considered curriculum also as a science which is based on students' need,
and the teachers plan the activities based on the subject matter.

3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) - viewed curriculum as purposeful activities which are child-centered. The
purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. It develops social relationships and small group
interactions.

4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) - emphasized social studies in the curriculum and the teacher plans the lesson in
advance. For him, curriculum should develop the whole child (child-centered) and hence, produce outcomes
from related activities.

5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) - sees curriculum as organized around social functions of themes, organized
knowledge and learner's interests. He believes that curriculum is a set of experiences.

6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) - believes that curriculum is a science and an extension of school's philosophy, and
is based on students' need and interests. For him, curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter
is organized in terms of knowledge, skills, and values; the process emphasizes problem solving. The
curriculum aims to educate the generalists and not the specialists.

 The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes, principles and content of the curriculum.

4. Psychological Foundations

 The psychological foundation of curriculum only stresses the need for curriculum development to be firmly
anchored on the nature and characteristics of the learners for whom the curriculum is crafted, as well as on the
desirable conditions for and principles of learning and teaching-learning styles

 Psychology provides basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of the learning process and
some of the questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations.

The following are the three major groups of learning theories:

1.Behaviorists Psychology- consider that learning should be organized in order that students can experience
success in the process of mastering the subject matter, and thus, method of teaching should be introduced in a
 step by step manner with proper sequencing of task. It also known as behaviorism, a theory of learning based
upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning that occurs through interaction with the
environment. (Proponents: Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner)

2. Cognitive Psychology - focus their attention on how individuals process information and how the monitor and
manage thinking. For the cognitive theorists, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting
learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter where teachers use a lot of problem and thinking
skills in teaching learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive
thinking, discovery learning, etc. the (Proponents: Jean Piaget, John Dewey, Jerome Bruner)

3. Humanistic Psychology (Phenomenology) - concerned with how learners can develop their human potential.
Based on Gestalt psychology where learning can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and
where the environment is changing and the learner is continuously reorganizing his/her perceptions. Curriculum is
concerned with the process not the products, personal needs not subject matter, psychological meaning and
environmental situations. Focuses on each individual’s potential and stresses the importance of growth and self-
actualization. It’s fundamental belief was that people are innately good, with mental and social problems resulting
from deviations from this natural tendency. (Proponents: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers)

C.Curriculum Development Phases/Processes: nature, approaches, models and phase/processes

1. Nature of Curriculum Development

 Is a process of development that creates educational experiences to meet the intentions of planners (Wiles &
Bondi, 1998), which include total development of learners and their being able to live well in a democratic
society

 Its basic tasks: 1) identifies purpose; 2) sets goals and objectives; 3) assigns curriculum content; 4)
focuses on critical needs of learners; 5) delivers the program; 6) evaluates the curriculum; 7) makes
decisions and retain, revise or change curriculum

 A synthesis of process in designing a program of experiences for the student and for which the school
accepts responsibility

 Involves the process/phases of curriculum planning, design and organization, implementation, evaluation,
and change and/or improvement

2. Stakeholders in Curriculum Development

 Include individuals and groups who influence and make important contributions to the curriculum

 May be categorized as community-based, whose influence on the curriculum is at societal and institutional
levels; or school based, whose contributions to the curriculum are either on the institutional level, instructional
level, or experiential level

 Community-based stakeholders (the public; not associated with particular schools or districts as
employees or students); are composed of parents and guardians of students, government officials and
groups, lawmakers, professional groups or specialists in several disciplines, business and industry
groups, civic groups, local governing or school boards, and textbook publishers

 School-Based stakeholders include school staff (non-teaching personnel: school administrators, resource
specialists, counselors, social workers, health-care providers); teachers and students

 Specific role of different stakeholders in curriculum development:

 Community-at-large: often dictate the purposes, goals, and content of school curricula; recommend
direction and changes in the curriculum (e.g., professional groups, civic groups, business and industry)

 Law-maker/government officials: authorize school budget; enact legislation to effect curriculum change or
improvement; issue guidelines in designing and implementing curriculum

 Governing/school boards: either make important decision on, or oversee/manage school operation;
conduct public hearings to either inform or solicit information on curriculum matters; authorize school
expenditure for curriculum development, implementation, and evaluation as needed in the district or
school; consider and adopt curriculum proposals

 Parents/Guardians: support and participate in parent-school organizations where priorities for the
curriculum are often set (instructional materials, learning experiences to provide, etc.)

 Publishers; support development of instructional materials based on the curriculum developed; help in
the implementation of curriculum

 Teachers: establish direction and implementation of a particular program; select content to be

emphasized; help prepared the scope and sequence of a program; attend to pedagogical concerns such
 that they may modify the curriculum to suit the needs of the learners; help in evaluating the effectiveness
of curriculum

 Learners: the primary stakeholders of the curriculum, whose needs and abilities are the basis of
curriculum content selection and whose achievement level measure the effectiveness of the curriculum

3. Curriculum Approaches

 Behavioral Approach

 The oldest and still the major approach to curriculum; logical and prescriptive; it relies on technical and
scientific principles and includes paradigms, models and step-by-step strategies for formulating
curriculum. It is usually based on plan and sometimes called a blueprint or document, goals and
objectives are specified, content and activities are sequenced to coincide with the objectives.It is started
with the idea of efficiency, influenced by business and industry and the scientific management theories.

 Managerial Approach

 Considers school as a social system, reminiscent of organizational theory; educators who rely on this
approach plan the curriculum in terms of programs, schedule, space, resources and personnel, and
equipment.This advocates the need for selecting, organizing, communicating with and supervising people
involved in curriculum decisions

 This approach is interested in change and innovation and in how curriculum specialists, supervisors and
administrators can facilitate these processes.It is an offshoot of the behavioral approach; tends to focus
on the supervisory and administrative aspects of curriculum, especially the organizational and
implementation process

 Is rooted in the organizational and administrative school models of the early 1900s – a period that
combined a host of innovative plans involving curriculum and instruction that centered around
individualization, departmentalization, nongrading classroom grouping, homeroom and work-study
activities

 Systems Approach

 Sometimes referred to as curriculum engineering; it includes the processes necessary to plan the
curriculum by such engineers as superintendents, directors, coordinators, and principals; it involves
stages (development, design, implementation, and evaluation) and structures (subjects, courses, unit
plans, and lesson plans). It is influenced by system theory, system analysis, and system engineering,
which are developed by the social scientists and used widely by the school managers as part of
administrative and organizational theory.

 Academic Approach

 Sometimes referred to as traditional, encyclopedic, synoptic, intellectual, or knowledge-oriented

approach; it attempts to analyze and synthesize major positions, trends and concepts of curriculum; tends
to be historical or philosophical.The discussion of curriculum making is usually scholarly (not practical)
and concerned with many broad aspects of schooling, including the study of education; rooted in the
philosophical and intellectual works of John Dewey, Henry Morrison, and Boyd Bode.

 Humanistic Approach

 Is rooted in progressive philosophy and child-centered movement (progressive methods of teaching

based on the student’s natural development and curiosity); involves the personal and social aspects of
curriculum and instruction; artistic, physical, and cultural aspects of subject matter; consider the need for
self-actualization and self-reflective among learners; Numerous curriculum activities have emerged mainly
at the elementary school level, including lessons based on life experiences, group games and projects,
dramatizations, field trips, social enterprises, homework and tutorial stations; activities include problem
solving and active student participation; emphasizes socialization and life adjustment for students as well
strong family ties and school-community ties.

4. Two Most Influential Models of Curriculum Development

A. Hilda Taba’s Inverted Model of Curriculum Development includes the following steps

(1) Diagnosing needs – information on the community and its schools combined with existing data to form a
comprehensive view of local needs
(2) formulating specific objectives: objectives should include concepts, attitude,habits or skills to be learned
and ways of thinking to be reinforced
(3) Selecting content: include choosing of specific, necessary topics carefully, which should parallel
students’ development levels
(4) Organizing content: begins with simple topics and concepts that moveto more complex ones such as
generalizations and principles
 (5) Selecting and organizing activities which must be based on the developmental level of learners – variety,
sequence, and links among activities must be considered
(6) Evaluating: lessons and units should be evaluated and reevaluated continuously to determine actual
progress of learners using the curriculum as basis and to determine whether the content matches the
logic orcore ideas and curriculum objectives

B. Ralph Tyler’s ends-Means Model which follows these steps:

(1) Determining the school’s and teacher’s philosophy
(2) Identifying educational purposes
(3) Selecting and organizing content
(4) Evaluation

Tyler suggests that all curriculum development phases must consider three important elements: learners,
society and subject matter

5. Phases/Processes in Curriculum Development

Curriculum Planning
 A process that involves situation analysis, goal setting and need identification, budget determination, and
decision-making regarding implementation and evaluation details

Situation analysis
 Points to the need to examine the nature of the situation, or learning context, to justify the selection
of objectives and learning experiences

 On the macro-level (societal, governmental), situation includes these factors

 Cultural and social changes and expectation (e.g. parental expectations, employer
requirements, community values, changing relationships, and ideology)
 Educational system requirements and challenges (e.g. policies, examinations, research, local
authority and demands)
 The changing nature of the subject matter to be taught
 The potential contribution of teacher support systems (e.g. teacher-training institutions, research
institutes)
 Flow of resources into the school

 On the micro level (school level) the factors that need to be analyzed include:
 Pupils: aptitudes, abilities, identified educational needs
 Teachers: values, attitudes, skills, knowledge, experience, special strengths and weaknesses,
roles
 School organizational climate and structure: traditions, power distribution, authority
relationships, and dealing with other school stakeholder
 Material resources: buildings, plant , equipment and potential for enhancing these
 Perceived and felt problems in existing curriculum

6. Curriculum Organization and Design

 involves the “form” design, pattern, or simply the arrangement of elements of curriculum used; based on
one dominant source of curriculum content

 Includes selection of content/subject matter/competencies/learning activities, grade placement, time

allotment, and sequence of content/activities

 Answers such questions as 1) what is to be done?; 2) What subject matter is to be included?; 3) What
instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed?; and, 4) What methods and
instruments will be used to appraise the results of the curriculum?

Selection of content

 Answers the question “What knowledge is most worth?”

 Content is the subject matter of teaching-learning process; includes knowledge, skills, concepts,
attitudes, and values, and significant only insofar as it is transmitted to the student in some way
(method)

 Search for best content includes consideration of known information (body of knowledge) including
world events and current education reform goals, society’s needs; needs and interest of learners,
and human development (improvement of society by improving individuals)

 Criteria for selecting content

 Validity – whether content is authentic and can achieve stated objective; authenticity of
information
  Significance/Relevance – whether content is fundamental to the subject in question; whether
selected content allows for breath and depth of treatment (flexibility); consistent with social
realities, pursues needs of the time.

 Integration: brings to a close relationship all concepts, skills, and values contained in the
curriculum; based on one’s favor (in terms of concepts, needs, interests); linking of all types of
knowledge and experiences contained within the curriculum plan
 Utility: whether content is helpful to student in coping with real life activities; usefulness of content

 Scope: breadth of the curriculum at a given time; refers to the range of important ideas and
concepts included; breadth and depth of content and includes, learning experiences and
organization threads in curriculum plan; coverage.

 Interest (Learnability): whether content is easily learnable; adjustable to learner’s ability

 Continuity involved in the vertical organization of the curriculum; refers to recurrence and
repetition of content and depth with a skill or content building on the preceding ones; major ideas
reappear at different grade levels at increased complexity.

 Appropriateness: parallel with the learner needs and interest.

 Elements of curriculum content

 Sequence – putting content into an order of succession for orderly and productive learning
contents; organization of content and the extent to which it fosters cumulative and continuous
learning provides continuous and cumulative learning;

 Integration – horizontal relationship (e.g. Math – Science) or vertical integration; bringing together
concepts, skills and values of different subjects and present to learner with unified picture of
knowledge; linking of all types of knowledge and experiences contained within the curriculum plan
(Eg: Science-technology-Society science combined with social science)

 Balance - appropriate weight be given to each aspects of the design so that distortions do not
occur; students have opportunities to master knowledge and to internalize and utilize it in ways
that are appropriate for their personal, social and intellectual goals

 Articulation - it refers to the interrelatedness of various aspects of the curriculum; the relation can
be horizontal or vertical.

 Focus – determining which content items are more important to cover excessive number of facts may
hinder coverage of main ideas); appropriate relationship between facts and ideas has to be
determined

 Grade Placement
 Allocation of content to definite grade capable of learning
 Factors to consider: child’s ability, difficulty of item, importance of content, maturation, mental
age, experiential background

 Time Allotment
 Specification of definite time for subject/course; amount of time given to a subject
 Factors to consider: importance of subject; child’s ability; grade level average number of
days/hours

7. Curriculum Implementation

 A process by which curricula are used in schools; this is the instructional phase of curriculum
development process

 Includes knowing the

a. Scope and complexity of curricular changes
b. How curriculum content is disseminated
c. Professional development
d. Identification of resources requirement

 A process by which curricula are used in schools; the instructional phase of curriculum development
process; includes knowing the
a. Scope and complexity of curricular changes
b. How curriculum content is disseminated
c. Professional development of stakeholders
d. Identification of resource requirements
 8. Curriculum Evaluation

 The process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives
(PDK, 1971)

 Refers to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness, or value of a curriculum (Stufflebeam,
1991)

 Involves value judgment about the curriculum

 Consists of process and product assessment

o Process evaluation – used to a) provide information about the extent to which plans for curriculum
implementation are executed and the wise use of resources; b) to provide assistance
o Product evaluation – used in gathering, interpreting and appraising curricular attainments, as
often as necessary, to determine how well the curriculum meets the needs of the students it is
intended to serve

 Why evaluate? 1) meet demands that current educational reforms have made; 2) provide direction,
security, and feedbacks to all concerned; 3) determine appropriate and available resources, activities,
content, methods or whether curriculum has coherence, balance articulation, etc. in order to meet
curriculum goals/objectives

 What curriculum qualities to evaluate: 1) mission statement (philosophy); 2) sequence (order); 3)

continuity (without disruptions); 4) scope (depth/variety of content) 5) articulation (how parts fit); 6)
balance (quantitative and qualitative aspects of content); 7) coherence (relationships among different
components)

 Parameters of assessment include the intended curriculum, the implemented curriculum and the achieved
curriculum

o Intended curriculum – refers to a set of objectives at the beginning of any curricular plan;
establishes the goal, the specific purposes, and the immediate objectives to be accomplished;
answers what the curriculum maker wants to do.

o Implemented curriculum – refers to the various learning activities or experiences of the students
in order to achieve the intended curricular outcomes.

o Achieved curriculum – refers to the curriculum outcomes based on the first two types of
curriculum; can be the learning outcomes or a material product itself.

D. Curriculum Improvement or Curriculum Change: involves the decisions to make as evaluation results are utilized
in full extent.

 Curriculum Improvement

o Refers to alteration of certain aspects of curriculum without changing the fundamental curriculum
elements/structure/conception

o Involves five levels of operation: substitution (new series in place of current series; alteration
(additional instructional time for a subject); variation (adopting other school’s program);
restructuring (organize teams of subject specialists, teachers and aids); value orientation (some
instructional routine matters made part of computer-assisted instruction)

 Curriculum Change

o Refers to the basic alteration in the structure and design of learning experiences based on new
conceptions, which may be at the school district, or national level

o Involves the following tasks:

 Identification of a particular need to change; may be based on evaluation results, or initiative
from concerned individuals or groups

 Study of alternative and proposals for change

 Selection of proposed change (either one subject only or in one school only)

 Pilot study design (try-out)

 Appraisal of data from pilot study, and the corresponding, necessary modification, if any

 Continuous study by concerned staff through adequate in-service activities and help of any
consultant
  Decision to adapt, adopt, or reject

 Integration into the school system

Content Update in Educational Technology

A. Definition of Concepts
1. Technology – a planned, systematic method of working to achieve planned outcomes. It is the applied side
of scientific development (Corpuz & Lucido, 2008). It can be classified as a process – a systematic application
of scientific or other organized knowledge to practical tools; and as a product – physical equipment/facilities
and the programs or modular materials.

2. Educational Technology – refers to how people use their inventions and discoveries to satisfy their
educational needs and desires, i.e. learning. The following are the different meanings of educational
technology:
 It is the application of scientific findings in our method, process or procedure of working in the field of
education in order to affect learning.
 It is the use of all human inventions for teachers to realize their mission to teach in order that students
learn.
 It is the application of scientific knowledge about learning to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of
teaching and learning.
 It embraces curriculum and instructional design, learning environment, theories of teaching-learning.

3. Technology in Education – the application of technology to any of those processes involved in operating the
institutions which house the educational enterprise. It includes the application of technology to food, health,
finance, scheduling, grade, reporting and other processes which support education within institutions
(Jonassen et.al., 1999). This is popularly known as “audiovisual aids” or “gadgetry” of education and training.

4. Instructional Technology – is a part of educational technology. This refers to those aspects of educational
technology that are concerned with instruction as contrasted to designs and operations of educational
institutions. It is a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the total process of learning and
teaching in terms of specific objectives (Lucido and Borabo, 1997).

5. Educational media – are channels or avenues or instruments of communication; a means of communication

available for educational purposes that consists of instructional machines and materials used to promote
learning. Examples are books, magazines, newspapers, radio, television and Internet.

6. Audio-visual forms are classified into three: (1) audiovisual media – stress the use of media as a means of
communication; (2) audiovisual aids – stress the assistance of educational tools in carrying out instructions;
and (3) audio-visual technology – capitalizes the use of these learning tools in the design, implementation
and evaluation of instructional activities.

Properties of audiovisuals:
 Fixative property – audiovisual permits the capture, preservation and reconstruction of an object or
event.

 Manipulative/editing property – audiovisual permits the rearrangement of materials/ information for

purposes of updating, change of emphasis or correction.

 Distributive property – audiovisual allows the transmission of an event through space,

simultaneously presenting it to thousands of viewers, who derive a virtually identical viewing
experience.

B. Five Domains of Educational Technology (Association for Educational Communications and Technology,
1994)

1. Design. The planning phase of educational technology, which interprets reality in terms of learner
performance and negotiated expectations of the learner. It describes natural or existing interrelationships that
constitute a content area.

2. Development. Instructional development may be a process of producing learning materials from a detailed
plan or design; It may be the process of finalizing procedures and testing materials intended to support
instructional episodes
 3. Utilization. The actual use of knowledge and the skills and usually includes the practical application of
information or procedures on a regular basis. The purpose of utilization is to bring learners into contact with
learning resources and instructional system components.

4. Evaluation. A dynamic process which allows people to obtain and judge the worth of data about how
students learn specific content information under varying instructional conditions.

5. Management. The linchpin (key player) which binds all the domains of educational technology together.

C. Factors Affecting the Selection of Educational Technology

1. Human Factor
a. Learner Factor – refers to learner differences that can influence media choice

(1) Individual differences. Learners differ in their preferences for learning (observing or listening), their
perception of a given message, their understanding of the conventions used by various media.

(2) Attention span. Factors that affect how long a learner can attend to one type of task such as age and
interest, learner’s motivation.

(3) Number of learners. Select media that are well suited to the group size you have or modify the group
or structure to media you have.

(4) Physical disabilities of

learners. Poor vision, hearing, dyslexia, color
blindness, and the like.

b. Teacher Factor – refers to those

factors that affect the success of media
implementation

2. Instructional Method. The

method of instruction dictates or limits our choice
of presentation media.

3. Practice Constraints.
Administrative and economic constraints both
limit the choice of methods and media such as
the objectives, availability, time and resources.

D. The Cone of Experience (Edgar Dale)

The Cone of Experience is a visual model, a

pictorial device that presents bands of
experience arranged according to degree of
abstraction and not degree of difficulty. It can be
serve as a practical guide to analyze the
characteristics of instructional media and
methods, and how these media may be useful.
 The farther you go from the bottom of the
cone, the more abstract the experience becomes
 The individual bands of the Cone of
Experience stand for experiences that are fluid,
extensive and continually interact. (Dale, 1969).
 One kind of sensory experience is not
necessarily more educationally useful than
another. These experiences are mixed and
interrelated
 Too much reliance on concrete
experience may actually obstruct the process of
meaningful generalization. The best will be
striking a balance between concrete and
abstract, direct participation and symbolic
expression for the learning that will continue
throughout life.
  The least effective method at the top, involves learning from the information presented through verbal symbols.
The most effective methods at the bottom involves direct, purposeful experiences.
 The further you progress down the cone, the greater the learning and the more information is likely to be retained.

The Bands of Experiences

1. Direct Purposeful Experiences – first hand experiences which serve as the foundation of our learning. We build
up our reservoir of meaningful information and ideas through empirical experiences. It is learning by doing.

2. Contrived experiences – we make use of a representative models or mock ups of reality for practical reasons
and so that we can make the real-life accessible to the student’s perceptions and understanding.

3. Dramatized experiences – By dramatization, we can participate in a reconstructed experience, even though the
original event is far removed from us in time.

4. Demonstrations – it is visualized explanation of an important fact, idea or process by the use of photographs,
drawings, films, displays or guided motions. It is showing how things are done.

5. Study trips – these are excursions and visits conducted to observe an event that is unavailable within the
classroom.

6. Exhibits – these are displays to be seen by spectators. They may consist of working models arranged
meaningfully or photographs with models, charts and posters. Sometimes exhibits are “for your eyes only”.

7. Television and motion pictures – It can reconstruct the reality of the past so effectively that we are made to feel
we are there.

8. Still pictures , recordings, radio - these are visual and auditory devices that may be used by an individual or a
group. Still pictures lack the sound and motion of a sound film. The radio broadcast of an actual event may often
be likened to a televised broadcast minus its visual dimension.

9. Visual Symbols – these are no longer realistic reproduction of physical things for these are highly abstract
representations. Ex. Charts, graphs, maps and diagrams, and the like.

10. Verbal symbols – they are not like the objects or ideas for which they stand. They usually do not contain visual
clues to their meaning.

E. The Cognitive Representations of the World (Jerome Bruner)

1. Enactive. One is using some known aspects of reality without using words or imagination. It involves
representing the past events and through making motor responses. It involves mainly in knowing how to do
something; it involves series of actions that are right for achieving some results. The learner here serves as a
participant in the actual experience.

2. Iconic. This mode deals with the internal imagery, were the knowledge is characterized by a set of images
that stand for the concept. The iconic representation depends on visual or other sensory association and is
principally defined by perceptual organization and techniques for economically transforming perceptions into
meaning for the individual. The learner here serves as an observer of a mediated event, an event presented
through some medium.

3. Symbolic. This representation is based upon an abstract, discretionary and flexible thought. It allows one to
deal with what might be and what might not, and is a major tool in reflective thinking. This mode is illustrative
of a person’s competence to consider propositions rather than objects, to give ideas a hierarchical structure
and to consider alternative possibilities in a combinatorial fashion, (Spencer.K.,1991, p.185-187). The learner
here uses his/her mind to reflect such abstract representations.

F. General Principles in the Use of Instructional Materials (IMs)

1. All instructional materials are aids to instruction. They do not replace the teacher.
2. Choose the instructional material that best suits your instructional objectives.
3. If possible, use a variety of tools.
4. Check out your instructional material before class starts to be sure it is working properly.

G. Criteria for Selecting Instructional Materials

1. Relevance of the lesson – the materials must help carry out the objectives of the lesson. They must suit the
purpose of the lesson and motivate the students into positive reactions.
2. Appropriateness – the materials should be suited to the students’ age level, background knowledge, skills
developed and level of maturity.
 3. Quality of materials – the media should be well-designed and of high technical quality. They must be the
latest edition, durable and pleasant to look at.
4. Objectivity – selection must be free from bias and advertising propaganda. Consult experts who know the
equipment and how they can be operated efficiently.
5. Availability – check in advance to see that the equipment and materials are available when you need them.

H. Teaching with Media

1. Audio Recordings – include tapes, records and compact discs. Tapes may be in the form of teacher-
recorded, student-recorded or ready-made tapes that are commercially produced. These may be used by
teachers in connection with speech rehearsals, drama, musical presentation and radio and television
broadcasting.

2. Overhead Transparencies – by using an overhead projector, a transparency can show pictures, diagrams
and sketches at a time when needed in a discussion. Step-by-step instructions, enumerations or any
sequenced illustrations can easily be presented through transparencies.

3. Chalkboard – this includes not only those with flat and wide surfaces but also the portable types which can
be moved or even serve as dividers. Using chalk, it is a convenient writing area where the illustrations can
instantly be drawn even during a discussion. An eraser can easily keep it clean and ready for continuous use.

4. Bulletin Boards – a display board, whichis usually stationary on a wall or it can be movable. The surface is
made of cork or soft wall boards for easy attachment of display items. Its contents may be used for the
duration of a unit being studied. The learning materials may be pictures, newspaper clippings, real objects or
drawings.

5. Cloth board - a single or multilayer board composed of cloth or a man-made synthetic. Materials range
widely from felt to vinyl.

6. Hook-and-loop board - is similar to flannel/felt board (large board covered with felt or flannel material). The
material used tocover the board is a nylon loop material. The material used to cover the backof the objects to
stick to the board is a nylon hook material. Objects used ona hook and loop board may be larger, heavier, or
have dimension to thembecause of the strength in the grip of the hook and loop material. This boardis used
for displays, storytelling, and teaching.

7. Magnetic board - It can be a sheet of tinplate or metal, simply a type of chalkboard, the surface of which is
treated or coated with a porcelain-like substance. The base of the board is steel, and pictures and objects can
be pasted or mounted with small magnets and can easily be moved about.

8. Pegboard - is tempered hardboard which is pre-drilled with evenly spaced holes. The holes are used to
accept pegs or hooks to support various items, such as tools in a workshop

9. Charts – may be in the form of maps, graphs, photographs and cut-outs. They may be pre-prepared graphic
devices or posters.

10. Video Tapes/ Films – come in the form of 8mm and 16 m type. They can be purchased or rented.

11. Models – are scaled replicas of real objects. When the real things cannot be used due to its size either too
large or too small, replicas are used. Ex. Globes, model cars, airplanes or houses and furniture.

12. Pictures – this includes flat, opaque and still pictures. Photographs or picture clipped from newspapers and
magazines are also used. The concepts to be taught could be introduced through pictures.

13. Books – textbooks and all kinds of books are also classified as media or sub-strategies. They contain
information, pictures and graphics.

14. Computers – could be used in presenting the day’s lesson, solving problems and providing educational
games.

I. Contrived Experiences – these are edited copies of reality and are used as substitutes for real things when it is not
practical or not possible to bring or do the real thing in the classroom.
1. Model – is a reproduction of a real thing in a small scale, or large scale, or exact size – but made of synthetic
materials.

2. Mock up – is an arrangement of a real device or associated device, displayed in such a way that
representation of reality is created. Usually, it is prepared substitute for a real thing. It is a special model
 where the parts of a model are singled out, heightened and magnified in order to focus on that part or process
under study.

3. Replica – a copy that is relatively distinguishable from the original

4. Realia – these are objects from real life used in classroom instruction by educators to improve students’
understanding of other cultures and real life situation.

5. Specimen – is any individual or item considered typical of a group, class or whole.

6. Objects – may also include artifacts displayed in a museum or objects displayed in exhibits or preserved
insect specimens in science.

7. Simulation – a representation of a manageable real event in which the learner is an active participant
engaged in a learning a behavior or in applying previously acquired skills or knowledge.

8. Games – used for any of these purposes: 1) to practice and/or to refine knowledge/skills already acquired, 2)
to identify gaps or weaknesses in knowledge/ skills, 3) to serve as a summation or review, and 4) to develop
new relationships among concepts and principles.

J. Dramatized experiences
1. Plays depict life, character, or culture or a combination of all three. They offer excellent opportunities to
portray vividly important ideas about life.

2. Pageants are usually community dramas that are based on local history, presented by local actors.

3. Pantomime – is the art of conveying a story through bodily movements only. Its effect on the audience
depends on the movements of the actors.

4. Tableau – is a picture-like scene composed of people against a background

5. Puppet – can present ideas with extreme simplicity – without elaborate scenery or costume- yet effectively

6. Role-playing – is an unrehearsed, unprepared and spontaneous dramatization of a “let’s pretend” situation

where assigned participants are absorbed by their own roles in the situation described by the teachers.

K. Teaching with Visual Symbols

1. Drawings – may not be the real thing but better to have a concrete visual aid than nothing. To avoid
confusion, it is good that our drawing correctly represents the real thing.

2. Cartoons – A first-rate cartoon tells its story metaphorically. The perfect cartoon needs no caption. The less
the artist depends on words, the more effective the symbolism. The symbolism conveys the message.

3. Strip Drawings – (comic strips) this can serve as motivation and a starter of the lesson. It can also be given
as an activity for students to express insights gained at the conclusion of the lesson.

4. Diagram – any line drawing that shows arrangement and relations as of parts to the whole, relative values,
origins and development, chronological fluctuations, distribution, etc.

a. Affinity Diagram – used to cluster complex apparently unrelated data into natural and meaningful
groups.
b. Tree Diagram – usedto chart out, in increasing detail, the various tasks that must be accomplished to
complete a project or achieve a specific objective.
c. Fishbone diagram – also called cause-and-effect diagram. It is a structured form of brainstorming that
graphically shows the relationship of possible causes and subcauses directly related to an identified
effect/problem.

5. Chart – is a diagrammatic representation of relationships among individuals within an organization.

a. Time chart – is a tabular time chart that presents data in ordinal sequence
b. Tree or stream chart – depicts development, growth and change by beginning with a single course (the
trunk) which spreads out into many branches; or by beginning with the many tributaries which then
converge into a single channel.
c. Flow chart – is a visualway of charting or showing a process from beginning to end. It is a mens of
analyzing a process. By outlining every step in a process, you can begin to find inefficiencies or problems.
d. Organizational chart – shows how one part of the organization relates to other parts of the organization.
e. Comparison and Contrast Chart/Matrix – used to show similarities and differences between two things
 f. Pareto chart – isa type of bar chart, prioritized in descending order of magnitude or importance from left
to right. It shows at a glance which factors are occurring most.
g. GANNT chart – is an activity time chart

6. Graphs
a. Pie or circle graph – recommended for showing parts of whole.
b. Bar graph – used in comparing the magnitude of similar items at different ties or seeing relative sizes of
the parts of a whole.
c. Pictorial graph – makes use of picture symbols
d. Histogram – is a graphic display of tabular frequencies, shown as adjacent rectangles. It is used to plot
density of data, and often for density estimation

7. Graphic Organizers
a. KWL Chart – a group instruction activity developed by Donna Ogle (1986) that serves as a model for
active thinking during reading. K stands for what is known; W is for want to know and L for learned.
b. Spider Map – used to describe a central idea: a thing, process, concept or proposition with support
c. Series of Events Chain – used to describe the stages of something; the steps in a linear procedure; a
sequence of events; or the goals, actions and outcomes of a historical figure or character in a novel
d. Continuum Scale – used for time lines showing historical events or ages, degrees of something, shades
of meaning, or rating scales.
e. Problem/Solution Outline – used to represent a problem, attempted solutions, and results.
f. Network tree – used to show causal information, a hierarchy or branching procedures
g. Human Interaction Outline – used to show the nature of an interaction between persons or groups
h. Concept Map – a special form of a web diagram for exploring knowledge and gathering and sharing
information. It consists of nodes or cells that contain a concept, item or question and links. The links are
labeled and denote direction with an arrow symbol
i. Venn Diagram – used to describe and compare attributes and characteristics of items
j. Attribute Wheel – an example of semantic mapping that helps the students use what they already know
and build on that knowledge to gain understanding.
k. Cluster Map / Word Web – used to elaborate on a central idea by adding details to the central idea.
l. Story Map – outlines the elements of the story – character, setting, story problem, events and solutions
m. Time Line – a kind of graphic design showing a long bar labeled with dates alongside itself and events
labeled on points where they would have happened.
n. Sequence Chart – lists steps or events in time order.

8. Maps – a 2-d instructional aid whichis a representation of the surface of the earth or some part of it

9. Globe – a 3-D instructional aid which is the representation of the earth; an example of a model.

10. Dioramas – are static displays consisting of a 3-D foreground and a flat background to create a realistic
effect. They are designed to reproduce the reality of the past or present or depict future events.

L. Design, Development and Utilization of Educational Technology

(A) Instructional Design Model: ADDIE Model

The ADDIE model is a systematic instructional design model consisting of five phases: (1) Analysis; (2) Design;
(3) Development; (4) Implementation, and (5) Evaluation

1. Analysis. During analysis, the designer identifies of the learning problem, the goals and objectives, the
audience needs, existing knowledge and any other relevant characteristics. It considers the learning
environment, any constraints, the delivery options, and the timeline for the project.

2. Design. A systematic process of specifying learning objectives. Detailed story boards and prototypes are
often made, graphic design, user-interface and content are determined here.
3. Development. The actual creation or production of the content and learning materials based on the Design
phase.
4. Implementation. During implementation, the plan is put into action and a procedure for training the learner
and teacher is developed. Materials are delivered or distributed to the student group. After delivery, the
effectiveness of the training materials is evaluated.

5. Evaluation. This phase consists of formative and summative evaluation.

(B) Instructional Design Model: ASSURE Model

The ASSURE model is an instructional design that is modified to be used by teachers in the regular classroom for
the effective use of instructional media. ASSURE is an acronym for (1) Analyze learners; (2) State Objectives; (3)
 Select Media and Materials; (4) Utilize Media and Materials; (5) Require Learner Participation; and (6) Evaluate
and Revise.

1. Analyze learners. Teachers must first consider the characteristics of the learners who will experience the
media. The learners can be analyzed in terms of general characteristics and specific entry competencies –
knowledge, skills, and attitude about the subject. Student preferences for the conditions of learning also need
to be considered. Teachers must know their students to select the best medium to meet the objectives.
2. State objectives. Teachers then must identify the objectives that the media will serve. These may be
derived from a needs assessment or a course syllabus. The objectives are commonly stated in terms of what
the learner will be able to do as a result of instruction. The conditions under which the student is going to
perform and the degree of acceptable success is also included. This helps the teachers clarify the objectives
in order to make an appropriate selection of media and methods.
3. Select media and materials. Teachers then must choose a media format and then go about obtaining
specific materials. Obtaining appropriate media and materials generally involves one of three alternatives: (a)
selecting available materials, (b) modifying existing materials, (c) designing and producing new materials.
Teachers should use instructional media in ways that appear to best fit the immediate learning situations.
4. Utilize materials. Teachers must make plans to utilize the materials after selecting, modifying or designing
the materials. Questions like “Is the material at the appropriate level for the students and what adjustments
need to be made during the presentation?’, “What needs to be done to prepare students for the presentation
of this new content?”, “How can follow-up activities be used in relation to this media?” need to be considered
when using instructional materials.
5. Require learner participation. There should be activities within the lesson that allow learners to respond and
to receive feedback on the appropriateness of their performance or response, which may be overt (outwardly
observable) or covert (internal and not observable).
6. Evaluate and revise. After instruction, media and methods need to be examined. Class discussion,
individual interviews, and observation of students can be used to evaluate methods and media. The
instructional process itself should be evaluated to ensure effective instruction.

(C) Principles in the Selection and Utilization of Educational Technology

Principle Description
Contains purposive activities, which contributes to the growth and development of
Meaningfulness
learners.
Purpose Focuses on helping learners to motivate them in the learning process.
Suits or fits to the level intended in terms of: (1) vocabulary; (2) difficulty of concepts; (3)
Appropriateness
methods of development; and (4) interest.
Breadth Encompasses all round development of varying group learners.
Helpful or valuable to a particular teacher as he/she works for a particular group of
Usefulness/Utility
learners
Communication Relays information clearly and effectively.
Effectiveness
Authenticity Presents accurate up-to-date dependable information.
Responsiveness Quick to response to the needs and demands of the society.
Catches the attention/awareness of the users, stimulates curiosity or satisfies the need to
Interest
know and encourages creativity and imaginative response among users.
Cost The cost per student of media presentation diminishes as the number of students using it
Effectiveness increases.
Presentation Must be presented at the right time and at the right way.
Portability Must be handy for the teachers and students to handle it well.
Correctness Correct facts or information must be in the materials for a better learning process.
Simplicity Must be simple (easiness) but inspiring for the learners and showing creativity.
Assessment Appraisal is needed for further revisions and improvements.

Part II. Integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Computer – is an electronic device/machine used to process data, converting the data into information that is useful
to people. It is controlled by programmed instructions, which give the machine a purpose and tell it what to do. It can
be programmed and can perform high-speed mathematical or logical operations.

A. Generations of Computers

1. First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes

First generation computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for data storage (memory).
They were expensive to operate since too much electricity can be used and generated a lot of heat, which
was often the cause of malfunction. Examples: The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) and the
Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer
delivered to a business client.
 2. Second Generations (1956-1963): Transistors
The invention of Transistors marked the start of the second generation. The transistor is an abbreviation of
the transfer resistor, which means that by influencing the resistance between two of the three layers, then the
power (resistor) which is in the next layer can also be affected. In this generation, the instructions (program)
could be stored inside the computer's memory. High-level languages such as COBOL (Common Business-
Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) were used.

3. Third Generation (1964-1971): integrated Circuits

The hallmark of this generation is the development of the integrated circuits. The Integrated Circuit(IC) was
invented in 1958 by Jack Kilby. It combined electronic components onto a small silicon disc, made from
quartz. Thus, the transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

4. Fourth Generation (1971-present): Microprocessors

Fourth Generation computers are the modern day computers. The size started to go down with the
improvement in the integrated circuits. Very Large Scale(VLSI) and Ultra Large scale(ULSI) ensured that
millions of components could be fit into a small silicon chip., called microprocessor. It reduced the size and
price of the computers at the same time increasing power, efficiency and reliability. It went down from
Desktop to laptops to Palmtops.

5. Fifth Generation (present-beyond or future): Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computers are only in the minds of advance research scientists and being tested out in the
laboratories. These computers will be under Artificial Intelligence (AI). They will be able to take commands in
an audio visual way and carry out instructions. Many of the operations which require low human intelligence
will be performed by these computers. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

B. Classifications of Computers
Computers are available in different shapes, sizes and weights; due to these different shapes and sizes they
perform different sorts of jobs from one another; they can also be classified in different ways, which are designed
by the qualified computer architecture.

According to Size/Capacity:

1. Super Computer
 The biggest in size, the most expensive in price than any other and the fastest and most powerful type of
computer. It can process trillions of instructions in seconds.
 Governments specially use this type of computer for their different calculations and heavy jobs. Different
industries also use this huge computer for designing their products.
 In movies, it is used for animation purposes. This kind of computer is also helpful for forecasting weather
reports worldwide. Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations,
nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.
 This is employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations.
 a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible.

2. Mainframe
 Another giant in computers is Mainframe, which can also process millions of instruction per second and
capable of accessing billions of data since it is very powerful and large
 This computer is commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations companies, and many other huge
companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge basis and can handle
processing of many users at a time.
 This is normally too expensive and out of reach from a salary-based person who wants a computer for his
home.
 A mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, it is more powerful
than supercomputer because it supports more simultaneous programs.

3. Minicomputer
 This computer is next in line but less offers than mainframe in work and performance and it has less
memory & storage capacity. These are the computers, which are mostly preferred by the small type of
business personals, colleges, etc.
 It offers limited range of peripherals; it can be used with limited range of softwares; it is not very sensitive
to the external environment
 It can be used for data processing.

4. Micro computer
 This is the computer mostly preferred by the home users. These computers are lesser in cost than the
computers given above and also, small in size and you can easily arrange it to fit in your single bedroom
with its all accommodation. Today this is thought to be the most popular computer in all. This computer is
also called personal computer (PC). Only one user uses this computer at time that's why they are also
known as personal computers. The types are: desktop, laptop, notebook, palmtop or handheld personal
computer
 Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk, which is intended for
regular use at a single location, as opposed to a mobile laptop or portable computer. Most modern desktop
computers have separate screens and keyboards.

Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard, which is for
mobile use. It is a battery- or AC-powered personal computer generally smaller than a briefcase that can
easily be transported and conveniently used in temporary spaces such as on airplanes, in libraries, temporary
offices, and at meetings. It is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook
computer, but may be referred to as notebook computer despite of its size.

Notebook computer: Having a small size and low weight, it is easy to carry to anywhere. A student can take
it with him/her to his/her school in his/her bag with his/her book, easy to carry around and preferred by
students and business people to meet their assignments and other necessary tasks.

Palmtop Computer: a hand-sized computer and the smallest laptop. It is referred to as the Handheld PC
(H/PC), is a term for a computer built around a form factor which is smaller than any standard laptop
computer. It is also referred to as personal digital assistant or personal data assistant (PDA) is a mobile
device that functions as a personal information manager. Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen serves
both as an input and output device. A typical PDA has a touchscreen for entering data, a memory card slot
for data storage, Bluetooth and/or Wi-Fi. However, some PDAs may not have a touch screen, using softkeys,
a directional pad, and a numeric keypad or a thumb keyboard for input.

According to Type of Data Handled:

1. Analog Computers.
Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and process control purposes because they deal with
quantities that are continuously variable that give approximate results. In general, it is a computer which uses
an analog quantity and produces analog values as output, and it measures continuously. They are very much
speedy since they produce their results very fast. All the analog computers are special purpose computers.

2. Digital Computers
Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits or numbers. These numbers are used to
perform Arithmetic calculations and It can store the sums of addition problems as they accumulate, and can
complete a single calculation in a fraction of a nanosecond. It also makes logical decision to reach a
conclusion, depending on, the data they receive from the user. It is a machine that specializes in counting. It
operates by counting values that are discrete, or separate and distinct.

3. Hybrid Computers
Although both analog and digital computers are extremely used in widely accepted in various industries,
manufacturers have attempted to design a computer that combines the best features of both types. This
special-purpose machine called a hybrid computer combines the measuring capabilities of the analog
computer and the logical and control capabilities of the digital computer. Hybrid computers are being used
extensively in process control system where it is necessary to have a close representation with the physical
world.

C. The Computer System

The computer is a system which consists of the hardware, software, and the peopleware.

1. Hardware – the mechanical devices that make up the computer or the parts that one can touch. It is consists
of interconnected electronic devices (peripheral devices) that can be used to control the computer’s operation,
that is, the input and output devices; a device that accepts input, processes data, stores data, and produces
output, all according to a series of stored instructions.

a. Input Devices – accept data and instructions from the user or from another computer system; any
peripheral used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system.
(1) Keyboard – is a human interface device which is represented as a layout of buttons; is used to type
data into the computer. It has special keys for giving the computer commands. These special keys
are called command or function keys.
(2) Pointing Device – allows a user to input a spatial data to a computer; it move some object on the
screen and can do some action.
 Mouse – functions as a pointing device by detecting 2D motion relative to its supporting surface
 Trackball – operates with a rotating metal ball inset in a small, boxlike device and does not
require a desktop
 Touchpad – pressure-sensitive pad that is smaller, more accurate, thinner and less expensive to
build than the trackball.
 Trackpad – a small, sensitive pad, usually a couple of inches square, which acts as an
alternative to a mouse on some notebook/palmtop computers. It works by sensing fingertip
pressure.
 Joystick – a manual control consisting of a vertical handle that can move freely in two directions.
  Touch Screen - a type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive transparent panel covering
the screen.
 Light Pen – utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on a display screen.
 Digitizing Tablet - it enables on to enter drawings and sketches into a computer. It consists of
an electronic tablet and a cursor or a pen
 Stylus – a device shaped like a pen

(3) Bar Code Reader – used to scan a pattern of lines using optical sensing techniques. The line pattern
is coded information about the item to which it relates.
(4) Scanner – allows scanning documents, pictures or graphics and viewing them on the computer. It
converts an image into dots that the computer can understand.
(5) Digital Camera – used to take electronic pictures of an object.
(6) Microphone – need sound recording software
(7) CD-ROM/ DVD-ROM – can be used to put both sound and images into a computer
(8) Video Capture Card – used to put video into a computer. It needs a video source, either a video cam
or video recorder
(9) Handheld Electronic Organizers – a small mobile computer that accepts input through a pen like
instrument called stylus that is used to write on the computer’s screen
(10) Web Camera – a camera that is in some way connected to WWW or internet
(11) Sensor – a device, which responds to an input quantity by generating a functionally related output
usually in the form of an electrical or optical signal

b. Output Devices – display information on a screen, creates printed copies or generate sound; return
processed data back to the user or to another computer system;
(1) Monitors and Displays – show the processed information on a screen. It produces a soft copy.
Monitor is used to be called CRT (cathode ray tube)
(2) Printers – (printout) produce a hard copy. The information is printed on paper and can be used
when the device is off.
(3) Speakers – used to output sound.
(4) Plotter – a device that draws pictures on paper based on commands from a computer. It differs from
printers in that they draw lines using a pen

c. Input-Output Devices – a piece of hardware that is used for both providing information to the computer
and receiving information.
(1) Disk Drive – computer hardware that holds and spins a magnetic or optical disk and reads and writes
information on it.
(2) Hard Disk Drive – a rigid magnetic disk mounted permanently in a drive unit.
(3) Optical Disc - a direct access disk, has information recorded on it with a laser beam that burns pits
into its surface
(4) Modem – modulates the computer output to an acceptable signal for transmission and then
demodulates the signal back for computer input.

2. Software– is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex codes (also known as programs) that
make the computer perform tasks. It tells the computer what to do.; a computer program that tells the
computer how to perform particular task or it tells the computer how to operate. The following types are:
a. System Software – consists of programs designed to facilitate the use of the computer by the user.
(1) Operating System – a asset of program designed to efficiently manage the resources of the
computer system.
(2) Language Translator – is a system program that converts the English-like instructions used by
computer programmers into the machine-readable code used by the hardware.
(3) Utility Program – performsuch standard tasks as organizing and maintaining data files,
translating programs written in various languages to a language acceptable to a computer.

b. Application Software – is a type of program that solves specific user-oriented processing problems
(1) Word Processing – program accepts words typed into a computer and processes them to
produce edited text.
(2) Desktop-Publishing System – system allows you to use different typefaces, specify various
margins and justifications, and embed illustrations and graphs directly into the text.
(3) Spreadsheets – are computer programs that let people electronically create and manipulate
spreadsheets (tables of values arranged in rows and columns with predefined to relationships to
each other). These are used for mathematical calculations such as accounts, budgets, statistics
and so on.
 (4) Database Management – a set of programs is necessary to facilitate adding new data as well as
modifying and retrieving of existing data within a database
(5) Electronic Games – interactive hardware or software played for entertainment, challenge or
educational purposes
(6) Graphic Packages – are computer programs that enable users to create highly stylized images
for slide presentations and reports. They can also be used to produce various types of charts and
graphs.
(7) Communication Program – a software program that enables a computer to connect with
another computer.

c. Programming Software – usually provides tool to assist a programmer in writing computer programs and
software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools are compilers,
debuggers, interpreters, linkers, and text editors.

3. Peopleware– are the computer operators, also known as users. Even if a computer can do its job without a
person sitting in front of it, people still design, build, program and repair computer systems.

Data – consists of raw facts, which the computer stores and reads in the form of numbers. The computer
manipulates data according to the instructions contained in the software and then forwards it for use by people or
another computer. Data can consists of letters, numbers, sounds or images.

Files – is simply a set of data or program instructions that has been given a name.

Document – a file that the user can open and use. A computer document can include many kinds of data

D. Looking Inside the Machine

Data Processing – the procedure that transforms raw data into useful information. To perform this
transformation, the computer uses two components: the processor and memory.

1. Motherboard – is the main circuit board of a microprocessor. It is also known as the main board or system
board.

2. Processor (Central Processing Unit or CPU) – is like the brain of the computer in the way it organizes
and carries out instructions that come from either the user or the software. To process data, the computer
passes electricity through the circuits to complete an instruction. The 3 basic parts are:
a. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (AGU) – does all the arithmetic and logical operations of the computer.
b. The Control Unit (CU) – directs the flow of information into the CPU and/or memory or storage and
controls the instructions.
c. Registers – are used to store data and have instructions inside the processor.

3. Memory – is like an electronic scratch pad inside the computer consisting of a silicon chip. It is the
electronic holding place for instructions and data that your computer's microprocessor can reach quickly.
When you launch a program, it is loaded into and run from memory. It is simply referred to random access
memory (RAM) – instructions here are constantly changing depending on the need of the CPU, that is,
volatile since the information disappears once the computer is turned off, access to information is random
access. Another kinds of integrated and quickly accessible memory are: (1) read-only memory (ROM) –
stores information which is used by the CPU, the instructions cannot be erased or altered, that is ,
nonvolatile, the access to information is either random or sequential; (2) storage memory – computer
components, devices, and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of
time; (3) hard disks – mass storage; (4) hard drives – primary storage devices; (5) floppy drives - store
and retrieve information on a floppy disk; (6) CD/DVD ROM drive – reads information stored on a disc; (6)
Universal Serial Bus (USB) flash drive – known as pen drive, a secondary storage device.

4. System Unit – the main part of a personal computer. It includes the chassis, microprocessor, main memory,
bus and ports, but does not include the keyboard or monitor or any peripheral devices.

E. Networks and Data Communications

Networks – it is a way to connect computers so that they can communicate, exchange information and share
resources in real time. It enables multiple users to access shared data and programs instantly
1. Local Area Networks (LANs) – network of computers located relatively near each other and connected in a
way that enables them to communicate with one another (by a cable, an infrared link, or a small radio
transmitter). Any network that exists within a single building, or even a group of adjacent buildings, is
considered a LAN.

2. Wide Area Networks (WANs) – two or more LANs connected together, generally across a wide geographical
area. Each site needs resources, data and programs locally, but it also needs to share data with the other site
F. Internet Basics
1. Internet – simply called “the net”, “information superhighway” or “cyberspace”, a worldwide system of
computer networks; it is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet
protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of
private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a
broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies.

2. The World Wide Web (WWW) – simply called the Web or W3, is a system of interlinked hypertext
documents accessed via the Internet; publicly accessible web sites in the world. Note: hypertext is text
displayed on a computer or other electronic device with references to other text that the reader can
immediately access, usually by a mouse click, key press sequence or by touching the screen.

3. Uniform Resource Locator (URL) - is the unique address for a file that is accessible on the Internet; a global
address of documents and other resources on the web. It provides a means of locating the resource by
describing its primary access mechanism (e.g., its network location). A common way to get to a Web site is to
enter the URL of its home page file in your Web browser's address line.

4. E-mail – an electronic mail, the transmission of messages over communication networks or a system of
exchanging written messages through a network.

G. Role of Computers as a Tool

1. Informative Tools – are applications which provide vast amounts of information in various formats.
Examples: text, sound graphics or video, multimedia encyclopedia.

2. Communicative Tools – are systems which enable easy communication between the teacher and the
students or among students beyond physical barrier of the classroom. Examples: e-mail, electronic bulletin
boards, chat, teleconferencing.

Categories of Communication Tools:

a. Synchronous – enables real time communication, that is, simultaneous. Examples; chat or
videoconferencing.
b. Asynchronous – are messaging systems in which the exchange of information between people is not
“live”, but somehow delayed. Examples: e-mail and electronic bulletin board.

3. Productivity/Constructive Tools – are general purpose tools that can be used for manipulating information,
constructing one’s own knowledge or visualizing one’s understanding. Common examples of productivity
tools are:
a. Word processing – prepare letters, memos, report, flyers, rubrics, newsletter; use in class to dynamically
illustrate writing and outlining skills.
b. Presentation software – create presentation for workshops, conferences, and meetings; create class
lectures support that features text, audio and visual elements with special effects; create student
worksheets to accompany class lectures.
c. Electronic spreadsheets – prepare budget, numeric tables, grades and attendance rosters, compute
grades; prepare visuals/charts, mailing lists, reports.
d. Database management systems – organize and track student and other professional data; prepare
inventories, mailing lists, reports; provide support for students tacking data, organize and provide easy
access to lists of academic resources.