r:fft**rrJHsr'Ei

The Hypothesis

A hypothesis Research
transforms a
ge*eral idea

,TT{sTtlI'ET]qrt&L fi }EJEGMI$ES
After studying thb chapter, the student u,ill bG aHe to:

2 Describe the purposes of the hypothesis(es) in quantitative and qualitative

researctr-
B L3$ &ersnffi. da'ffmcy,ssrftrlfu ales#l**rry.
1 ttistingui* between an inductive and a dedlc;tive trypothe.sis.
5 ffiE he critwkr used to walt#e Wfreses fw resewch.
6 Defino oryrational definition ard give an example.
? lden&rteuffibtrypofrre*hft€m gilser? examgtea
8 Derfine rwtt ttWothasisand erylain ib nrpme ln a researc*r study.
I Write a researci hypothesis and a null hypothesis for a researdr study.
tO Distingiuigr between a directional and a nondirectional hypothosis.
"if'{'@€
12 State fte purpose of tfie research dan and fist trc dements to be indudsd.
tS State the purpose of a p"lot study. .
F*ttrstatirqthcrwrchquestion and examiningthe litaature, the,quantitative resealcheris
{Epdytoffie a l.r1p#edshdrps&e 1pryr* T}ds sfiorftt hreenett*sebeg}nniry
the rcsearcfi proiect. Reca[ that the quanlfrafive proUern adcs *on fre rddionship befirumn
two (or more) variaHes. The hypdtresis presents the researcfte/s expectations Sor.rt the rda
tor*ilp t*rcwr vaitbls udtrin ttre arrym. .. rmw, it'i$prtr ffitr as a suggestEd
"r*r*o
to the question, with the understandng that the ensuing invmtigation may lsad to either sup-
port fiortre@m*s orlack dsr*port torA t*ob Ure* re rce he nord srpt,ndprot€.
kadr nq1ftnd sppofr fs a frypdhe*q hfr it do6 rut pmrc a tqpde*s-
.*f.ke r.dG of tto,hlporhe#s.in.qualithtive.reeaarcbbdisctmol.in{haptnt i5.
 f!.rFr'rsf{} *E5E;4fiEt{,'E]4f*i5t{"}t}lta.s

A rescarchcr might ask thc qucstion, *What is thc ctTcct of prcschool train-
ing on thc first-gradc achicvcmcnt of culturally disadvantagcd childrcn?"
Thc hypothcsis would rcad *Culturally disadvantagcd childrcn who havc had
prcschool training achicvc at a highcr lcvel in first gradc than culturally dis-
*Strantq*gi* {Jhf*lk*r qihsikw Wltr*{t lrr*se&*ffi FSrr gr*Yl$u **ni ss &'&t
thr'hypothesis rel*tr,d {hc'variaat{cs of p'rcschno{ trrirrtxg cnd first-gradc
aehievement. Thc following arc additional cxamplcs of hypothcscs in cduca-
tional rcscarclu
1- Boys in clcmcntary school achicvc at a higher lcvcl in singlc-scx classcs
than in mixnd rlassr-rs.
2- Students who comFlete a unit on problem-solving strategles will score
higher on a standardized mathematics test than those who have completed
a eontrul unit.
3. Middtc school studcnts who havc prcviously takcn music lcssons will havc
hig$aw ma€r xp**k& s*arm,
4. Middle school students who have siblings will be more popular among their
psers than students who do not have siblings.
5. Students who do warm-up exercises before an examination will score higher
on that examination than those who do not.
*. Elffif,rrtary sM r&il&m:** e,#,6r{ a&ry**o sf+ep !n# pr{nm a*
a lowerlevel acadamieally than wifi their peers wtro have adequnte sleep-
Although hypotheses serva saveral important purposes, some research studies
may proceed without them. Hypotheses are tools in the research process, not
ends in themselves. Studies are often undertaken in areas in which there is little
acflrrrtrtatrd har,$mm* rrfeflsatiam- A rm*grfu mey nc{'hnsry ra#at mrt-
come to prefict. For example, surveys that seek to descr{be 'the Characteristirs of
particular phenom€n&, or to ascertain the attitudes and opinions of groups, ofren
proceed \#i{hsut hypot}resos.
T\ryo reasons for stating a hypothesis before the data-gathering phase of a quan-
,'titmtiw,@,"m.o. 4&*,x dUgwmM A,Wm*w*s,@hs,*k**,. i&*,,.r, wm+aM
has srffirient knwledge ia th ar.ea ts undsta*e ihe inye5figatiffn, antl t2] the
hypothesis gives direction to the collection and interpretation of the data; it
tells the researcher what procedure to follow and what typo of data to gather
and thus may prevent a great deal of wasted time and effort on the part of the
researcher

tr PURPOSES ()F THE HVPOTI{ESIS

IN GIUANTTTATIVE TTESEAHCH
Principal purposes served by the hypothesis include the following:
X" Xhe hypathesis hrixgs t*gether fu.{orrwtioa ta e*akle the resewcher Is
mnke a tentatiue statement abaul how the roriables in the study mag be
rafutxd,. By inte"gratirq i,nf,or.rnatir.rn bcsed on +xperience" rekrted resaarrih,
and theor.v. the ru;eare'her stal.es the hypulhesis thflt provides the mosl, sat-
isfauttry prcdiclion or the best solution to a problem.
 :C.'r*49{,9lt f TtfE,r+rFgI}+€EtI:l{g QttIAlaTI?rL iVE REgEffi€}t *:}
2. Because hypotheses propose tentatiue erplanations for phenomena. thay
stimalate & research endeaaor that results in the acanmulation of new
knawtedge. t'typothcsis testingrcscareh pcrmits irrvcstigators to validatc or
fail to validatc ttrcory thrcugh an accurrulation of data from many studics.
"h &{* vay, @gc, *s axtal*$etf.
3.'fhe hgpothesis proaides the inuesttgator u'ith a relatinnal statement that
is d,irectly testable in a research study. That is, it is possible to collect and
*mclyre data that will conflrro or f*il to comfirm the hypothosis. Qrrcstions
cannot be tested directly. An investigation begins with a guestion, but only
,,tlr*. proryere-d.**M#ipMmem&m x.re**lesrmrk Mi F:sr,*ffib*wue;
you do nul tes[ the ques{,ion, *Do Se,*th+rs' rp'i{ten Eo&rrreals sr studenb'
pap€rs result in an improvernent in student performance?" Instead, you
test the hlpothesis that the guestion implies: "Teachers'written comments
on students'papers result in a meaningful improvement in student perfor-
m&nee" oti qpeciflcally, "The performance scores of students who have had
*rritten t*a*h*r emnmrn* om pr*vims. paper,s nd3. *xe*sd {hm* d stn*ents
who have nol,had wril,ten teacher commenls on previous paperc." You then
proceed to gather data a.bout the relationship hetween the two varia.bles
{teaehersl writ{en eom,ruents arld s*udent po,r,formanee},
4- The kypothesk prouides direction to the research. The hypothesis posits a
s*c{i$E r*iaflixstrdp tstrueup yarias}er m* fus SMrrps ^iifue' r*xt*e *ff
l,he data needed to tesd the propositiwr. Very simply, *re hypothests tells
the researeher what to do. Facts must be selected and observations made
beeause they have relevance to a particular question, and the hypothesis
determines the relevance of these facts. The hypothesis provides a basis
-fqr *elec,tiqg,,tbp"6amq$iry.sesa6ilrr"6ruf,s,t,snd.research,Sref,.ed+rre*.lo.res*.
as well as the appropriate sffiisticat zrralysis. Furtherrnore, the hypdresis
helps keep the study restricted in scope, preventing it from becoming too
brcad or unwieldy.
For exampte, consider again the hypothesis concerning preschool expe-
rience of culturally disadvarrtaged children and their achievement in first

sample, rmd it even diieck fire researcher to the statistical tcst tftat would
be necessary for analyzing the data. It is clear from the statement of the
hypsthcsis th*t the rese,areher will eonduet an ex post faeto study tirat com-
pares the first-grade achievement of a sa.mplo of culturally disadvantaged
'+hiMrmr{q&tt",xre**t &hry$'"* .rye"*sbed - gr,@ *a*d,,,*;*i*i}*r g *@;.*f
disadvanuryed chiklre,n whn did not have presrhnnl expnrienre. Any fif-
ference in the meiln achievement of the two groups could be analyzed for
statistir:al significance by the f test or analysis of v*riance technique. (We
disc;uss these procedures in Chapter 7.)
5- &e&gfpar&esi*pror.udp,s aftaruew.ar*.{ar rr4*artiwg.t*'qgqdegrt utd,crelar;!*.
si*ns af tlw sftrdg. The researcher will fuid it very convenleut to take eaeh
hypth+sis separately. ard state th€ eonclusions that are relevant ts it; that
is, t&e researe&er 'r,a.n orsfinize thib:seetion "of the -nritten report,around
the prtrvision of, arriwers {o ,[he orig.inal hypothe*s;, ther,eby m*king i] m$re
gng*ningfrd and readable presenl,ation.
js 'EAfirf${}

I $UGGESTIONS FOR DERIVING HYP(}THEBES

As explained in Chapter 3, a,studyrnight.originate in apracticalprohlem, insome
observed behavioral situation in need of explanation, in previous rese&rch, or
,e"v"eus&aeo punfi{shl+'in,some ed&6a&ioeaL,p6gr&doeifiak sr,sereiqlry!,sal "thaor&
'Thus, researifuss derive hlpotheses inductivetyf:rnrs sbsen'atiflns of behavirr
or deductively foom theory or foom the findings of previous research. Induction
and deduction are complementary processes. [n induction, one starts with spe-
cific observations and reaches general conclusions; in deduction, one begins with
generalizations and makes specifi c predictions.

SEHIIrI}'S HYP0THEI}ES IT{T}UGT'1TEItr

In the indur*ive procerlure, the researcfter formulates an induclive hyrothesis
as a generalization from apparent observed relationships; that is, the researcher
observes behavior, notiecs tre,nds or probable re;tationship,s, and then hypoth-
esires an explanatinn for this obse,rved behavior. This reaconing process should
'}e a*r*mpariris*"by xrr. rlfprxi?iilrrsr+,swpcb**rr **e qfu*tlq$'
i n gs nthnr irr,vm*igattms *rave'rr,perted-rn the ry#itrr.

The indur,tive procedure is a particularly fruitful source of hypotheses for

cla"qqroom teachers- Teaehers obse,rye lea.rning and other student behavior evcry
day and try to relate it to their own behavior, to the behavior of other students,
ta, ttr*.te.ar.hiw .r,neJhod+.use"d" kl c.traeges.in lhe..scho.nl" enyi.r.onrnenL arrd sn
on. Teanhas flight ahser"ve, fm exarnple, drat when ttn'y pres+nt partir:ulafly
challen$ng activities in the classroom, some studenLs get motivated and really
bla*som, whereas others withdraw from the c.hallenge. Some students learn
complex concepts best foom primarily verbal pre.sentations (Iee,tures), wherea.s
others lcarn bcst from discussions a,nd hands-on activities. After r.eflecting on
**ch*"x1le.rteruxs,'t*a*hr.rslu*y''ir**rlr.*r*i$f+rcnt#*&g+xltr*li. thatse*&
to e,xplain the tfuserved rr;lla.tionship be,fireen theii'mettrad.s and matsrial.s ;rnd
studenfs'learning. These tentative explanatians of why things happen as they do
car hsesme tle hypotheses in. cmpir:ical, invc*tigations.
Perhaps a teacher has observed that classroom tests arouse a high degree of
,,*mxi.ety; amd'batriaves',thir*"4dlr,arff[g,ad[86@;strudeasgerforaao*ace, ,Ewt]lerffiara.
the tear.hpr,fuasrrotedtLrat whffi studar*,hffim am uppmtunity to r.tnit* crm-
ments about objective questions, their test performance seems to improve. The
teacher reasons thet this freedom to make comments must somehow reduce
anxiety a,nd, as a result, the students score better. This observation suggests a
hypothesis: Students who are encouraged to write comments about test items on
*raii'am.sser *eeat.wi*,*cliieve @mtest *eores tlan smd#ls risks kava nr
opporrunity to make comments.
The teacher could ttren design an experiment to test this hypothesis. Note
th*t the hypothesk axpr€sses,the teaeherfs belief eoneerning the relationship
bettreen the trryo variahles {writing or not writing comments a"bout test items and
pBrferm,asc.e.sn oth*,,fut}: ,,8*s*4.,,fu-*h*6,t**e 'vmimb*e"wrw&s#y t*r*t was part of
the recsoning clraiu Ieading ts the.hypothesis [s notpart, of the finatr hypothesis.
Therefcre, the results of the investigation wsdd provide infcrrsation ceneeming
only the relatitx betwcsn writing comments and testperfounance. The relatisn-
ships betrveen anxiety *ad cornments, an* anxiety and test performance, could
 i{-t**"rr{€.*5 T.FIE Gty..pGTt{Esfr,M,:&t}nt{TIIlTll*E,e*!E.AR{t+ 45

bc subjccts for subscgucnt hypothcscs to invcstigatc. Frcgucntly, an original

idca involvcs a scrics of rclationships that you cannot dircctly observc. You thcn
rcfonnulatc thc qucstion to focus on rclafionships that arc amcna.blc to dircct
obscrvation and mcasurcmcnt.
ftrc.fulla'xirlg xr* **Hiwd,axampfu* *f 'kfryse+s*s'Srst mi$rg b+ sr*vd al
ih&rstiyely ftsm a *e*c*tef s $bssrvatisffi:
. Students' learning of computer programming in the middle grades increases
their devetupment of togical' thir*iilg skills.
r Using advancc organizcrs incrcascs high school studcnts' lcarning from
ceqprttr.a*<.ti$ttd irghnrdisn in clle,u.*t4'-
. Students trained to write summaries of a lecture will perf'orm better on &n
immediate posttest on lecture comprehension than will students who simply
t*ke notes.
. Childrcn seorc highcr on final mcasurcs of first-gradc rcading achicvcmcnt
n*re.n thtry are taugki in smaff grffips rathtr ttrarr large group,s.
. The coguitive and a.tfective development offirst-grade children isinfluenced
by the emount of prior preschool experience.
. After-school tutoring progra.ms increase the achievement of at-risk
students-
ln the inductfue procrs, Sm reserrher makes ahservatioas, thin*s abmnt the
proUlem, turns to the ffiterature for cfues, makes atlititionat ohservations, antl
theu fonnulates a hypothesis that seeks to account for the observed behavior.
Ths researcher {or teaeher} then tests the hypothesis under conkalled conditisns
to examine scientifically the assumption concerning the rolationship between the
.*pet*S*d u*,riuHe*-

DERIVINCI HYP(}THESES DEDUCTIVELY

In contrast to hypotheses formulated as generalizations from observed relation-
ships, some others are derived hy deduction from theory. These hypotheses
hase Sre adrantag* af.k"dhg te a ?Gtre ge,ne,ral srystem etmmderkp b**.arrs*
ttre framewcrk for incorporating frrem meaningfufly into thellody ofknowleilge
already exists withinthe theory. A science cannot develop efficiently if each study
results irr an isolated bit of knowledge. It.beoemes cumulative by buil ing on the
existing body of facts and theories. A hypothesis derived from a theory is known
ss,*,&d,rmtiss&!{ffi *i*,
A{ler r:hoosing e theory rtrinte,resl, you us{r dedurJive re,avuring to arrive at thrr
logieal consequen{:es of the theory. If A is true, then we would expect B to follow.
These deductions then become the hypotheses in the researeh study. For exam-
ple, social comparison theory suggests that students form acade,mie self-concept^s
by comparing their self-perceived academic aecomplishments to some standard
or frarne *f re,fp,r:ence. The frame nf re,ference fcr most studenlc wauld be the
perrcive,d ac*demic. abilitie*g sf their cl*gsrnates. I'f thiB is true, therr sre, nright,
hypothesize that.gifted studerfis wnuld,have lnwe,r *eademie self-coneepts if the,y
were placed in selective homogeneous groups than if they were in heterogeneous
or mixed.ability groups in which they rnmpare themselves to [e.ss able studenlc,
.t5. r*sr.ps* *f:ieJi&€.lt8;tctfGnsu!{a

Onc could invcstigatc this hypothcsis by cxamining thc changc ovcr timc in thc
academic sclf-conccpt of giftcd studcnts in homogcncous classcs comparcd to
that of matchcd giftcd studcnts placctl in rcgular, hcterogcncous classcs. Thc
cvidcncc gathcrcd will support conhadict, or possibly lcad to a rcvision of social
cmnprrison theffiy.
Another wcful theary fruni'whic*r ar eitucattmrat rcsearctrsr ftight makc
deductions is Piagct's classic thcory on ttrc devcloprnent of logicat thinking in
ehildrcn- Piagct {1968). suggcstcd tha* ehildrca pass through v.arious stagcs in
thcir mcntal dcvelopmcnt, including thc stagc of concrctc opcrations, which
bcgins. at a.gc .? or & years,,and..maxks..ih,c *amsi*i.qn,frcmdqrcndcu*c nn,lpqr--
c9ption to:*,n dffiy-tu use saffic'Iogic.*L rp:erntiom- {hese''opcratisns are on a
concrctc lcvcl but do involvc symbolic reasoning. Using this theory as a starting
point, you might thcrcforc hypothcsizc that thc proportion of 9-ycar-cld childrcn
who wiII bc ablc to answcr corrcctly thc transitivc infcrcncc problcm, "Frank
is tallcr than Goorgc; Gcorgc is taJlcr than ltobcrt; who is thc tallcst?" will be
gre&t€r than.&e SrcF*{is*,gf+:}re6r.Gle,rdrs are *:Hte,**.*nssner it correctly-
Such rcscarch has implitations for thc importance of dmcrmining sLudcnls'cog-
nitive capabilities and structuring educational tasks that are compatible with
their dcvetrymontal level.
Piaget's cognitive theory also emphasizes that learning is a highly active pro-
.cegg".i& IArhish,le'eriasf,#..,neld6& "eams&rwt
"ke$*lsd*e, .-T&is,,ts*s&,t"h-lt, l*nowl+dge
m$st hs eff$lrnct*d by 1*arr.rersr.atker llran sirrply being irlg*s**.d-from lea,eh-
ers is the basis for much of the research on discovery-oriented and cooperative
learning.
In a study designed to test a deduction from a theory, it is extremely
irnportant to check for any logical gaps between theory and hypothesis. The
rese*r*hgmast *sk, *iloes th.e hpra{he*is lqirafiQ,,f*,fir*v &rrm the tfueory?' tf
the hypothesis rloes nat really follow from the theory, fhen the researcher can-
not reach valid conclusions about the adequacy of the theory. tf the hypothesis
is stlpported,but w,as n'o* rigor.ouely deducod frsm the'th.eary, tl,re resea,rcher
cannct say that the flndings furnish credibility to the theory. Table 5.1 shows
pr.cpst**i$c**s.f,Esam:,&&&*..well-.1*xoup:ikeslr.il*8.&srd,-a,&91rys*{h*ei*,h&eed. +rn,e.e,nk
thcory.

T GHAT{ASTEHIS.TI.SS A t,SAELE H.YPOTFTESTS

,-{fter,tentatlv,etg fnrrurl^ati.ng lhe,.hwqth.Es[s^.,hufi.hnfore auemFtin& any s"ctual
smpiricflI tss-ting,yourn'urt'evfftrrate*ire trypodresis. :f*re finai.rwrth:tf ahlpotli-
esis cannot be judged prior to smpirical testing, but there are certain useful
criteria for evaluating hypotheses.

A HYPOTHESI$ STATE.S THE EXPEqTEtr

RELATICINSH}P BETWEEN VARTABLES
A hypr*he,sis shotrld conjecture the relationship between twrl rx'mrrs variables.
For example, supprme you attempt to start your cflr and nothing happens. It
would tre unprofitabie'to sd*te, -The ear uiill not st*1"[ and it hac a wiring sys-
te,m,' because no relationship betwcen v*,r-iables"i* speeified, and so there is
 €*{*.rrT,F$ 5 TRE *tYS0T!}€Sf5r$r A{}*ltT.t}Ar*}E {+E5E.A*€tt

'Xketry
Achinvement motivation fMcClelland, 1 953]
Pef.q$s hevs'.a",tnr*-derrry So strivp for success and
ta eh*a*e gnal'crien*rld, "sur'.coS#failur+ n+:tiYitie*.
Attrihution theory fWeiner, 1994) People attempt
to mairrtain a positive self-image; people explain
their success.er failure in a way that preserves
their self-image.
Ttre,ory *f tmltipie ft*riligsnrs* {**rrlem, 19-*3}
Pecple h*trc a,nttmbst:of **parilts ink*ig*xees
that may vary in strength.
Copitive dissonance theory (Festingea 1957)
People experience discomfort when a new
trehavior cksheswitt& ,er mr,i&,
tkeir self-im*ge. Ta'resclve,th* di*sfrffifsrq,t*rr,#
may change [heir beliefs or behavisr.
Sgotsky's theory of learning t19781 Cognitive
develop*eat io stoongly trinked to iaput f.rom sther
people.
Maslor,vh hu,nan need+ theory [19i-4]. [n a
hier*re,try af ner;,d*" petple.nriarE*lfi*f1*,th*rir,l*we,r
Ievel naads {hunger or s'rfnfy} be,fore they are
motivatcd to.satisfy higher lcvel necds
{self-esteem or need to know}.
Behaviorism {Skinner, 1953) Behavior lhat is
posilively reir(breed will increase in strength.
Hypd.kxr&*
There is a positive relationship between
a*ki+,.vnrr+e-rn{,utntiva&ion,**rd, glrc*o*+ in, s,€h{}r+!.
If students are given a task and told that they failed
or succeeded {even though aII actually succeedl,
those who.are told.they failedsay itis d.ue to bad
Iuck; those who are told they are successful will
attributc it to skill and intclligcncc-
Tenuhing scieaer+ coincflT{$ rsirry e vartety of
approac&*s wi&re*u*t,rie gre*tar' arhievemsut
than when using only linguistic and mathematical
approaches.
Requiring middle school students who smoke to
write an essay on why young people should not
,**r+ake.xril{,.*k*qg9,,t&cir'al&i'Swde* afueut srr*okiag.
Tutoring by more able peers will have a positive
effeet on the learning of at-risk studeats.
.Childraq.,fr"a*n.ata*amina*y,disadliarltage"d, h*rmes-
,whs,rce .gi,*e.rl .b*'rr*ft lmt'xt,xelirNrl"wil} shewhigher
adhievement thnn similar "studeni$ not given
brcakfast.
On-kmk hehavior will inurease when l,eachers
posilivcly reinl'orue it.

na prqp#€d rei**imr*hip ts test- A, frr*itfi* }1y;ltlth€si.r r+ertl* b* "Ehe sair, ttri$

not sl,ilrt because of a fault in the wiring system.' This criterion may seem
patently obvious, hut consider the following statemen* *[f children differ from
B*re &rlothsr in self-csacept, th€y will. diffier flom,one aacther, in social studie$
achi€v€ment." The statement appears to be a hypothesis until you note that
ther,e,it no"gt*&esrr.eqt.srf,aas..e.,We*t**+e**,tioaship. ,4n eryloetnd.ro,L*ti*n;*hi4* c.,E!${t
he tlc*crihed.as ll$$er se;1&eanceFt,i* a-Iikelg.arrteesdent,ta.'h$her s&*ial,s*nrl-
ias achievement-' This hypothesis would then be sta,ted a^s "There will be a posi-
tive relationship be.tween self-concept and social studies ar,hievement." If the
opposite is predicted-that is, higher self-eoncept leads to lower social studies
aehieyemcnt-then the hypothesis would be "There will be a nsgative relation-
ship between srJt'-cnncept and sociat slxdies ar.hieyemenL.- Hither statsmeni
would meet this first rriterion-

A .I*Y,FO|rfIESIA. ftft'ST BC TESTAtsLE

The mostimportant characteristic of a "good" hypothesis is testability. A testabte
hypathe*is'is veri{iable; ,thal is, deductilms, candusir}ns, $r inl'erer*es can hs
drawn {brlm the hyputhesis in such e way th*t empiricd ohseruatinns oithcr
supp$rt ur do not sulrpor{ tlrr'hypotlrrsis. It the hypothe.sis .is on largst, [hen
g3r*.rl.lafa :fiEAf,*&f fi.8*cffc&(,.tlHxi

ccrt&in prcdictablc rcsults should bc manifcst. A tcstablc hypothcsis cnablcs

thc rcscarchcr to dctcrminc by obscrvation and data collcction whcthcr con-
scqucnccs that arc dcductivcly'implicd actually occur. Othcrwisc, it would bc
irnpossihlc cithcr to conflrrn or not to confirm thc hypothcsis. In thc preccding
exarrry$k. l$h* Uygeliis
*ffic. +d* &1br+ ** start iis .a pr+lmex*fer mry' $fuf
is obviously trrtest#e in this wmld.
M*ny hypothcscs-or propositions, as thcy may initially bc statcd-arc csscn-
tialty untcetahlc-.For instancq the hypothcsis "Freschool cxp,criencc promofus
thc all-around adjustmcnt of t}rc prcschool child" would bc difficult to tcst
,,.hncas*e. ef,,.ttr* diffialll&{ ef .operatiwa}iairy amd,unea*&ring'a}l,qseluul a,fliuqL
menl-" To be tcsl,:fric, a h,ypathcsis mustrelalc variaftlcs thad mn be mcasurcd.
lf no mcans arc availablc for mcasuring thc variahlcs, thcn no onc could gathcr
the data ncccssary to tcst thc validity of thc hypothcsis. Wc cannot cmphasizc
+Iiis point too strongly. Unlcss you can spccifically dcfinc thc indicators cf cach
variablc and subscqucntly ean mcasurc thcsc variablcs, you cannot tcst thc
hypothesis.
'Thc r-ndicrtors nf ffre var:fub'ies arc'rcfuirred to as olrertfiurriit fidfinitions.
Recall from Chapter 2 that variables are operationally deflned by specifying the
step the,i*westiga,tor takes tc..ureasur.e the variable, Ccasidor the.hytrrothesis
'High-stressed nursing students will perform less well on a nursing test than
',mri}tr,Io:$q-gtrseffid.*fudw$s,1#he;epc*atiaseldefui*iem;of,.str:m*,irsm-fiollsws,;.Sne
grotrp of students is ttild {hat the,rr performanre on the nursing te^ct wiil bs a
major determinant of whether they will remain in the nursing program {high
stress), and the other group is told that they need to do as well as they can but
that their scores will not be reported to *re faculty or have any influence on
their grades flow stress). The operational definition of test perf'ormance would
be **ures famr,* ,:rd*ry *r.*}e.{h*t as**sd &twr umd* *h* #ds**, did, a*r, the
various tasks making up the tesl.. Or consiiler fte fofiowing hypothesis: *There
is a positive relationship betrryeen a child's self-esteem and his or her reading
achieve$ent in first grade," For,t&*io t*ypothecis to be testa.ble, you must define
the variables operationally. You might define self-esteem as the scores obtained
. nx'th* ;$atf,*Isrye,,kadi**.,f,€r.,€hi&dsee,{,eE*dffi,;.Smil},,ry!&..rw4i*,;gr.*oh*ovoweat
as s{:,eres oa fte l]ali.frs.nieSsaiIiqgTEsL,€}r a.*.fust=gra** "teaf;hersl rating*._of,
reading achievement.
Make sure the variables can be gpven operational definitions. Avoid the use
of constructs for which it would be difficult or impossible to find adeguate
llreilsures- Constructs such as creati,uity, authoritarianism, and. democracg
hare *cqoited*lu*h*!rytxEs*..Eeffiri*r#* t*uatrem;king agr.+**xellt,r*rnpr,ra*inn*l
definitions of sur,h coneepts woulal be difficult, if not impossible. Remembsr
tha,t thc v*riables must be defined in terms of identifi*trle and observable
behavinr.
It is important to avoid value statemenLs in hypotheses. The statement *A
' eotmse.lfur$"prrlgrtrn {B"dhe''ete,memtrry'st&*n} ts d+,sira#e' rmnrmrt he irrvtrs-
tiga,ted in an empirieal study ber,ause 'desi.rabl+" is tno vagtre to be moa-
surr,,d- flerwrvet, you conl* test,the hypoth**i.s *Ele,mentary pqpils wha have
had counselirrg,ry;111**higher saore,s on a me,a^sure of exBre,ssed satisf.rctir.rn
with sr.,h'ool than will {hrne who h*ye not had eoun.seling-'Yo* 6art mea{ure
verbe.l expressions of satisfactinn, but wlicther they are desirable i.s a yalue
ju gmont.
 :€S*F*E*S f9*€:Sr16P:Bf,*IEEl5Sa.S{r',]&ltf}YrA#A,5,BgtE**e*1 ff

,W,.h&b-rd.,tbs,e@a*d*ss&a&&Wpffias*o-fut.,#&y.,, r*,,g#€.,s@€
boys thangi&ib remqdian rea rlin g dassns?
Answer
T&e,cffie a&sut'the "wirirqg" in &e,br*in amdt&e.ome aboutthe derrills a$ivities are not tostable:

A HVPOT}IESIS S}|CTT'LT}. BE COI\ISISTETrTT

ln,ITH THE EXISTTNG BODY OF KNOI,VLEDGE
ilypottresos,should.nst,osntrndtet ,pncviaudy ,rructl-sstafoIished knowlcdgc. Thc
hypothcs'rs 1My 'car rl*i[ not *tart,bccausc thc ,fltrid ,in .fhc ,.hattcry has ehangcd to
gold: s*tisfics &e fifist trrs crikri* hut is,ss esnirerrr tc what is,knorqm absrrt the
 fi*Ftr I,#t3,*.E f-ASf.J{ g$r#Ggsifli*s

nfl,turc of matter that you would not pursuc it. Thc hypothcsis *Thc car will not
start bccausc thc fluid in thc battcry has cvaporatcd to a low lcvcl" is consistcnt
with prcvious knowlcdgc and ttrcrcfore is worth pursuing. It would probably hc
unprofitablc to hypothqsizc an absenco of rolationship bctwccn thc salf-conccpt
af a$*Tcs*f#'boys *e# gEf.ls, Eil&{i &rtu rxlm S-5ffic*I powili bsrersc +fu,.lroL
pondcrance ef evidsff€ s$ppsrfs {he plvsen*e of,su& *rela*ionship.I.tristsrians
of sciencc find that pcoplc such as Einstcin, Ncwton, Darwin, and Copcrnicus
dcvclopcd kuly rcvolutionary hypothcscs that eonflietcd with what was acccptcd
knowledgc in thcir timc. Ilowcvcr, rcmcmbcr that thc work of such pionccrs was
q€*,r-a#y..sq-:wqacha".dew**d6r*uiara*"knou*e{g*,** a#+ffiSfl*}ir{&tiau d.cxiq&ag
'knowlcdgc
into more sarisifacfury t&ewg- trn.rnust rasus, arrtl cspcciirfiy fir the
bcgirming rcscarcher, it is safe to suggcst that thc hypothcsis should agrcc with
knowlcdgc alrcady wcll csta^blishcd in thc ficld. Again, this highlights thc ncccs-
sity for a thorough rcvicw of thc litcraturc so that hypothcscs are formulatcd on
thc basis of prcviously rcportcd rcscarch in the arca.

A HYPOTHESIS SHOULI} BE STATEE AS STilllPLY

AND .e(}NGISELY A$ .Pt} StBLE
A hypothesis should be presented in the form of a concise dectarative statemenl
A complete and concise$ stated hypothesis makes clear what the researcher
needs to do to test it. It also provides the framework for presenting the findings
'sf &s.rqr*3. ",Sa,r*s+rus&prnr +$$riqg',asm {h*s,m* x**firruil*p; h*,s &
ryillr*sd ss sta1c ss*'thm m* ,k,?ffiesir. Ttm gwr#tu,*e is {a s(a*e o{dy {rn*
relationship in any one hypothesis. For example, if you were iuvestigating the
effeet ef anew teaching method on student ar:hievement and student satisfaction,
you would state two hypotheses-one for effect on achievement and one for effect
o*.satisf*ctiw. Y.s**eedeot ra{orr#,ahr*ut the x*rhdred.undancy ine,xi{+htre .in
*tating muhiple hypothe,ms. fiememher that fte goals of e"tatnity and clarity
witl be served better hy more sperific hypotheses.

lfh*th *f,&*,*,q*lxu**mm usod,t*e",ryihira the ge.*fnr rtwr+brr of kys im re.madix{ rn*ding.in

the previous uartoon is ntrt ctmsstent withtr-m e;xisttngbndy:rlf knrnrv{e.dge?
Answer
Ttre one that posits that in the primarv grades hoys ma,filre more rapirlly than girls. There is
rr*r,r-whelrBirl& e"videnr,s that*t that,stqge"girls m,afirre mar*xagrid.ly t]lan hogs- krys finalbf
r:ateh rry at *Fprnrisatety age :f 7.years.

The terrns used in the hypothesis should he the simplest acceptable for convey-
'tng fherintenileil rnearEr*g;
avoiil anfbiguol.E Gr vague consruers,tthe terrns t* ftre
way that is gerrrally meepted,for referring to the phenom*non. lallhru twe hypo&-
eses &re of equal explanatory pow€r, prefer the simpler one because it will provide
the neeessary ex$anatian with fewer assumptions,&rld variahlm to bs defired.
Rercextrber fhat thls princr'plb of parsimony is impartant in evatua$ng hyp*theses.
 r**A$iEE*s r}{fdt$OTli{fgx5ffi, &er#rlr#r.i$,9,*:E!f*er*l $fi

T TYFES OF HYPOTHESES
There are three categories of hypotheses: reseilrch, null, and alternate.

TH,E I*E.S,EA.RG-H] T,IYPOJT}I"E,SIS

The h.ypothfises we han-e riisetr*aed tlrus,f*r are nased resear'et Ufeotfeses. They
are the hypotheses developed from observation, the reJated literature, and/or
the thenry described in the study. A researeh hypothesis states the relationship
one expects to find a-c a result of the research. It may be a statement about
the expec,ted re,latinnship or the *lpected d{ff.ete,nce be.twee"n the variablp^s in
,{he,sftrdf. fi,hypdhes*s abmr* $#fr:,elrk I{$ *wd anxie,ty ir'r th* r:Iimrmrm'srrrrld
be st*ted *There is a positive reJationstrip between IQ anil anxiety in elemen-
tary schoolchildren" or *Children r,lassified a-s having high IQs will exhibit more
anxiety in the r,laqsroom than children cla^ssified ac having Iow [Qs." Research
hyptrtheses may be statod in a directional or nondirectional form. A direrlional
hypofk+*i*sta*Es'ft**,Sinx$.bxr *f&x pr*di*:tr***{}xli*ur*#*ip,rx {*llfilrp,Hl:*t*txl**exr
. *rrt;* va,riebl*,s. Ttre".pwe,$**g *rrrr,h;rpr*lteseq ab$s* lQ **d.*nxit*y srre'diw,r-
tional. A dircctional hypothesis is stated when one has some basis for predicting
a c,hange in the stated diree,tion" A nondirectional hypothesis, in contrast states
that a relationship or difference exists but without speciffing the direction or
neilg* *fihn exffirtg.d.fieding-frs exarpp{ale"'-lkre l*ar*Jatlrln*iphe.tls*en,I{}
*nd anxiF*y in r.hildr+,n-*Sha,literatur+ r+vip.w,EeneraBy promTes the bacis for
stating a researr,h hypothesis as directional or nondirer,tional.

THE NULL HYPOTHESIS

I( is iqgmssible l.o te$L reseaxch hyS$these.s. dirce[y. Yuu musL lirsL s[a{,e a null
hypotheffis fsymbulircd ffd ilrd **.* rfte profrahility {fu*t tris rufl hyputhesis is
Lrue.lhe null hypothesis is a sl.alisl.ical hypothesis. tl. is called lhe null hypothesis
because itslates that there is no relationship belween the vari;rbles in the popula-
tion"A nuII hypothesis s[ates a negation {not l.he reverse} of whal. the experimenter
expec{,s or predicts. A researcher rnay hope tu show that a.(ler an oxporimental
lrt'^armtsrt lwu pplblirrnB HrSIIlave ffiftrtrsl rrrr"aa;- bet thc n*lt bypr*hqsis
woutd sLate thtrt aller llrr treatr*r+nt,lfu**.prydntftn*c:,rn6afi6:.rrriri$*oJ bo diflbrenl..
Whal. is [Irc poin{, of the null hypol.hasis? A null hypothesis lel.s resea.rchers
*qqsss whalher appa.renl rclalionships are genuine or ilre likel5r l,o tre a {'unelion
of chance alone. [[ states, "lhe resulls of this study could easily have happened
'hy *h*ar,e""-.Iidali*[i*;*tr.{*s,lsas* *rsa.d l*l dmtrx,nsioa "th*r oxfu,hilil,y tbal. l&a.rydl
hyputhwis is true.If ths lu$tsindicate that ohserved rulatiunsrup*had rmly a stighl.
probahility of occurring by chance, the null hypothesis becomes an unlikely expla-
naticn and the researcher rejects it. Researchers aim to reject the null hypothesis
as they ky to show there is a relatiouship between the varia.bles of the study.
Testing a null hypothesis is analogous to the prosecutor's work in a criminal trial.
To estalilish griitt, the pmsecutor €n the f,f.S,"Iegal system) mu*t provida suilficient
ovidenco to cnable a iury to reject the presumption of innocence beyond roason-
able doubt. It is not possible for a prosecutor to prove guilt conclusive_ly, nor cam a
reseamherrbtainunequivoeal supportfor ar*s*arehh;rpothesis. The defendantis
presmed innoceertuntil suffieient evidenee indi{ates that he or she k not, and tlrc
' nullhypothesis,is,pr,esumed,truetmtil.suffieient.evidrmceindiratesothemvise.
 fi'*Ir{ r5r.ejiEqn*{l:l s*[t(G*#i.}lts

For examplc" you might start with thc cxpcctation that childrcn will cxhibit
gfcatcr mastcry of mathcmatical conccpts through individual instruction than
through group instruction. In otherwords, you arc positing a rclationship bctwccn
thc indepcndcnt variablc {rncthod of instruction} and thc dcpendcnt variable
{u*aser'p affmx#r*;mstic.*I ffic1#Lifk'rm*r*h fup#dis is
*fu$*r**e tasgfii*
' through inditiduat instrrrctimrvnffi ,eeth*li*t,gr-ea,turmastcry ,nf,m*lftarnctigal cun-
cepts than studcnts taught through group instruction." The null hypothcsis, thc
statcrnent of no rclationship bctwccn variablcs, will rcad "Thc mca.n mastcry
scoros (population mc&n p) of all studcnts taught by individual instruction will
quql*h*".Ees*d*,.u*ests#.y,*cmc*{tr$gmrlditrL,rxr+am.61..*f;a}l.tke&ar4t*t.b.ygxarqp
:irrstrurtitn.*,ff r: ..*tl : *
S, *,

THE ALTERNATIVE HVP(}THESIS

Note that the hypothesis *Children taught by individual instruction will exhibit
te*ss +rasterf of rnn*tmmatieal eqncel*c..{han.thn+e "tal#ht I}y "gf,a&p irt.struc}ion-
Bnsifs,a:,r*! om@.Mp,wtrmiaft*ns. furdw'gismadl*lypolhesis- Id
is an example of an alternative hypothesis.
In the exa.mple, if the sample mearr of the me&surs of mastery of mathematical
concepts is higher for the individual instruction students than for the group
instruction students, and inferential statistics indicate that the null hypothesis is
rr#Xfedy *€ lls tnfia grw r*SrS &e r*ri$'&gp&e$r ,*s$,t te*t+df et*&*fu Aig
'indiridtra* insF,uctiffir rffdts in".greater'mastery ,d,m#ematiual' eencepB than
daes group instruction. {f, in conffast, the mean for the group instruction students
is higher than the me&n for the individual instruction students, and inferential
statistics indicate that this difference is not likely to be a function of chance, then
y.x**.t+.*,tinalp*xrq*Iuda,*h**,*Uwpixs*rlufiani*superiu-
trf iiifsrs$6{* stmfuHes le&s*ta&at ebffir+sd.ffEs.eug€*:be*weon'filor,rrrsfrffs
of the two instructional groups could easily be a function of chance" the null
hypothesis is retained, and you decide that insufficient evidence exists for con-
cludingthere is arelationship betweenthe dependent andindependentvariables.
The retention of a null hypothesis is not positive evidence that the null hypothesis
is,*rm. tr* &t[tua*.&# & *fu *s &r*affi rerd fu fu m#: hpr Ea
thu'res eareh ftlrpo fhesb, undthe aft ernnfve hypothests are affi possiblc ;
'

II TE'STING TH'E HYP'oTHESTS

A,ryMlte&fum"ffM*,k$ia*ffi*th,s$#f,s*r#h h$*Iethssis,",u*hkb,"sbm*ald.k.a.siue,Sb-
dlearstatement d,*te.erye*to$rd*Ssa**@,-ho*rnr:em*,ffu rr*rna&{*s- Provioudy.
we explained ftat hypotheses must be testable-that is, amenable to empirical
verifieation. When researchers spea^k of testing a hypothesis, however, they are
referring to the null hypothesis. Only the null hypothesis can be directly tested by
statistieal procedures. Hypothesis testing involves the following steps:
1. State, in qperational terrrs, ttle relationships {ha,t shsuld be observed if th€
reseertrh hypothesis is ?.ue.
2. rstate the rrull hyBr,rthesis.

rThe {:rr.as& lcrftp,r.rnn,E,ir,rrgl tn sphr*iae poprt*tirn m*ar.

 .{i€4p.,Ig*5 r$.{€.*tn6Efil:+&r€ft{,*{* isIs&x,Ei:ft*te*E"EEr&eEd** .*}
3. Sclect a rcsearch mc{hod that wilt cnable thc hypothcsizcd rclationship to
be ohscrvcd if it is therc.
4. Gather the empirical data and select and calculate appropriate descriptive
statistics for these data (see Chapter 6).
$" exMaf**ffiimfu W&@,t&tyacr #*und
results could havc oectrred'by ehanee rafircn ttre nrfrI hypnttresis is kuc tsce
Chaptcr O.
6. If tle probabitity of the observed findings being due to chance is very small
(e.9., only 1 in 100 chances), one would have suffEcient evidence to reject the
eg*,#si*tr.
Many hypotheses that are formulated are rejected after empirical testing.Their
predictions are not supported hy the data. Many beginning researchers believe
that if the data they collect do not support their hypothesis, then their study is a
flailure. This is not the case- In the history of scientific research, hypotheses that
fiiiH,kib*' ,gr*x$.Mef #ffi,fu3"k*rrubeffisrrycr,tcd"
Expcr*encedresearc,Iters rs#trl*rat unmr$rrned lrryffirmm are ar mpectud' arrd
usefirl part of the scientific experience.They can lead to reconsideratian or revision
of theory and the generation of new hypotheses, which often brings science closer
to a eorrect explanation of the state of a"ffairs. Darwin (1887/2W7) wrote,
rh*nedmi@Me ry.gid e,a**6,gberyry.fuap*ks[k-
wermudrrfuilweil{anilf rannot'resistfmrfngorrcon Ev€ily'nibject}, as sosn asfat*s
are shown to be opposed to it. Indeed,I have had no choice but to art in this mannel
for with the exception of the Coral Reefs, I cannot remember a single first-formed
hypothesis which had not after a time to be given up or greatly modified. tp. 2931

*@h p.m.mry M ry.*,fe,a @kdq ek hr@tu ib.nd ry.#

to he true. A'hypothefis is neverprwefi'urtfrsproveft it is onty supporterl or not
supported. Hypottreses are essentially probabitistic in nature; empirical evidence
can le*d you to conclude that the explanation is prohably hue or that it is reason-
ahle to accept the hypothesis, but it never proves the hglothesis.

Gl.*Aes*oGfiir €:t**ilSLE .O# TC,Br'rfttr& .* t*'YpoTHEst,s

A teadrer is interesteil in investigating reinforcement theory in the classroom.
From her understanding of reinforcement theory, this teacher hypothesizes that
teachei:s"pasitive comments on studenLs'papers will lead to greater achievement.

.Step X.Th* ele.*hrc"sd.ir+Ii*,4*imi*siai*.d a*ffitcrml* "Tear.,hBrd p i*iv.e r.rrm.

tnenlq on shrdents'paprlrs during e slmr:rted rmk wfII resuli in higher
soores on the end-of-unit test for those students, compared with sfu-
dents who received no comments." It is the relationship between the
two variables-teachers' positive comments and pupil performance on
the end-of-unit test-that will be investigatad.
Step 2- For statistical testing, ttre research hypothes'rs must be hansformed
irto a null hypo&resis; 'The poputration Eleiur achievernend s{:sre for
sl,udeuts rr:r:$rivisg,positiv,e ulmm:rnts {experiracata[ Bror4p}will bu thc
same as the.p{1l}tdatirm m'ean *ehisv*msol..sff)re llor studen[s receiving
Eo eummeills {uontrul graup}.-
,!}t :ffir,tr& .&ftE*#,e*ra*€{g6mrr,rs

Step 3. Aftcr gctting permission from parcnts or guardians for thc childrcn to par-
ticipatc, thc tcachcr would sclcct studcnts to bc randomly assigncd to thc
cxpcrimcntal and control goups. For thosc studcnts in thc cxpcrimcntal
group, shc would unitc positivc cornmcnts on ttreir papcrs, whereas thc
s.tfu as&M &* 'tb* c#rrfi gry Ewffi'rffiGirtl E# rxxnmcsls. Thr:
commtrts trttrr urywimemhl grmp c,*rsuld simpty'bm words uf cntuur-
*Kccp
agcmcnl such as "Exccllcnt" up thc good wcrk," or 'You'rc doing
bcttcr." Thcsc commcnts should havc nothing to do with contcnt or thc
corrcction of particular crrors; othcrwisc, any improvcmcnt could bc
*teiMd*p",th.fu &M"*iseel,.wnfuh*,ss d, q*sh,s@#Ben$$,
Step4. Afror coa4k{@ee spocifud ils*" tr* tea*trer ryordd sdnlinls*sr a
eommon end-of-unit test to both groups and derive average (mean)
achievement scores on the test for each group.
St*p 5- Infcrcntlal statistics can then bc uscd to indicatc whcthcr any dif-
foremee in Elsi&n *ehemeew* ec€r€6 ,is,rsal er ie Skely kl brr mcnc{y
a,fudou,$.f cecmfie; tr,*&s trtrffi emee i*,mt,Hkr*y.*e.&*, .& ftrnsfism' sf
cha.ncc, thc rcscarchcr tcntativcly concludcs that it rcsults from thc
different heafunents given to the two groups.

THE GTUAhITITAT}\'E HESARE}I PLAH

- After identifying a worthwhile prohlem and stating the expected outcome in the
form of a research hypothesis, you are ready to develop a tentative research
plan. The research plan at this stage is only a preliminary proposal; many
changes will probahly be needed before the final, formal proposal is written.
,esesry*ry,&ir,ffit*tue.w*&;ismffiMcfit. .ge*.&#ss
.ftriEel ideas
ilown ideas'ln a concrete'furrn. Marry seem promising until you
must spell them out in black and white; then the difficulties or the inadequacies
beeome obvious.
Another advantage of a written plan is that you can give it to others for their
+tmm;e# wrd*u*[ieism,,k,*@,fw.*o*omp[e, So profu;w
,wauld csrtaixl'y reed le aee what r*seorcb s&dffits.ree,plamiiry;.-,ks,,&*ator
of a thesis or dissertation would want to see a written plan rather early in the
process. It is much easier for another person to detect flaws and problems in a
propcsal that is written out than in one communicated orally. Another point to
keep in rnind is that the more complete and detailed the initial proposal, the more
r@ct+t"rsffi&mtu'.fk'rmsffi*ffi.M*kxeB{imawtrfu kt*r.
A researih plan s?rould include ffre foEowing elements: the problem, the
hypothesis, the research methodology, and proposed data analysis. The following
list briefly descrihes each component:
l- Problem. The plan hegtr with a clear statement of the research protr
#out tfte'reilatitmst$p'befiftreen'spsuifud
trem. A' quaaffi utive :prtb*em :asks
variahles. Iaslude the,ration*le fur the sttrdy and a bri*f description of lhs
backgrouild.of ,[he,pru tem' in *hcoqr,ar*d/,or,reiafud rs;eafiih,
Z. Hlttxtttt*sis, AT truantitative,qce$tirxr is,fr*lcwed lry s",rdrnshe,stntement, oftihe
re,se&reh, hypnthesii, Frovide opera,ticrna[ definitionc of the vtrriitbles
 {,*ilc{[E*5 ?.],1[]H.Sp8ir.{l*EBg&&**s{*ir*tr*raEffi.*rfrm{*+ s
3. Methodologg. This scction cxplains how you will conduct thc study. Includc
thc proposcd rcscarch dcsign, thc population of conccrn, thc sampling pro-
ccdurc, thc mcasuring instrumcnts, and any othcr infonnirtion rclcvant to
thr conduct of ttrc strudy.
4. De*a ametrcis, Idtud€hffiF ry mffi.a@ fu.da*a, te.tssl the hpo{k$E
and/or answer fhe research guestion. Beginning guantitative researchers
may find it difficult to write this section hecause they are not yet familiar
with statistics. You might look at the related literature to determine what
type of statistieal analysis other researchers used, or you might consult wittr
ry,,Xmfw lsrla*.sqqsr* im,a**}is**w"

State a hypothesis to test the notion that teachers assign rowdy students to remedial reading
Smai*f d*em, $*& fu mi$ eSryefk**ffid *he @s'eor r^***.1tr
ffi
Answer
1. Research hypothesis: Students assessed as rowdy on a behavioral assessment scale are
more often assigned to remedial reading classes than are nonrowdy students with equiva-
Ient reading skills as measured on the California Achievement Test"
&'$Id:b@Ss .*isd@ffi.**i& &e-*amdirye.iilsam,affifu,
likely to be assigned to remedial reading classes-
3. Administer the Reading subtest of the California Achievement Test to all students. Match
students in remedial reading classes with students with the same reading skills who are
in regular classes. Use a behavioral assessment scale to identiff which students are rowdy
,,'ffi dr*Xffidt,l&Sel &rE*.

4-,€a.[wk&,,tk "ryorreom ef @ *aed nmes*y ffit* *a @md

the proportion of rowdy and nonrowdy students in regular classes-
5. Test the null hypothesis by using a statistical test to determine if the difference in the pro-
portions could easily be a function of chance alone.

THE PILOT STUDY

After the tentative research plan is approved, it may be helpful to try out thn
lprqry}CIfad'pqmfu m ;o:&xr 1m*i+{ph r&*ril *ffi,,# * mf, lpi$
"k*$ Ts feasfule and whelher it is
help the researcher to deci{Ie whe,ther fte study
worthwhile to continue. At this point, one ca,n ask a colleagre to check one's
pracedures for any obvious flaws. The pilot study provides the opportunity to
a"qsess the appropriateness of the data-collection methods and nther procedures
*xd'tn mcke''e*arrryestf*r$rlssffitryr. & *+pamm*.&s aprdfurrimry.,tr6ting-rf"*&rr+
hypotftesis, wlrirJr m*y giv+ somei+dire*inn {rf it^s klr+nt ility ar+rl su.gg+.st wheth+r
ft rrthelr refinem.p,rrt-
is needed.
&m,r*ie ipated prr+Hems *has *ppmr ra,n .h .sri*m*l *t s*k stage, .fl+ernby lsa,ving
tir.ne nnd.r,ff$rt lnter- A pilr*.study is we,ll worth thc tirrs reqrired *nd is sspe-
cialty rer:ornrnended for the beginntng researcher.
tr *fistr *ltrs .Itf#insEi{5s:({Ee(}ts|a{r
SUMMA}IY
Tc proceed with the confirmatory phase of a
quamfftatiye research study, it is fuaportarrt to
kaxa ,sffi ,srrxarc,&*l$$ hmme#m
The''tqpot*tesis fu a Wreffi,tsd ,iri sm*efiffir
inquiry. It enables researchers to relate theory
to ohservation and observation to theory.
Hypotheses ena,ble researchers, in the search
.$sr*mded#p-.ta,,@I{q# ,Mh *hc,ideas ef *he
itr&CIt*re,,I$ritrw***ffi,, ryii& fuir emphxs*s
on ohservation, and the logic of the deductive
philosophers, with their emphasis on reason.
The hypotlesis is the researcher's prediction
about the outeome of the study. Flypathoses
,"ar-,e .*bre .Mfim
*t*ii{r€6',*Bi@ s *
deduutfue$ from a kaorirn'Sreory. kperience
and knowledge in &n area and familiartty wittl
previcus research are important factors in for-
mulaling a satisfactory hypothesis.
Ek, &yWtkis .sns"s$e*!.md*&lh,M*W. qq
jnesear "I,t ' lke&e*inmbfu,msm&d.s
efforts because it de;termines ttre research method
and the ffie of data relevant to tho solution of
the problem. It also provides a framework for
interpreting the results and for stating the
conclusions of the study.
e*@.ffimffi .Mi s*&ryr*e-jt*itr €ffirrb'
ft mt-be tffi *&Etrmsffire tfraf it is posfrih
,
to gather evidence thatwill either support or fail
to support the hypothesis. It must agree with the
preponderance of existing data, It must bo stated
*s sJ*arIg "$d *woi@ .os pmaiHe- Akg,,itanr6e
#k fu +rym*d r&ffuadli1* he*qree*..yffii*H€s
that can be measured.
Once formulated and evaluated in terms of
these criteria, the research hypothesis is ready to
be subjected to an empirical tesl The researcher
am#@*f#
ffre reserdrer rxpecrwhictr ni importantin the
statistical analysis of the findings. 11 i5 important
to remember that a research hypothesis cannot be
proved or disproved, only supported or not sup-
,IM",&es,*E,*ti ib r$,ewgamd, .e,k}$B&ffib.
mry #.seffiB, *,re&*.fxryqpnsu, kmm,S raffi
lead the researcher to reevaluate rationale and
procedures and to consider other approaches to
the prohlem.