ECE 5490/6490

Electromagnetics Review
Dr. Randy J. Jost
Utah State University
Dept. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Logan, UT 84322-4120
435-797-0789
randy.j.jost@usu.edu

Page 1
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
• EM Fundamentals
– Characteristics of electromagnetic (EM)
radiation
– Macroscopic interaction of EM waves with
matter
– Maxwell’s Equations

Page 2
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Characteristics

• Important characteristics of electromagnetic

radiation
– Frequency and wavelength
– Velocity
– Vector nature
– Polarization
– Power

Page 3
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
The Electromagnetic Wave
Polarization is the k is the propagation
E orientation of the E vector. Its direction
field (for elec. engr.) can be determined from
the right-hand rule.
H
k

Frequency is how many

times the wave repeats
(oscillates) in a second
On
Wavelength is e wa
ve l
the distance traveled eng
th
for the wave to make
one complete cycle Page 4
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Frequency, Wavelength, and Velocity

• Frequency
– Number of complete cycles in a second
– Unit is Hertz (Hz)
• Wavelength
– Distance from peak to peak
– Unit is meter (m)
• Velocity
– Speed of EM wave in a given medium: v = λf
– Units are meters/second (m/s)
Page 5
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Vector Nature

• Vector nature
– EM waves have both direction and magnitude
– By definition, they are vector quantities
– EM waves are complex quantities, meaning that
they can be represented by an exponential
expression with an imaginary argument (and so
is RCS)

Page 6
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Vector Nature

• Vector nature (continued)

– This is important to understand:
• Polarization
• Interactions of wave with surface features of a target
• Coherent and incoherent scattering
• Measurement system operation
• RCS reduction by cancellation techniques

Page 7
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Polarization

• Polarization
– Orientation of the electric field with respect to
some reference
– Electrical engineers refer to the polarization
with respect to the electric field
– Physicists refer to the polarization with respect
to the magnetic field

Page 8
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Polarization
y y

E E

x Elliptical x
y

Linear Circular
x
(Special case
of elliptical)

Page 9
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Polarization
Front Quarter View E
H

Head On View
Some component of the
Normal
Component
E field must be tangential
H of E field E to the surface of the
target to induce currents
on the skin of the target
Tangential
Component
of E Field
Page 10
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Polarization
A receiving antenna must have the same orientation as the
incoming field to best detect the field

No
E polarization
mismatch loss Receiver

Some
polarization
mismatch loss Receiver
Transmitter
Complete
polarization Receiver
mismatch loss
Page 11
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Polarization

• For targets with axes of symmetry, the scattered

field has the same polarization as the incident field
if the direction of incidence is along an axis of
symmetry
• If the same circularly polarized antenna is used for
transmit and receive, a symmetric target such as a
sphere is canceled out

Page 12
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Polarization

• A complex target, such as an aircraft,

generally depolarizes the incident field, so
that the reflected field has more than one
polarization.
• The amount of depolarization depends on
many factors, especially the aspect angle of
the incident wave with respect to reflecting
surfaces & edges of the target.
Page 13
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Power
• Power is proportional to the square of the
2
electric field P∝ E
• Radar detects power of the returned
(scattered) signal
• Radar range equation gives the relationship
between range and power needed for
1
detection
 Pt G λ σ 
2 2 4
Rmax =  (meters)
 (4π ) S min L 
More on the Radar
Range Equation 3
later in this lecture
Page 14
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Macroscopic Interaction of EM Waves with Matter

• Reflection
• Transmission
• Refraction
• Absorption
• Diffraction

Page 15
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Macroscopic Interaction of EM Waves with Matter
Reflected
Local Surface Field
Normal Reflection: EM waves striking
Vector n
θ a body may be reflected from
r
θi the body
Incident Example: Radar return from a target
Field

Transmission: EM waves striking Transmitted

Incident
a body may pass through the body Field
Field

unattenuated
Example: Radar through an aircraft canopy

Page 16
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Macroscopic Interaction of EM Waves with Matter

Refraction: EM waves traveling Refracted

from one medium to another may Incident Field
be bent Field

Example: “Bent” pencil in a glass of water

Absorption: EM waves Incident Attenuated

Field Field
entering a medium may be
attenuated
Example: Sunglasses, microwave oven

Diffraction: EM waves encountering

More on this later
an object may be diffracted
Page 17
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Maxwell’s Equations

• Definition of terms
– E - Electric Field Intensity
– D - Electric Flux Density
– H - Magnetic Field Intensity
– B - Magnetic Flux Density
– J - Current
− ρ - Charge Density
− σ - Conductivity
− ε - Permittivity
− µ - Permeability
Page 18
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Maxwell’s Equations

Auxiliary Equations

D = εE
Incorporation of Permittivity

B = µH Incorporation of Permeability

J = σE Incorporation of Conductivity

∂ρ
∇⋅J = − Continuity Equation

∂t
Page 19
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Maxwell’s Equations

Differential Form: Integral Form:

∂B ∂B
∇×E =−
∂t ∫l E ⋅ dl = − ∫∫s ∂t ⋅ ds
∂D  ∂D 
∇×H = J +
∂t ∫l H ⋅ dl = − ∫∫s  J + ∂t  ⋅ ds
∇⋅D = ρ ∫∫ D ⋅ ds = ∫∫∫ ρ dv
s v

∇⋅B = 0 ∫∫ B ⋅ ds = 0
s

Page 20
 EM FUNDAMENTALS
Maxwell’s Equations

Wave Equations
Vector Wave Equation Scalar Wave Equation

∇ A − k A = −J
2 2
∇ Φ − k Φ = −ρ
2 2

µ Je jkr
1 ρe jkr

A=
4π ∫∫∫ r
dv Φ=
4πε ∫∫∫ v
r
dv
v

2π
k = ω µε =
λ
Page 21