2023, Social Studies Notes Grade 8 - 9

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
SOCIAL SCIENCES TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION OF ZAMBIA
CENTRAL PROVINCE
SOCIAL STUDIES NOTES, 2023
GRADE 8 & 9
Prepared By
S/N NAME
1 Changwe Levison
2 Kamuti Getrude
3 Musiyalela Lilian
4 Chisenga Memory
5 Mokola Rabecca
6 Mulenga Locho
7 Mushili Vasty
8 Mushyabanu J
9 Kaira Tilyechi
Edited By: Blessed Benny Chipasha - PEC Chairperson
Simachenya Lweendo- PEC SG
Central Province
PREFACE
This pamphlet contains a number of topics that are useful to both teachers and pupils. Additionally, the
booklet has covered Social Studies notes that are taught in Grade 8 – 9 junior level. Some changes
have been highlighted in this document according to the requirements of the new syllabus.
The authors of this material have explained topics in such a way that pupils can understand them with
less difficulty. In other ways, pupils can go through this study material on their own or with less
guidance from the teacher.
It is our sincere prayer that this booklet be one that will enhance effective learning and teaching in
Central province and the nation at large. We further hope that this material be of great value in the
quest to attaining better results as well as promoting quality life even beyond the school system.
1|Pa ge
Central Province (Social Studies)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We want to give all the glory to the Almighty God for always been our guide before and after the
preparation of this document. We also want to acknowledge the support of our SESO Social Sciences
Ms Kabwenda, The SOSTAZ Provincial Chairperson and his executive, Mr Kelly Kapanga former
DEBS Chisamba, Mr Chituka Chipembi Headteacher, All Headteachers who are supporting all
SOSTAZ activities and most importantly the Social Studies teachers (Material Production Committee)
who put in so much work to in this document.
2|Pa ge

HISTORY
TOPIC ONE: MAN THE SOCIAL BEING
LEARNING ABOUT THE PAST

The meaning of history
o The word History comes from a Greek word “Historia” which means to “inquiry.”
o History is referred to as an inquiry because of the way in which the collection of facts for the study
was conducted. Therefore, history is study of the past, present and the future events
Importance of studying history

▪ It helps us understand the present.
▪ It helps us projecting the future
▪ It provides helps us to provide identify
▪ It helps us emulate good morals
Branches of history
It is divided into four major categories
Political History
▪ It involves the searching for truth about the past famous leaders.
▪ Their system of governance, dates of their reign and how they related with their subjects.
▪ The past administration is related to the present administration.
Social History
It involves finding of facts about the social behaviors of people in communities and where they lived.
E.g, lifestyle, dressing, marriage and how they were related to each other.
Economic History
▪ It collects information about the economic potential of any given society.
▪ The areas of study include crops, trade, animals domesticated, and birds. Kept, minerals mined and
other economic activities carried out.
Technological History
▪ This involves finding out facts about the origin, evolution and development of science and
technology.
▪ It shows discoveries and inventions such as telescopes, spinning or weaving machines.
3|Pa ge

Methods used to learn about the past
Archaeology
▪ Is the scientific study of ancient culture through examination of their material remains such as
building, graves, tools and other artifacts usually dug up from the ground.
▪ Archaeologists are people who dig up and study the remains of the early man.
▪ The digging up of these remains is called excavation.
▪ Details are illustrated by scientific drawn diagrams and classified depending on the depth of the
ground.
▪ Therefore the classification is called stratigraphy.
Oral Traditions
▪ It is a method of learning about the past through the word of mouth.
▪ History is passed down from one generation to another by word of mouth.
▪ It is the oldest source of History.
▪ It is also the primary source of written history.
▪ It was passed from one generation to other by elders through songs, proverbs, poems, hymns,
legends, myths and tales to any given society.
Limitations of Oral traditions

▪ Traditionally, stories are only found among centralized societies.
▪ Mainly concentrated on achievements than failures.
▪ Dating of information was a challenge.
Written records:
▪ These are historical events written down in books and other documents by observers and travelers.
▪ This is documented history after it has been collected from various sources.
▪ It is in form of diaries, books, journals, newspapers, magazines and other written records.
▪ It is the most reliable method of learning about history
Limitations of Written records:

There is cultural and political bias, especially when writers have a different background.
Anthropology
▪ This is the study of the present and existing social organizations, cultural values and how they are
inter-related in order to explain the past.
▪ It involves the study of a social life of ethnic groups to find out about ideas, beliefs, structure and
social organization of ancestors
Linguistics
▪ It is a scientific study of languages (sounds, structure, grammar, their formation and relationship
between different groups).
4|Pa ge

▪ It particularly looks at relationships of various language groups in order to establish:
• How and when a language spoken in an area came into being.
• When the languages merged or separated from each other.
Photographic/Visual sources
▪ These are historical drawings and paintings (pictures).
▪ They include pre-historic art of various kinds; the drawings and paintings depicting various kinds
of life the earliest people led.
Methods of dating historical events and materials

There many methods that historians use to try and fix dates for various ways of life.
Radio carbon dating

▪ Carbon 14 is the chemical that is used to determine how old an ancient remain is.
▪ Carbon dating measures the rate of decay of carbon 14 in fossils and organic substances.
▪ Animals eat plants and have carbon which was taken in by plants. Carbon 14 that is absorbed
begins to decay at a fixed rate from the time of death.
▪ The carbon 14 left in dead sample can be related to amount in living plants and animals.
▪ Hence, this determines how long the sample might have been buried.
Relative Dating Method (Layer)

▪ The age of discovered fossils is determined in relation to the stratum (layers) buried in the soil or
rocks.
▪ The deepest is classified as oldest and the top as the most recent.
The Concept of Measuring Time

▪ Time can be defined as the passing of one or any of the units mentioned above.
▪ Time can also refer to the past (time that is gone)
▪ The concept of time is measured using seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, years,
decades, generations, centuries and millennium.
Timings in history
Decade…………………..period of 10 years
Generation………………period of 30 years
Century………………….period of 100 years
Millennium……………...period of 1000 years
Date
It is a period of time when something happened or when something used to happen.
Time charts
▪ Charts are one way in which we can write history.
▪ They show different things that include may be,
• Events that which happened in the past
• Order in which they happened
• Centauries in which events happened
5|Pa ge

A.D (Anno Domini)
▪ It is a Latin phrase that means “in the year of our Lord”
▪ Was recorded after Christ was born.
▪ Letters A.D are written before the date. Eg, 1 A.D
Calculation of years ago for A.D

▪ Years ago for A.D are calculated by subtracting the year given from the year now.
▪ How to calculate years ago for A.D. For example: How many years ago is 1973?
2023 - 1973 = 50 years ago
B.C means “Before the birth of Jesus Christ”

All the events that happened before the birth of Christ are written with the letters B.C in front of them.
B.C 60
How to calculate years ago for B.C

▪ Time before the birth of Christ is counted backwards.
▪ The years ago for B.C are calculated by adding the year when the event happened to the year now.
For example: How many years ago is B.C 37?
2023 7= 2060 years ago.
Converting years into centuries

▪ Divide a year given by 100
▪ Add 1 to the answer found, ignoring the decimal point.
Examples.
1. 1921
+ 1
= 20th century
2. 620
+ 1
= 7th century
3. 50
+1
= 1st century
Revision questions
1. Define history
2. Give the importance of learning history
6|Pa ge

TOPIC TWO: PRECOLONIAL SOCIETIES IN ZAMBIA
ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF MAN

There are a number of versions about the origin of man. Among them include, Biblical and scientist
versions.
Biblical Version
▪ According to the bible, in the book of Genesis 1:26-28.
▪ Man was created by God in the sixth day.
▪ This account of creation is held as the origin of man by the Christians.
▪ This theory suggests that God created human beings in his own image (Genesis 1:26-28).
▪ It also states that man was created from dust and a woman from the man’s rib.
▪ Once created, both man and woman were to reproduce and fill the earth and to have control over
the rest of the creation.
The scientific Version

▪ It states that life started in the sea with simple life forms.
▪ These were small single celled organism that formed in the oceans about four billion years ago
probably from chemical reactions of molecules such as water, carbon dioxide and methane.
▪ These organisms did not have a nucleus and reproduced only by cell division.
▪ After millions years ago came shellfish, starfish and creatures such as scorpions.
▪ At the same time plants also appeared and spread to the land and near the sea.
▪ Later fish, amphibians and frogs developed.
▪ From amphibians, reptiles such as snakes and lizards developed and lived both on land and in
water.
▪ Scientists believe that mammals came from reptiles and then developed from mammals through the
process of evolution
TERM TWO
Theory of Evolution
▪ All creatures are different and this difference or uniqueness is based on hereditary factors which
originate from birth.
▪ Many young organisms are produced, a few manage to develop to maturity and reproduce.
▪ The organisms that manage to grow to maturity and reproduce are those that are able to constantly
adapt to the existing environment.
▪ The fittest organisms survive and the weak ones become extinct. This theory is popularly known
as, survival for the fittest.
▪ According to Darwin, after the species going through mutation and natural selection, the
emergency species differ from their ancestors. They take on a significantly different physical form.
▪ Darwin’s theory of evolution has been supported by almost all the scientists, particularly the
palaeontologists who study fossil remains.
7|Pa ge

Stages in the development of man
▪ Through the excavation of remains of ancient sites, Paleoanthropologists have discovered evidence
of our ancestors from millions of years ago.
▪ Palaeoanthropology is the study of humanity from prehistoric times.
▪ Palaeoanthropology have been able to trace the important development in human evolution, such
as: Walking on two legs, Complex brain activity, Making and using tools and ability to
communicate by using language
Stages in the evolution of man

▪ The information gained from the fossils compelled the historians to conclude that man evolved
from a four legged animal to an upright posture.
▪ This occurred by man adapting his feet and legs to enable him stand and walk in an upright
posture.
▪ The two-legged position enabled him to see further, to look beyond tall grass and vegetation.
▪ He could then easily locate food and his advancing enemies.
Proconsul Africanus
▪ The remains of Proconsul Africanus were discovered in Kenya around Lake Victoria in1930s.
▪ This hominoid species lived more than 20 million years ago.
▪ It was similar to an ape, with a jaw similar to that of human.
▪ This suggested a common ancestry between human and apes.
Kenyapithecus
▪ Kenyapithecus was discovered at Fort Terman in Kenya.
▪ This primate lived 13 to 20 million years ago.
▪ Even though it did not walk upright, it is belived to be the first true primate similar to modern
humans.
Australopithecus
▪ The name Australopithecus means „southern ape‟. Remains of this species were discovered at site
in Southern Africa in 1896, north of the Vaal River, by Pro. Raymond Dart.
▪ It lived 3 million years ago. It was the earliest human-like primate.
▪ It had a combination of ape-like and human like features. These primates walked upright on two
legs most of the time. They also had smaller canine teeth like apes, more like those of humans.
They did not use tools, but made simple shelters from grass and branches.
Zinjanthropus
▪ Zinjanthropus lived about 1.75 million years ago.
▪ Fossil remains of this creature were discovered by Mary Leaky at Olduval Gorge in Tanzania in
East Africa.
▪ Her husband Dr. Luis Leaky, identified where in the process of human evolution it fitted in.
8|Pa ge

▪ Zinjanthropus is also called “Nutcracker Man” because of its large teeth that were suitable for
breaking things. Its brain was like that of an ape, but it walked upright like a human. That is why it
is also sometimes called “Ape Man”.
Homo Habilis
▪ This was one of the earliest known members of the genus homo to which modern humans also
belong. It lived in Africa about 1.8 million years ago. Homo habilis means “able man” or “handy
man”.
▪ Stone tools discovered near the skeletons of homo habilis indicated that it used tools, for example
for hunting.
▪ Scientists believe that its brain was larger than that of earlier primate such as Australopithecus.
▪ Because it had a much larger space for the area where the brain would be. It is also believed that
this creature developed skills of hunting and fishing because of the remains of the bones of fish,
mammals and birds which were found close to Homo habilis.
Stages in the evolution of man
Periods through which man has lived

The time periods during which early humans lived are dived into two different stages and these are:
Stone Age
▪ This is the name we use for the early prehistoric period when humans used stone to make tools
with sharp edges.
▪ This period lasted for about 3.4 million years.
The Iron Age

▪ This period began between 4500 BC and 2000 BC, when people started working with iron.
▪ This enabled them to make iron tools and weapons.
▪ The Iron Age in Africa stretched into early into the early centuries after the birth of Christ.
▪ This included the period when the Bantu- speaking people started moving into Zambia.
9|Pa ge

Stone Age period
▪ Stone Age is the name we use for the early prehistoric period when humans used stone to make
tools with sharp edges.
▪ This period lasted for about 3.4 million years.
▪ Archaeologists divide the Stone Age period into three stages called eras.
▪ These periods are: Early, Middle and Late Stone Age.
Early Stone Age

▪ This period happened between 1.8 million and 300,000 years ago, at the same time as the evolution
of genus Homo.
▪ Archaeologists have found evidence of the East African Rift valley, where the genenus originated.
▪ The rift served as route that people followed to move into southern Africa, into Northern Africa
through the Nile valley, and further on into Europe and Asia.
▪ It was a period of Homo habilis.
▪ Tools used include stone axe for digging and cutting, stone cleavers for chopping and skinning
animals. Fire was used for cooking, heating and scaring away animals.
Middle Stone Age

▪ The Middle Stone Age was a period of African prehistory between the Early Stone and Late Stone
Age.
▪ It began around 300,000 years ago and ended around 15000 years ago.
▪ The remains of Broken Hill Man was discovered in Kabwe by a Swiss miner called Zwingilan.
▪ People of this era lived near water and survived by hunting and gathering wild fruits, tubers and
honey from their surroundings.
▪ During this period, humans started living in caves. Stronger and lighter tools for specific purposes
such as knives, scrapers and chopping tools were developed.
▪ New method of hunting, such as traps, missiles and pitfalls were used.
▪ Development of bow and arrows.
Late Stone Age

▪ The Late Stone Age began around 15 000 years ago.
▪ People were living in caves and rock shelters to shield themselves from the effects of the weather.
▪ They decorated the rock walls with paintings, for example showing hunting scenes.
▪ In Zambia, people have found San rock painting at Nachikufu cave in Mpika and Katotola in
Eastern Province.
▪ At sometimes these paintings had ritual and religious meanings. Saan people
▪ They used to live together in communities, but still lived a nomadic lifestyle.
Important stone age sites in Zambia

▪ At Kalambo Falls in Northern Province, found the remains of primitive humans who began to use
fire about 60,000 years ago.
10 | P a g e

▪ At Victoria Falls in Southern Province, people used more complex stone working skills.
▪ In Kabwe, Mineworkers found the skull of Broken Hill Man who is believed to have lived 79,000
years ago.
Iron Age period

▪ The Iron Age, which began from between 4500 BC and 2000 BC, marked a new step in human
culture because of two developments and these are:
▪ Iron became the main material fir cutting tools and weapons.
▪ People started using written or painted symbols for their language. This meant the beginning of
literature and historical records.
▪ Archaeologists divide the Iron Age period into two eras and these are:
• Early Iron Age: During this era, people started using iron tools, but still lived in smaller
groups and followed a simpler lifestyle.
• Late Iron Age: During this era, more organised societies began to develop, with more
advanced developments, such as farming and trade.
▪ The later stages of Iron Age also brought other changes, such as the development of farming and
trading of goods between different groups.
Revision questions
1. Explain the theory of evolution.
2. Differentiate between biblical and scientific theories of evolution.
3. Write short notes on each of the following:
i. Kenyapithecus
ii. Proconso Africanus
iii. Homo Habilis
PRE-COLONIAL SOCIETIES IN ZAMBIA

ORIGINS AND MOVEMENTS OF THE BANTU-SPEAKING PEOPLE
Bantu speaking people
Bantu refers to ethic groups in Africa south of Sahara who share similar languages, customs and
traditions. There over 500 ethic Bantu groups, which occupy much of central and southern Africa.
They are called Bantu because of similarities in their languages. For example the prefix ‘ba’ and suffix
‘ntu’ refer to people, and are common in languages that they speak.
Origin of Bantu-Speaking People

Middle East Regions
Historians believe that the Bantu speaking people came from the Middle East, during the Iron Age.
They believe that these people settled along the banks of the Nile River, and later moved to what were
then the grasslands of the Sahara. From there, they moved into West Africa and settled around Lake
Chad and the Cameroon Highlands. Others moved further and settled in East Africa.
11 | P a g e

Spreading southwards and eastwards:
▪ From the Cameroon highlands, it is believed that the Bantu-speaking people moved down to the
Katanga region in the south-east of what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
▪ From Katanga, they gradually spread eastwards and southwards along the lower Congo and Kasai
River.
Movements of the bantu-speaking people in Africa

Early movements of the Bantu-speaking people:
Historians believe that the first Bantu-speaking groups moved as follows:
▪ By 500 BC, the pioneering groups reached the savannah grasslands south of the Sahara, moving
south into what is now the DRC, Angola and Zambia.
▪ Another group moved eastwards by 1000 BC and settled around the great lakes of East Africa.
▪ By 300 AD, these Eastern groups had moved southwards along the coast of Africa, establishing
themselves in the eastern and northern parts of what is now South Africa around 500 AD.
Those who were there before the Bantu

▪ Archaeologists have found evidence that even before the Bantu speakers arrived, early people lived
in Africa south of the equator.
▪ They believe these were ancestors of the pygmies (who lived in the tropical forests near the
equator) and the Khoisan (who lived further south and in what is now Zambia).
▪ Khoisan is the name used to refer to two groups of early people: the khoi (early cattle herders) and
the san (early hunter and gatherers).
▪ Archaeologists have found evidence in form of rock paintings showing that the san also lived in
different parts of Zambia. Some of the sites with rock paintings are Nachikufu caves in Mpika and
Gwisho hot spring on the Kafue flats.
▪ The san lived in small, scattered groups and mostly survived as hunters and gatherers of food from
their environment.
▪ Over many centuries, most of the hunters and gatherers were displaced when the Bantu speakers
arrived and absorbed them into their groups. The Bantu expansion happened over a long period.
Causes of the Bantu migration

Many different factors caused the Bantu migrations and these include:
▪ Adventure: Some groups moved to new areas to explore.
▪ Drying up the Sahara desert: Since the Bantu-speaking people were farmers, the environment
forced them to migrate to look for new fertile lands for farming and water as the Sahara turned into
a desert
▪ Expansion of chiefdoms and kingdoms: Some rulers wanted to expand their kingdoms or
chiefdoms over larger areas.
▪ Fear: Some convicted people migrated to other distant areas to escape punishment or death. They
often took close relatives or clan members with them to settle in new areas.
12 | P a g e

▪ Population increase: This created pressure on land and other resources, leading some groups to
migrate in search of new land.
▪ Slave trade: Some groups scared to be attacked by armed slave traders and being sold as slaves.
▪ Succession disputes: When a chief or king died, the members of the royal family often fought
among themselves who should succeed the ruler.
▪ Wars: Wars between tribes, and within tribes, forced the defeated groups to run away from the
more powerful tribes to areas where they could be safe.
Evidence of Bantu migrations

i. Genetics: by comparing the genes of the people from different areas, anthropologists have been
able to trace some groups back to communities in different areas.
ii. Iron-working: Before the coming of Iron Age Bantu-speakers, there is no evidence of ironworking
technology to the region.
iii. Language: the languages spoken in eastern, central and southern Africa are very similar to the
languages originally spoken in Western Africa. There are about 450 known Bantu languages that
reflect similarities, including kikuyu in the east and Setswana in the south.
iv. Pottery: The technology for clay pottery in eastern and southern Africa is very similar to that of
West Africa. Decorations with grooves and patterns are very similar. Only related groups of people
use similar styles and decorations.
Results effects of Bantu migrations

Effects of the Bantu Migration
The results of the Bantu migration were both positive and negative.
Positive results
▪ Bantu migrants introduced farming. They introduced cultivation of crops such as millet and
sorghum and keeping of animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.
▪ Iron smelting was introduced in central Africa by the Bantu speaking people and iron tools
replaced stone tools.
▪ The formation of Centralized government systems: Chiefdoms and Kingdoms were formed
where people respected their rulers and paid tribute to them.
▪ Trade was also introduced in Central Africa by the Bantu. This involved local trade amongst
themselves and long distance trade with the east and west coasts.
▪ Tribal identities also resulted from the Luba – Lunda migrations. People identified themselves
with those that they migrated with and formed tribes whose languages were slightly different from
the original Bantu language.
▪ Introduced a system of building permanent homes: They opened new land to settlement in
families, clans and villages.
▪ They led to a rise of large states and bigger tribes in East Africa.e.g, the Buganda, Kikuyu, and
Nyamwezi. e.t.c
13 | P a g e

Negative effects led to depopulation:
▪ This was caused by the frequent attacks made by the Bantu against the people East
Africa for land, through wars.
➢ Many people died through these wars, e.g. the Zimba would attack people at the coast, kill them,
and eat their fresh (i.e. cannibalism).
➢ There was loss of culture due to cultural absorption: This was brought about due
to Bantu intermarrying with the non- Bantu peoples, whom they came across.
➢ There was transformation of languages into new ones: This led to the dying down
of some of the Bantu languages, while others remained.
➢ The coming of these migrants also led to the increase in the population of the areas they occupied,
and the displacement of the Late Stone Age people by the Bantu. The Saan fled to the dry parts of
the region
Questions
i. Explain the word Bantu.
ii. What were the causes of the bantu migration?
iii. What were the effects of their movement?
MOVEMENTS OF THE BANTU-SPEAKING PEOPLE INTO ZAMBIA:

THE LUBA-LUNDA
MIGRATION
➢ Bantu speaking people started moving into Zambia during 300 AD, with more groups arriving
around the 12th to 13th centuries. Some groups also came to Zambia during the 19th century.
➢ From the 16th to 19th century(1500 to 1800 AD), groups of people from the powerful Luba and
Lunda empires in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo(DRC) started moving southeast
towards Zambia and other areas in southern Africa in search of fertile farmland They included
groups such as the Bemba, Lunda and Lozi.
➢ Later in the 19th century, any groups migrated from Southern Africa to escape the Mfecane wars
between the Zulu and other ethnic groups in southern Africa. The Bantu speaking people moved
into what is now Zambia from Katanga.
They moved into Zambia in three stages:
Movements from the great lakes region
➢ Based on the archaeological evidence found at the sites such as ing‟ombe illede historians believe
the first Bantu-speaker into Zambia from the Great lakes regions
14 | P a g e

in East Africa from about 300 AD.
➢ The Tonga settled in what is now southern province.
➢ The Tonga were pastoralists, farmers and iron smelters. Smaller groups such as the Tabwa and
Lungu settled near Tanganyika in the northeast
Movements from the Luba and Luda empires
➢ PTER FOUR
➢ Most Zambian groups can trace their roots ethic groups that arrived during the second migration.
➢ Similarities in cultures of ethnic groups in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
led historians to work out that certain Zambia groups came from the Luba and Lunda in what is
now DRC during the 16th to early 19th centuries (1500-1800 AD).
➢ This stage includes the arrival of larger groups such as the Bemba and the Lunda, as well as
smaller groups such as the Lamba that settled in central province.
➢ Other groups such as the Tumbuka and the Chewa settled in eastern province.
➢ The Lozi also migrated from the Barotseland in western Zambia. Later their culture was influenced
the kololo.
The Ngoni and Sotho from southern Africa
➢ Later, in the 18th to 19th century, the Ngoni and Sotho people came into Zambia from the south to
escape the Mfecane.
➢ The Mfecane was the wide spread of chaos and wars in the southern that developed from the
expansion for the Zulu kingdom under Shaka and the Matabele kingdom under mzilikazi.
➢ The Ngoni Bantu-Nguni speaking people in northern Zulu and southeast Africa.
➢ They were originally ndwandwe people under the leadership of zwide, one part of his group, the
Ngoni, fled northwards and settled in eastern Zambia.
➢ The Sotho lived in what is now Lesotho, were king mosheshe gathered them gathered in mountain
kingdom.
➢ The Sotho defended itself against Zulu expansion, but some Sotho groups moved northwards
during the mfecane.
➢ The Kololo moved into Barotseland, were their culture influenced the culture of the lozi who had
already settled there.
Historical locations of the Bantu ethnic groups in Zambia
➢ Nearly all the different ethnic groups in Zambia migrated from other areas long ago.
➢ There are about 73 different ethnic groups in Zambia.
15 | P a g e

➢ However, nearly 90% of Zambians belong to one of the nine main ethnic and
language groups.
Western Province: Is home to Lozi and other smaller ethnic groups such as the Inkoya and
Mbunda
➢ Northern-Western Province: Has many different ethnic groups, such as the southern Lunda and
Luvale, Chokwe, Luchazi, Mbunda, Ndembu and Kaonde
➢ Southern Province: Is home to as many as 12 separate but related Ila-Tonga groups.
➢ Northern Province: Is home to Bemba and other groups such as Mambwe and Namwanga.
➢ Muchinga Province: Home to Bemba and the Bisa.
➢ Luapula Province: Most people speak Bemba, the province include other groups such as the
➢ Lunda, Kabende, Aushi and Chishima.
➢ Eastern Province: Is the home of the Nsenga, Chewa, Tumbuka, Kunda and Ngoni. The main
language is Nyanja which is also spoken in Malawi.
➢ Central Province: Is where the ethnic boundary between the Ila-Tonga and the Lala-Lamba
groups are. The Lenje-Solio people live in the area roughly between these other groups.
➢ Copperbelt Province: The location of the mining industry and Lusaka Province has people from
all parts of Zambia, as well as neighboring countries.
➢ Map of Zambia‟s ethnic groups, originally developed during colonial times
Causes of the Bantu migration

Many different factors caused the Bantu migrations and these include:
➢ Adventure: Some groups moved to new areas to explore.
➢ Expansion of chiefdoms and kingdoms: Some rulers wanted to expand their kingdoms
or chiefdoms over larger areas.
➢ Fear: Some convicted people migrated to other distant areas to escape punishment or
death. They often took close relatives or clan members with them to settle in new areas.
➢ Population increase: This created pressure on land and other resources, leading some
groups to migrate in search of new land.
➢ Slave trade: Some groups scared to be attacked by armed slave traders and being sold as
slaves.
➢ Succession disputes: When a chief or king died, the members of the royal family often
fought among themselves who should succeed the ruler.
16 | P a g e

➢ Wars: Wars between tribes, and within tribes, forced the defeated groups to run away
from the more powerful tribes to areas where they could be safe.
Evidence of Bantu migrations
➢ Genetics: by comparing the genes of the people from different areas, anthropologists
have been able to trace some groups back to communities in different areas.
➢ Iron-working: Before the coming of Iron Age Bantu-speakers, there is no evidence of
iron-working technology to the region.
➢ Language: the languages spoken in eastern, central and southern Africa are very similar
to the languages originally spoken in Western Africa. There are about 450 known Bantu
languages that reflect similarities, including kikuyu in the east and Setswana in the south.
➢ Pottery: The technology for clay pottery in eastern and southern Africa is very similar to
that of West Africa. Decorations with grooves and patterns are very similar. Only related
groups of people use similar styles and decorations.
Results or effects of Bantu migrations
The following were the main results of Bantu migration:
➢ Introduced farming. They introduced cultivation of crops such as millet and sorghum and
keeping of animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.
➢ Iron smelting was also introduced in central Africa by the Bantu speaking people and
iron tools replaced stone tools.
➢ The coming of these migrants also led to the increase in the population of the areas they occupied,
and the displacement of the Late Stone Age people by the Bantu. The Saan
fled to the dry parts of the region.
➢ The formation of Centralized government systems: Chiefdoms and Kingdoms were formed
where people respected their rulers and paid tribute to them.
➢ Trade was also introduced in Central Africa by the Bantu. This involved local trade
amongst themselves and long distance trade with the east and west coasts.
➢ Tribal identities also resulted from the Luba–Lunda migrations. People identified
themselves with those that they migrated with and formed tribes whose languages were
slightly different from the original Bantu language.
Other influences on the bantu-speaking people
➢ As the Bantu speaking people migrated to different areas in Africa, they were influenced by the
culture and language of other ethnic groups that they came into contact with. For example:
17 | P a g e

➢ In east Africa the Bantu speakers met the Cushitic people who lived in what is now
Ethiopia and Somalia. The Cushitic taught the Bantu to keep cattle for milk and meat.
➢ On the east coast, the Bantu came into contact with Arab and the Persian traders from the
Arab world.
➢ This interaction resulted in the Swahili culture in what is now Kenya and Tanzania.
➢ Swahili still contains many Arabic loan words.
Spread of farming and iron-working into Zambia
➢ The movement of Bantu-speaking people into Zambia during the Iron Age led to farming
and iron-working spreading to Zambia as well.
➢ Origin of farming and iron-working from the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East to the
Nile Valley.
➢ Agriculture started in the Middle East around the Mediterranean Sea, in an area called
Fertile Crescent; it is so because this place is shaped like a crescent or half-moon, was so good for
growing crops.
➢ Around 3000 BC, people in Tigris and Euphrates valleys developed the knowledge of
Domesticating animals and growing cereal crops such as millet, oats, wheat and rice.
➢ This was possible due to the development of Iron Age.
➢ People could make tools for farming and protecting themselves. Examples of tools include hoes.
➢ Farming skills spread to Egypt under Pharaohs through bartering, around 600 BC.
➢ People from Tigris and Euphrates valley exchanged their cereals and iron tools for salt
and gold from Egypt.
➢ This taught the Egyptians the skill of growing crops. They started growing grapes and
other fruits along the valley.
How farming spread beyond the Fertile Crescent
➢ Other Africans came into contact with the Egyptians and also learned about farming.
➢ They began crop farming; that is, growing cereal crops and pastoral farming; that is
keeping goats, camel and sheep for milk and meets.
➢ Trade between Egypt and inland Africa helped farming to spread to West Africa into
Africa and in the same way Farming spread from crescent to other parts of the world.
Reasons why farming took time to reach central and southern Africa
➢ Central Africa had plenty of wild food and game, which supported the hunter gatherers
who originally lived there in small groups Central Africa is very far away from Egypt
18 | P a g e

➢ The forest and swamps also led to tropical diseases, so people from other climates did not
always survive journey inland.
➢ The tropical rainforests and swamps of central Africa made it difficult for people to move
between there and north Africa.
Importance of iron technology for the Bantu speakers
➢ led to the development of farming.
➢ Increase in the production of food due to iron tools.
➢ Development of long distance trade.
➢ Increase trade
➢ The development of farming and trade due to iron technology led to the development of
other technological improvements.
➢ For example, Arad traders built wooden boats called dhows to sail from the Middle East
to the east Africa coast.
DECENTRALISED SOCIETIES
Major decentralized society in Zambia: main features
➢ Many Bantu-speaking groups had royal families who led and ruled them. However, some
societies, such as the Tonga, ila, lenje and soli, did not have chiefs or kings, we call them
decentralized societies. The main typical example of decentralised societies in Zambia is that of the
Tonga, Ila and the Lenje also known as the Bantu Botatwe.
Centralized Societies
Major centralized societies in Zambia: main features
➢ Societies led by a king or a chief are called centralized societies.
➢ Examples of centralized include: the Bemba, luyi and lunda, the chewa and the Ngoni.
Characteristics of the centralized societies
➢ They had one supreme hereditary ruler at a time and under him were several subchiefs
and headmen
➢ They had well-established social institutions such as clans and lineages.
➢ They had a well-established cultural institutions
➢ The supreme ruler acted as the father to the people and made decisions on behalf of all the people.
➢ Each society had special royal objects used in coronations and other cultural ceremonies.
19 | P a g e

➢ The supreme leader also served as the chief priest during major tribal religious ceremonies
➢ The sub chiefs had to be installed only after the approval of the supreme ruler.
ORIGINS OF THE TONGA
➢ Most Bantu-speaking people in Zambia trace their origins from the central African Luba-Lunda
kingdoms. The Tonga where the first iron age people to reach present-day southern Zambia.
➢ Tonga were iron age farmers, iron-workers and pastoralists. At first, they settled around the
isamu pati and kalundu areas in the present –day kalomo district.
➢ This is supported by archaeological evidence of remains of human bones, sheep, cattle and goats,
seeds of millet and sorghum, hand axes, knives and copperwares found in this area.
➢ Belonged to the Iron Age Culture and are believed to have migrated from the Cameroon
Highlands.
➢ They moved southwards and settled at two important sites such as Kalundu and Isamu Pati.
➢ They lived in the area between Barotseland in the western side, Gwembe Valley in the eastern side
and Choma in the northern side. They either assimilated the Bushmen they found there or drove
them away to the Kalahari Desert.
➢ The reasons for their migration and settlement into this area could have been due to the drying up
of the Sahara which displaced people. The introduction of new crops, and population increase in
the Cameroon Highlands also could have led to their migration.
Social Organisation
➢ They lived in small villages.
➢ The huts usually were conical in nature and were usually built in a central place.
➢ The family was the main social unit.
➢ They were a matrilineal society and emphasised rights of parents over their children and
supported them in paying lobola (bride price).
➢ They were a polygamous society.
➢ The clan and lineage were important aspects of their life.
➢ Each clan was named after an animal.
➢ Marriage within one‟s clan was strictly prohibited. Succession and inheritance was
matrilineal based.
➢ They were very religious and practised rituals, e.g. Malende when there was no rain or
during droughts.
➢ They also believed in witchcraft.
20 | P a g e

Economic Organisation
➢ They practiced mixed farming.
➢ They grew crops such as sorghum, millet, maize and kept animals such as goats, cattle
and sheep.
➢ They hunted wild animals and gathered wild fruits.
➢ They traded locally and not externally.
➢ They practiced pottery in which they made pots of channel decorated and globular type
vessels which they used for cooking and storing food.
➢ They were also wood and metal workers. Their wealth was measured by the size of theirn herd.
➢ From cattle they got milk, meat and hides. They also used cattle for bride price (lobola), ritual
sacrifices, paying fines, during death and initiation ceremonies.
Political Organisation
➢ Politically, they were a decentralised society.
➢ They had no central chief.
➢ The largest political unit was the neighbourhood made up of the neighbouring villages.
➢ The headman who commanded more political influence was called Ulanyika.
➢ The Sikatongo exercised religious leadership and acted as a custodian of the community‟s
shrine, the Malende.
➢ Chiefdoms were created by the colonial government in order to maintain law and order and collect
tax on behalf of the colonial government.
The Ila and the Lenje
➢ The Ila people are the traditional inhabitants of Namwala district in Southern Province of Zambia
and engage mostly in cattle keeping, fishing and subsistence farming.
➢ The Ila are emphatic that there ancestral home was beside Lake Tanganyika. In terms of
existence of chieftainships, there were a few exceptions.
➢ The Lenje who live east of the Lukanga Swamp, have a chief Mukuni, who claims Luba
origin.
➢ It is also said that the first Mukuni went south-west to found a chieftainship among the Leya near
Victoria Falls.
➢ Existence of centralised chieftainships of any kind seems to have been uncommon among the Ila
and the Lenje until well into the nineteenth century.
➢ This is one reason why little is known of their pre-colonial history.
21 | P a g e

➢ Lacking dynasties or other deep lineages, their perspectives of the past have probably
always been extremely foreshortened
THE BEM BA KINGDOM

Origins
➢ Oral traditions of the Bemba royalty suggest that they migrated from the Luba kingdom
known as kola in what is now the DRC.
➢ Some historians argue that this story is of a mostly mythical nature to explain
the continued rule of lubemba by the crocodile clan.
➢ Where did Bemba came from
➢ Mukulumpe, the, the king of kola, had married a woman of the crocodile clan (Abena
ng`andu).
➢ They had three sons and one daughter; the sons were Chiti, Nkole and Katongo. Chilufya
was their sister.
➢ The three sons had differences with their father and fought him.
➢ After the fight they decided to flee the kingdom.
➢ They were later joined by their half-brothers, Chimba, Kapasa and Kazembe.
➢ They fled eastwards and settled in present-day northern Zambia.
➢ They were led by chiti, to whom they gave a praise name “mukulu”, meaning the great.
➢ So chiti came to be called Chiti Mukulu or chiti the Great. They built their capital east
of present-day kasama and called the newly occupied area lubemba.
Political organization
➢ The Bemba expanded in all directions through conquering other chiefdoms and founding
new chiefdoms.
➢ They achieved a centralized government under the supreme chief, the Chiti Mukulu of
the royal clan.
➢ The power of the clan was thought to lie in their prayers to the spirits of their ancestors at
special sites, which they believed influenced the fertility of land and the general welfare
of the people.
➢ The burial of the close members of the royal clan and ceremonies around the succession
of the new chief are among the most complex among the Bantu speaking.
Reasons for the Expansion of the Bemba Kingdom
22 | P a g e

Bemba power and expansion resulted from the following:
➢ Good administrative reforms by the chitimukulu ,particularly under chileshe chepela
➢ Limiting the chieftaincy and succession to the Abena Ng‟andu clan. Chiefs were chosen
from the sons and nephews of chiefs, united under the chitimukulu
➢ Obtaining guns and gunpowder, Which allowed them to conquer other groups who had to
pay tribute
➢ Well-organised armies commanded by trusted members of the loyal clan
➢ Well-organised administrative structures of the kingdom.
Social organisation and culture
➢ The Bemba clans were divided into about 40 matrilineal clans ,such as Abena Bowa
,Abena Nsofu or Abena Mfula, Which were spread all over the Lubemba area.
➢ Administratively the smallest group was the village. This was mostly made up of
matrilineal relatives of the village headman.
➢ The headman reported to the chiefs who reported to the senior chiefs, and in turn the
senior chiefs reported to the chitimukulu through appointed royal councilors called
bachilolo.
➢ The Bemba also practiced polygamy, through the first wife enjoyed special status.
Economic activities
➢ The Bemba practiced shifting cultivation, called the chitemene system, because of the
acidity of the soil.
➢ The ash from the burnt vegetation neutralized the soil.
➢ They grew millet, sorghum and Cassava.
➢ They did not keep cattle due to tsetse flies, so they raided neighboring groups (such as
Mambwe) for cattle.
➢ They sold slaves, copper and ivory to the Portuguese and Swahili on the east coast.
➢ In return, they got guns, gun powder, beads, cloth and other manufactured goods from
Swahili and Arabs.
➢ Guns strengthened their military position to the extent that they could defeat invading
➢ Ngoni who wanted to overrun the Lubemba country.
Decline
➢ By 1883, the Bemba kingdom had expanded greatly, and included Bisaland, Lunguland,
Tabwa and Mambwe areas.
23 | P a g e

➢ During European colonization, treaties were signed with the most powerful chiefs.
➢ Internal disputes between mwamba and chitimukulu lead to lack of joint, organized
resistance to European colonization.
➢ As a result, the powers of the Bemba chiefs were reduced by the colonial administration.
➢ However, almost all the Bemba chiefs, including the chitimukulu, retained authority over
their chiefdoms.
THE LUYI KINGDOMS (LOZI)

Origins
➢ Luyi mythology tells that the Luyi are descended from mwambwa, the daughter and wife
of the god Nyambe.
➢ However, anthropologists know that the Luyi share many traditions with groups such as
the lunda of kazembe and the Bemba of chitimukulu, as well as the Bisa and Nkoya.
➢ This evidence suggests that the Luyi are descendants of the Luba-Lunda empire, in what
is now the democratic republic of Congo.
Political organization and history
➢ The fist Luyi ruler was known as Mboo the wise one. His traditional title was Litunga.
➢ However, his youngest brothers broke away from the Litunga‟s kingdom, and started new
groups of their own. There are many conflicts between the different groups, until ngalama, the
fourth Litunga (king), unified his kingdom.
➢ It became known as the Lozi kingdom. Because the Lozi believed that the king was
descended from the gods, the Litunga was highly feared and respected.
➢ During the 1600s, the Lozi actively invaded new areas and took over from the
decentralized societies that were living there.
➢ Their oral tradition is mostly concerned with the lineage of the Lozi rulers and kings, so
we do not know much about the people they conquered and who became part of the Lozi.
Social organization and culture
➢ The Lozi people lived on the Zambezi floodplains. This area flooded each year during the
rainy season. They built their villages on termite mounds or they made mounds of earth
and stones to make their homes higher.
➢ Each year, when the floods came, the people had to move to escape the floods. The Lozi
people traced their descent from either the father‟s side of the family or the mother‟s side
24 | P a g e

of the family.
➢ They believe that the child belonged to both sides of the family. Instead of the clan
names, they used mishuku.
Economic activities
The Lozi had three main economic activities:
Farming annual
➢ Floods ensured that the earths of the plains were rich and fertile.
➢ Crops on the plains included sorghum, maize and root crops.
Fishing
➢ The Lozi caught fish from the Zambezi and its tributaries, and in large dams on the
plains.
➢ In the dry season, they used nets and spears.
➢ When the water level was higher that trapped fish using reed fences and earth dams.
Keeping cattle
➢ The flood plains also offered good grazing.
➢ However during the floods the Lozi had to move their cattle to higher lands.
➢ The Lozi had to move to the highlands each year during the flood season.
➢ This became an annual event known as the kuomboka (meaning “getting out of the
water”).
➢ The Litunga would travel in a barge boat called nalikwanda.On the highlands, the Lozi
could farm different crops, including cassava, millet and groundnuts.
Decline
➢ For nearly a century, the Lozi was one of the strongest kingdoms in the area. However
after 1830, the Lozi kingdom declined.
➢ The death of the tenth Litunga mulambwa led to the power struggle between his
successors, Silumelume and another junior Litunga, Mubukwanu. This caused a big
divide between the north and the south.
➢ The lozi of the north considered themselves to be true Lozi people under the leadership of
Silumelume. They saw the Lozi of the south as conquered people.
➢ Also the language of the southern Lozi was closer to Tonga. Soon after this, the kololo
arrived in 1833.
➢ It was easy for the kololo to conquer the Lozi kingdom because of the divisions between
25 | P a g e

the north and the south.
➢ The kololo deafened the Lozi and took over the kingdom under the leadership of
Sebitwane.
THE LUNDA KINGDOM OF KAZEMBE
Origins and History
➢ The lunda people of mwata kazembe are believed to have migrated from mwataynvwo in
the present-days Katanga province of the democratic republic of Congo. They came to
settle in luapula valley. Under the leadership of mwata kazembe the II kanyembo
Mpemba.
➢ They conqured the indigenous people in the valley and set up lunda loyal family
members of the chiefs. They also adopted the language of the Bemba, a group that had
also migrated from Congo and to which they were allied.
➢ Kazembe had many warriors.portuguese records state he was able to raise
Mwamsabombwe. Conqured groups became part of the kingdom. These groups included
the Bwile, Tabwa and the Lungu.
➢ The lungu kingdom expanded rapidly and stretched from lualaba in the west to the
Bemba kingdom in the east. This was due to the desire to control salt and copper
deposits. Kazembe controlled the distance trade to the east and west coasts.
➢ This trade was possible because of the availability of resources such as fertile soils to
grow crops like cassava, salt from the Tabwa, copper from Katanga, Fish from the Bwile,
Ivory from the Bisa and Iron from the Chishinga.
➢ Portuguese and Arab traders brought guns, gunpowder and other manufactured goods.
➢ They exchanged these with slaves, ivory and copper.
➢ By 1850, Kazembe was the most powerful chief in central Guns were used to conquer other states,
bringing them under his control.
Political and social structure
➢ Following the Luba-Lunda chieftaincy model, Mwata Kazembe was the paramount chief.
➢ He was followed by senior chiefs, chiefs and lower-level chiefs and headmen.
➢ All senior chiefs were appointed by the Mwata from his family. When the d him paramount chief
died, one of the senior chiefs succeed.
Decline
➢ The kazembe kingdom declined because of the following reasons:
26 | P a g e

➢ Bemba and Ngoni raids on Kazembe‟s middlemen in the long-distance trade. Loss of trade routes
as a consequence of Msiri and Yeke raids
➢ Loss of control over tribute as the Swahili and Arab traders opened new trade routes from
the east coast into the interior. Junior chiefs also stopped paying tribute to Kazembe.
➢ There was internal disorder in the kingdom after the death of Kazembe VI.
➢ In 1888, the Luapula valley was divided between the British and Belgium. Once Belgium colonial
rule was established west of the Luapula River, Mwata kazembe territory and rule
became confined to the eastern side of what is now Zambia.
UNDI’S CHEWA KINGDOM.
Origin
➢ The Chewa Kingdom of Undi originated as a result of a succession dispute.
➢ Undi broke away from the Kalonga Kingdom in present day Malawi around 1700.
➢ Undi established his Capital at Mano, south of Tete district in Mozambique.
➢ His Kingdom went as far as south of Katete in Zambia‟s Eastern Province.
➢ He spread his control throughout the Katete and Chadiza areas.
➢ In these areas, the conquered local groups such as Chewa, Nsenga of Petauke and the Chewa of
Tete.
➢ He was given the praise name of Gawa Undi. “Gawa” meant “share”. This was because Undi
shared the Land among his subordinate chiefs.
➢ Gawa Undi became the official title of the Chewa Paramount Chiefs.
Development of Undi’s kingdom
The factors that led to the Development of Undi‟s Kingdom were:
A well-organized political structure
➢ Undi organized a centralized political structure as compared to the Kalonga, s Kingdom.
➢ He organized the Kingdom according to levels of Hierarchy of rulers i.e.
Undi-was the overall boss
➢ Subordinate chief-from the Phiri and Banda Clans
➢ Tributary chiefs-from the conquered people
➢ Headmen- from the villages.
➢ Ordinary people
➢ This ensured that Undi had firm control of political affairs in the Kingdom.
Religious Powers:
27 | P a g e

➢ Undi was also perceived to be a semi-divine ruler.
➢ He controlled the important rainmaking Shrine.
➢ He also established a female rainmaker called Makewane, who was in charge of the
Shrine.
➢ This contributed to the political power of Undi and it was also a very important factor in
uniting the Chewa people.
Raids
➢ This was an important factor in the development of the Kingdom.
➢ Undi conquered and assimilated weaker groups such as the, Nsenga, Chewa and the
Tumbuka into his kingdom.
➢ These were incorporated into the Kingdom that make it vast.
➢ It included the Eastern Province of Zambia, parts of Mozambique‟s Tete districts and
parts of Malawi.
The concentration of Power in the Phiri Clan:
➢ Undi gave posts of Sub-chiefs to members of the Phiri Clan.
➢ He also encouraged the members of the clan to intermarry with women from other clans
and the defeated tribes.
➢ The sub-chiefs were loyal to Undi because of Family relationship ties.
➢ In this way Undi maintained Unity in the Kingdom.
Natural Resources:
➢ Undi‟s Kingdom was also very rich in Natural Resources.
➢ Undi‟s area was well watered and had fertile soils.
➢ Kingdom had other natural resources such as salt, iron ore, ivory and gold.
➢ By mid-1700, the mining of Gold in the Kingdom by the Portuguese became
very important.
➢ The Portuguese and their Chikunda agents mined the gold got their share and gave a
percentage to Undi.
➢ All these natural resources enabled Undi to participate in the Long Distance Trade.
Tribute System:
➢ Tribute was collected from the defeated chiefs and the subordinate chiefs as a sign of
loyalty to Undi.
➢ Tributes was in form of ivory, slaves and gold.
28 | P a g e

➢ This enabled Undi to participate in the long distance trade.
Monopoly of the Long Distance Trade
➢ The rich natural resources and the Tribute System enabled Undi to participate in long distance trade
and monopolized the trade.
➢ In exchange for local products such as ivory, gold and slaves, Undi was given items such
as guns, gunpowder and beads.
➢ This economic factor greatly contributed to the development of Undi‟s Kingdom.
Slave Trading
➢ It contributed to the development of the Kingdom.
➢ At about the same time that Gold mining was at its peak, trade in slaves had also started
and was highly profitable.
➢ Many people were sold as slaves.
➢ This led to an increase in Undi,s economic power.
➢ This human labour was needed for the huge plantations called the Prazoes in the
Zambezi valley.
Decline
After 1750, Undi‟s Kingdom began to decline because:
➢ It had no strong centralized government system.
➢ Sub –chiefs tried as much to decentralize power with the help of external traders.
➢ Conflicts arose between Undi and his sub – Chiefs and this weakened his position.
➢ Undi did not have a permanent army and this made foreigners and sub – chiefs
undermine his authority because they had nothing serious to fear.
➢ Sub – chiefs stopped paying tribute to Undi.
➢ The Portuguese and their Chikunda agents began undermining Undi‟s authority by
trading directly with Undi’s sub – chiefs.
➢ Consequently, Undi’s lost his monopoly of trade.
➢ The slave trading activites of the Portuguese and the Chikundi created insecurity and
weakened the kingdom.
➢ Undi lost control of the Makewana rain making shrines. This weakened his position and
negatively affected the unity in the Kingdom.
➢ The final destruction of the Kingdom was done by the Ngoni Zwangendaba‟s Ngoni
settled in Nsenga country for four years on their way to the north.
29 | P a g e

➢ They raided Undi‟s people and put the Kingdom in more trouble.
➢ From the north, Mpezeni‟s ngoni terrorized the Kingdom again. They permanently settled
in Nsenga land and this led to the final destruction of the Kingdom.
THE KALONGA KINGDOM
Origin
➢ The founders of the Malawi Kingdom of Kalonga were led from the Luba Empire by
Mazizi Kalonga in the 13th century.
➢ Mazizi Kalonga died on the way and his successors took on the title of Kalonga.
➢ These migrants entered the area around Lake Malawi and settled alongside the Chewa
hunter – gatherers and subsistence cultivators who had occupied the area earlier.
➢ They later formed the many different groups of the Malawi people namely the Chikunda,
Chipeta, Mang‟anja. Mbo, Ntumbu, Nyanja, Nyasa, Nsenga and Zimba.
➢ Apart from the Nsenga, the Malawi people all spoke Nyanja, the language of the lake.
➢ Kalonga‟s people established themselves as rules over the Chewa people and introduced
a good political system.
➢ In 1580, Lundu broke away and established the Kingdom of Bororo to the South of
Kalonga.
Expansion
➢ During the late 16th century, the power of the Kalonga family began to increase and they
began to create a unified chiefdom.
➢ The most powerful of their rulers was Kalonga Masura, who ruled from 1600 – 1650 and
made an alliance with the Portuguese.
➢ In 1608, he sent 4000 Malawi soldiers to help the Portuguese defeat Mwenemutapa Gatsi
Rusere.
➢ In return, the Portuguese helped Masura to conquer his rival Lundu.
➢ Kalonga Masura then tried to take control of the gold and ivory trade in Mwenemutapa‟s
Kingdom but in vain.
➢ The Kingdom expanded through conquests. Masura built a powerful army of about 10
000 Malawi soldiers which he used to conquer the Chipeta, Mbo, Zimba and Chewa.
➢ The conquered tribes were made to pay tribute to Kalonga, which he used in the long
distance trade.
➢ Masura sold ivory and slaves and obtained guns, gunpowder, beads, cloth and other
30 | P a g e

luxurious goods. Control of trade to the north of the Kingdom helped him to expand his
Kingdom.
➢ He used his wealth to reward his warriors and sub-chiefs while guns strengthened the
military position of the Kingdom.
➢ Kalonga used his wealth to win the loyalty of his sub – chiefs and subjects. He distributed
his wealth among his sub-chiefs who in turn redistributed them to their people.
➢ The religious factor was also important in the development of Kalonga kingdom. The
Kalonga family was considered to be semi-divine and was believed to possess rain
making powers.
Decline
A number of factors have been attributed to the collapse of the Kalonga Kingdom. These
includes:
➢ Kalonga failed to build a highly centralized political state, unlike most of the Luba-
Lunda counterpart.
➢ The subordinate chiefs were given so much autonomy that they were able to command a following
of their own.
➢ After the death of Masura, Undi broke away following a succession dispute and took with
him close members of the Kalonga which left the ruling Kalonga with no apparent hair to
the throne.
➢ Another contributing factor was the failure of the royal Mbona rain-cult to create unity
among various Chewa people which led to further break away groups.
➢ Externally the kingdom suffered from Yao attacks.
➢ The Yao traders also traded directly with the lesser chiefs. Thus they stopped fearing
Kalonga as they no longer depended on him.
➢ The kingdom continued to decline until the killing of the last Kalonga by the Yao in the
1860s.
Culture
➢ Culture means the people‟s way of life. It is about the way they do things, how and what
they worship, how they dress, the way they prepare and cook food and the style of their
music.
➢ Therefore, culture is identified through people‟s music, clothes, food, religion and
writings.
31 | P a g e

➢ Culture can be also be defined as the collective human behavior in a given society.
➢ This pattern of living includes; beliefs, knowledge, morals, customs and regulations that
govern a society.
Importance of culture
➢ It enables group life. Through culture people are linked and related. It teaches members
to think of themselves as part of a large group.
➢ Culture is a too through which people pass over the knowledge and norms established by
ancestors from one generation to another.
➢ Culture gives a vision to its people. It provides focus to the members of the society.
➢ Culture provides rules and norms by which people must live. The rules help to maintain
stability and orderliness.
➢ Culture encourages unity among its members.
➢ Culture helps the members to gain positive concepts about family, the nation and
government.
➢ Culture gives opportunity to members to understand each other as they interpret their
interaction and communications according to their culture.
Revision Tasks
➢ Discuss the social, political and economic organization of the Plateau Tonga.
➢ Examine the growth of the Malawi chieftainship. What were the political and economic
achievements of Kalonga Masula?
➢ Discuss the rise and decline of Undi‟s kingdom.
32 | P a g e

TOPIC THREE: FOREIGN INFLUENCE ON ZAMBIA
DEVELOPMENT OF SLAVERY AND SLAVE TRADE
DEFINITION OF SLAVERY, A SLAVE AND SLAVE TRADE

33 | P a g e

Slavery is a system in which one is forced to work for someone, who regards him or her a property to
bought and sold.
A slave is person who is owned by another person and is forced to work. These slaves are not paid for
their labour; there are taken as property; are completely under the control of their master; henceforth,
they can be bought, sold, traded, given as a gift or used to pay off a debt by their master.
Slave trade is the buying and selling of human beings.
MOTIVES (REASONS) OF SLAVERY AND SLAVE TRADE
European explorers started crossing the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean in the 15 th century. They set up
colonies in the Americas, Africa and Asia. In America they established a number of plantations in the
areas of agriculture and mining. The indigenous people could not make up the demand for labour,
therefore, the Europeans turned to Africa as a source of labor. Thus, the motives behind slaver and
slave trade are classified as follows:
Social Motives
Lack of labor force in the Americas because many local people were killed in the wars between the
European settlers.
Role played by Bartlome de les Casas who spoke against the cruel treatment of Native Americans.
This Spanish priest suggested that Africans could make better workers.
Getting rid of undesirable members of society.
Some people who became misfits in families in Africa societies were sold into slavery by families of
chiefs. Indentured servants from Europe did not cope well with the tropical conditions. Europeans
therefore looked to Africa a source of labor.
➢ Economic Motives
➢ Profitability- slave trade became a highly profitable business. Chiefs, middlemen and slave
traders all benefited economically from slave trade. Therefore, many European nations like the
Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, English and French became more interested as well.
➢ Cheap labor needed for plantations. European nations needed cheap labor for their
plantations in the Americas. Thus, they looked to African slaves.
34 | P a g e

Role of the industrial Revolution.
The invention of machines such as steam engine and other types of machines led to higher demand for
raw material from colonies and labour to in the plantations.
Indebtedness: Families that were heavily indebted sold themselves or some of their children to offset
or get rid of the debts.
➢ Political motives
➢ Wars: when one chiefdom raided and defeated another, young men and women would be
captured and taken away to work as domestic servants or sold as slaves.
➢ Desire to expand to African influence: the more a chiefdom the slaves it had, the more
powerful it became. Leaders used slaves on their farms to grow crops and build fortified
cities or defensive structures like walls and ditches.
➢ To expand European influence: European nations that had more slaves to work in the
factories and plantations in their colonies in the New World produced more goods for
export. Henceforth, this strengthened their political influence.
Social effects
➢ Depopulation and destruction: the population of Africans, especially in West Africa was
reduced because many people were taken as slaves, while others were killed in raids to
capture slaves. The trade had a negative impact especially on the male population because
they were the most wanted. It is thought that roughly two thirds of the slaves taken were
male and only one third could have been female.
➢ Introduction of new diseases in Africa such as Syphilis through sex with African women.
African were also exposed to other diseases such as smallpox, measles etc
➢ Destruction of culture/westernization of Africans: Africans and former slaves were
exposed to the European way of life, hence forgetting their original way of life.
Political effects
➢ Rise and decline of states
➢ Increased slavery within African. Slave trade led to the growth of slavery within Africa
➢ Racist attitude. Europeans saw Africans only as slaves who were inferior. Even after
slavery was abolished, these ideas lived on in some societies
35 | P a g e

➢ Increased warfare and violence. Slave trade resulted in slave raid, violence among
different African Kingdoms.
Economic effects
The period between 16th and 19th centuries was the time of economic stagnation in Africa.
This was brought about by the following:
➢ Economically productive African young men and women were lost through slave trade. The
trade strained Africa of her most productive manpower (people between ages of 15 and 35).
➢ Introduction of European wealth/ goods such as clothes, beads, wine, guns and
gunpowder and also new crops
➢ Decline of African crafts such as iron smelting, weaving and salt making because the labor
force needed for this work was taken away as slaves.
North Africa
➢ Arab traders from North Africa travelled across the Sahara Desert to the west. They
exchanged salt, horse, weapons and clothes for slaves.
➢ Slaves were taken to slave markets in North Africa
West Africa
➢ With the arrival of Europeans West Africa became the most important area from where
slaves obtained. In fact, West Africa is known to have contributed the largest percentage of
slaves to North American plantations.
East Africa
➢ Arabs shipped slaves across the Indian Ocean to the Arabian Peninsula and Far East.
➢ Later, Europeans also shipped slaves from east Africa to their colonies. These were: the
French and Portuguese.
➢ The Main slave markets were: Mombasa, Zanzibar, Kilwa, Beira, Sofala, Quelimane.
➢ The triangular slave trade, also known as the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, took place across
the Atlantic Ocean between the 16th and 19th centuries. The triangular slave trade was
36 | P a g e

organized in three major stages. Each stage involved a different continent, that is, Europe,
Africa and the Americas.
Stages in the triangular slave trade
➢ The Triangular Slave Trade was given the name because it was three sided involving
voyages from: Europe to Africa, Africa to the Americas and America to Europe.
Stage1: Europe to Africa
➢ European traders sailed to Africa with ships full of goods, such as guns and gun powder,
cloths, beads and glass ware
Stage 2: Africa to Americas
➢ European traders exchanged their goods for African slaves at places such as the Gold coast
(Ghana): Slave Coast (Senegal) and Grain Coast (Nigeria).
➢ Slaved were shipped to the Americas (new world) to work in plantations.
Stage 3: Americas to Europe
➢ The profit made from selling the slaves were taken back to Europe where it could pay for more
goods to trade in Africa again.
37 | P a g e

Map showing triangular slave trade
ABOLITION OF SLAVERY AND SLAVE TRADE
➢ Slave Trade, which started in the 1600s, finally came to an end in the 1800s. the British
government was the one that began the abolition of slave trade between 1822 to 1826. There are
a number of factors that led to the abolition of slave trade. The following are some of the
factors;
Factors that helped in the abolition of slavery
➢ The rise of humanitarians such as Christians and scholars who condemned slave trade on moral
grounds. They argued that slave trade was against human rights and also against Christian belief.
➢ Influence of the abolitionists such as William Wilberforce and Abraham Lincoln
➢ High death rate of sailors in the English Navy
➢ Success of slave revolts such as the French revolution of 1789 and American Revolution of
1776 which emphasized equality, freedom and brotherhood of all human beings.
➢ The industrial revolution- Britain industrialists for instance, urged abolition of slave trade
because they wanted Africans to be left in Africa so that they may be a source of raw material.
➢ Slaves had become less profitable due to the invention of new machines.
People who were instrumental in the abolition of slavery and slave trade
1. William Wilberforce
➢ Was a British politician who campaigned against slavery and the slave trade in the British
Empire. He was a humanitarian who was strongly opposed to slavery and the slave trade.
William Wilberforce and other humanitarians believed that all people regardless of colour were
equal and that they were all created in the image of God. They condemned the slave trade as evil
and unchristian and began to campaign against it. These campaigns led to the abolition of
slavery and the slave trade
Stages of the abolition of slavery in Britain
38 | P a g e

➢ Somerset Case of 1772: this court case was the first step in the abolition of slavery in the
British Empire. Granville Sharpe a leading British humanitarian defended a slave who had
escape from his owner. This led to the chief judge in Britain stating that slavery was so
odious that it could only be stopped by law and there was no such law in England.
➢ Society for Effecting the Abolition of slave trade (1787): this society was formed to apply
pressure on the British government through a mass campaign to ban the slave trade.
➢ Anti-slavery Trade act of 1807: the British parliament passed a law that banned the slave
trade. This meant that British ships were banned from carrying slaves. The British navy
enforced this ban on the slave trade.
➢ Emancipation act of 1833: with this law slavery was finally abolished in the British
Empire. This meant that slaves had to be freed in Britain and all its colonies
2 .Abraham Lincoln
➢ Abolishing slavery even proved to be harder to achieve in the USA than in Britain and other
countries such as France. It took a civil war before abolishing could be achieved in the USA.
The person who played a leading role in the abolition of slavery in the USA was President
Abraham Lincoln.
Stages of the abolition of slavery in USA
➢ Slave states and Free states: In the early 1800s views in the USA were divided between
those of the slave states in the south and Free states in the North where slavery had already
been abolished.
➢ Abolition campaign in the USA: By the 1830s white people and freed slaves in the North
started abolition campaign. They believed that slavery was against their Christian faith and
the founding principles of the United States.
➢ Civil war between North and south: Abraham Lincoln was elected as president of the
United States in 1860. His strong anti-slavery views were not acceptable to the southern
states. Eleven southern states broke away from the United States following his election. The
breakaway by the southern states led to the civil war between the south and north.
➢ Emancipation proclamation (1863) and Thirteenth Amendment (1865): In January 1863
during the civil war president Abraham Lincoln issued the emancipation proclamation. This
was an official statement that declared all enslaved people in the south free. The
39 | P a g e

proclamation made slavery in the United States of America illegal. This ensured that when
the Northern states won the civil war it would end slavery in the south. In December 1865
(eight months after the end of the civil war), the Thirteenth Amendment was formerly
adopted by the parliament of the USA. This amendment changed the Constitution of the
USA to state that slavery would no longer exist within the United States.
Other factors that helped in the abolition of slavery
Slavery was finally abolished because of :
➢ High deaths rate of sailors in the English Navy who were enforcing the ban on the slave
trade made the British government to finally abolish slavery because they needed men to
fight in the war against France.
➢ Success of slave revolts: places such as Barbados and saint Dominguez, this posed a threat
to European and American governments
➢ Industrial revolution: slaves were replaced by machines which did work faster. This made
slave become a social nuisance as they turned to petty crimes.
➢ Britain established Freetown in Sierra Leone to resettle freed slaves.
➢ The Americans resettled free slaves in Liberia.
TOPIC FOUR: ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS
Imperialism
➢ refers to the belief in empire-building or the policy of extending the rule or influence of a
country over other countries.
Scramble for Africa
➢ Means the rush by European powers to acquire territories in Africa. It began in the second
half of the 19th century. That is, after 1850.
➢ By 1880 the scramble resembled a race which was likely to result into armed conflicts
among European powers themselves.
40 | P a g e

➢ To avoid the conflict a conference was convened at Berlin in Germany in 1884-85 under the
initiative of Germany Chancellor Bismarck. This came to be known as the Berlin
Conference.
➢ This started the process of colonization of Africa, during which most of Africa became
colonies of different European countries.
Aims of European imperialism and the scramble for Africa.
Political aims
➢ Many European countries wanted to protect their growing trade with Africa. This led to
competition between different nations to increase their control of larger parts of Africa.
➢ Some European nations acquired colonies for prestige or as a sign of power and status. Each
nation fought for the position of the imperial power.
➢ Some major nations such as Britain, France and Germany acquired lands in Africa for
military purposes. They wanted to establish military bases to protect their overseas
possessions.
Economic aims
➢ The raw materials from the New World were no longer enough so the European nation
started looking at Africa as a new source for raw material such as palm oil, cotton, rubber
and minerals such as gold.
➢ Europeans needed a market for their products.
Social aims
➢ Colonising powers believed that they came to Africa with a ‘civilising’ mission. They
unfairly viewed Africa as a dark and primitive continent.
➢ European countries wanted places in Africa to resettle their freed slaves after the abolition of
slavery and slave trade. For example they established Sierra Leone and Liberia.
➢ European nations wanted to change the traditional African way of living to Western ways.
This would lead to Africans buying more Western goods from European traders.
Religious and humanitarian aims
➢ Christianity was brought to Africa by missionaries. Their concern of Africa was to get rid of
slave trade and to convert Africans to Christianity.
➢ Missionaries and explorers opened up the interior of Africa. Their reports about the riches of
Africa encouraged the scramble.
41 | P a g e

➢ Missionaries also wanted protection of their countries’ governments against the slave traders
such as Swahili Arabs who did not approve of the presence of Christian missionaries.
Exploration of Africa by Europeans
➢ European exploration of African continent began at the end of 18th century. European
explorers from various countries travelled into parts of Africa that were still unknown to
Europeans. The Europeans did not know much about the interior of Africa and hence called
Africa the Dark Continent.
Early European exploration of Africa
➢ European explorers started crossing the Atlantic and Indian Ocean in the 15th to 17th
centuries. The Portuguese were the first European explorers of Africa. This was so because
of:
➢ Work of Prince Henry the Navigator who established a school for sailors and shipbuilding.
➢ Portugal’s geographical position near the Atlantic Ocean enabled her people to learn the
science of sailing fast.
➢ Portugal needed supplement for her poor economy in Europe. Portugal started sending men
to find the sea route to India and search for raw material.
Some of the early Portuguese explorers included:
➢ In 1483, Dio Cao reached the mouth of the Congo (Zaire) river opening the door Portuguese
to enter the Congo kingdom later.
➢ In 1488, Bartholomew Diaz circumnavigated the Cape and named it cape of storms. It was
later renamed to Cape of Good Hope by the King John II of Portugal to give hope to the
sailors of reaching India by the Sea.
➢ In 1497-1498, Vasco da Game circumnavigated the cape all the way to India. At malindi in
East Africa Da Gama found a Hindu Pirate Majid who escorted him to India. He reached
Calicut, India on 20th May 1498.
European exploration of Africa in the 18th and 19th centuries
42 | P a g e

➢ During the 18th and 19th centuries, various explorers started exploring the interior of Africa.
Main European explorers of Africa
West Africa
Mungo Park
➢ West Africa was opened to Europeans by a Scottish explorer called Mungo Park. In 1795,
the African association employed him to find the source and the course of the Niger River,
and to find out if it was Navigable.
First journey (1795-1797)
In June 1795, Park started his journey from Gambia. He travelled through the semi- desert area of
Karta. He was captured and held prisoner for four months by the chief of the Muslim people called
Moors. He escaped with only his hat and his compass.
On 20th July 1796, near Segon, he reached the river Niger that he was looking for. He realized
that the river flowed eastwards.
He travelled downstream to Silla before returning to the coast, and from there back to England.
There he published a book called Travels in the interior of Africa.
Second Journey (1805)
Park returned to West Africa in January 1805. But this expedition ended in a disaster. Along the
way, most of Park’s travelling companions died due to tropical diseases. Park and the last survivors
drowned at Bussa around November while trying to escape from a hostile tribe.
Richard Lander
He was also an Englishman. He came to Africa with His brother John Lander in 1830. He
discovered the mouth of the Niger around 1831. He observed that it flowed into the Gulf of Guinea
in the Atlantic. He returned to England in 1831. But in 1834 Richard Lander returned to Nigeria and
was attacked by Africans and died from wounds.
43 | P a g e

René Calili`e
In 1828, the French explorer René Calili‟e became the first European to return alive from the city of
Timbuktu. Previously, Europeans only knew about this city from the Arab traders.
East Africa
Richards Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke
Richards Burton explored the Arabian Peninsula before setting off with John Hanning Speke from
1857 – 1858 to search for the source of the Nile River in East Africa.
They were the first Europeans to reach Lake Tanganyika in 1858. However, they realised from its
position that it could not be the source of the Nile.
Burton became ill, but Speke continued with a new European travelling partner, James Grant, to a
lake in the North that he called Lake Victoria. He claimed that Lake Victoria was the source of the
Nile. He was proved right by Henry Morton Stanley in 1874.
Central Africa
Henry Morton Stanley
Expedition to find Livingstone
Henry Morton Stanley was a journalist for an American newspaper called the New York Herold.
He first travelled to Africa in 1871 to try and solve the mystery of what happened to David
Livingstone. Nothing had been heard of Livingstone for three years, so many people thought he had
died.
He met Livingstone at Ujiji in 1871.
Stanley‟s journey was a major expedition, with a team of more than 200 porters and local guides.
One of these guides was Sidi Mubarak Bombay who first started his life as a slave and later became
a guide for many explorers.
Exploring the Congo area
44 | P a g e

In November 1874, Stanley set off from Zanzibar on a major expedition to carry on confirming the
source of the Nile. He circumnavigated Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika.
Stanley moved west of the Lualaba River, which proved to be the start of the Congo River, all the
way to the West coast of Africa. They reached the coast on 12th August 1877.
From 1879 to 1884, Stanley worked for king Leopold II of Belgium in the Congo area after the
British government refused to help him. This started the process of creating a Belgian colony.
Mary Kingsley
Mary Kingsley made two trips to the north of the Congo River between 1893 and 1895. She was
unusual for an explorer of that time. Firstly, she was a woman when most explorers were men.
Secondly, she travelled on her own with just a few guides. Other explorers used teams of African
porters to carry all the goods they took with them.
Her aim was not just to explore. She also wanted to find out more about the life and religions of the
people in the areas that she visited.
North Africa
Gerard Way, Georg Schweinfurt and Gustav Nachtigal
These three explored Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan. Nachtigal confirmed stories of
the tiny people called Pygmies in Central Africa.
Southern and central Africa
Most of the exploration of Southern and Central Africa was done by David Livingstone. He is
generally regarded as the greatest European Explorer of Africa.
David Livingstone
Dr. David Livingstone came to Africa as a missionary in southern Africa in 1841. However, from
1853 he spent the rest of his life until his death in1873 exploring large parts of central Africa.
Background
45 | P a g e

Dr. David Livingstone was born in Blantyre, Scotland in 1813. He had difficulties in education such
that he started work in a cotton factory at the age of ten.
He continued learning through night school which earned him a place at Glasgow University where
graduated as a medical doctor, after which he joined the London Missionary Society (LMS) in the
Northern Cape.
He undertook shorter trips through the Northern Cape and what is now Botswana, and reached the
land of the Kololo where he met king Sebitwane.
First journey (1852-1856)
Livingstone began the first major journey of exploration in 1852. He travelled north, passing
through Kuruman, Koboleng and Mobosta until he reached Linyanti. From there he travelled up the
Zambezi River in search of malaria – free site for a mission station.
In 1854, he returned to Linyanti. After resting for some months, he travelled downstream along the
Zambezi River in 1855. On the Batoka Plateau, he met Chief Monze.
On this journey, he became the first European to see the waterfall locally known as “Mosi-otunya”
(the smoke that thunders). He named it Victoria Falls after the British Queen.
In 1856, he reached Quelimane in what is now Mozambique, and sailed back to England.
In England, he published a book called missionary travels and researches in the southern Africa.
He also made speeches to influence people to take up missionary work in Africa.
Second journey (1858- 1864)
In 1858, Livingstone returned to Africa as a British consul in Mozambique to oppose the slave
trade. From there he went on his second journey through Eastern and Central Africa.
Livingstone started his second journey from Quelimane and sailed upstream in the Zambezi River.
His aim was to see if the Zambezi River was Navigable.
After he was stopped by the Cabora Bassa rapids, he explored the Shire River and Highlands. He
encouraged the setting up of a mission station at Magomero in what is now Malawi.
46 | P a g e

Livingstone then continued trying to navigate inland along the Ruvuma River. However, increasing
costs and the failure to find a navigable River led to the British Government cancelling the
expedition. Livingstone returned to England.
Third journey (1866-1873)
Livingstone started his third journey from Zanzibar in March 1866, in search of the source of the
Nile River. He travelled up the Ruvuma River, passed through Kota-Kota on the southern top of
Lake Nyasa (now called Malawi) and entered the present day Eastern province of Zambia.
He crossed the Luangwa River and the Muchinga escarpment. He then entered Lubemba.
On 10th November, 1871, he met Henry Morton Stanley at Ujiji, a journalist from the New York
Herald. Henry wanted Livingstone to go back to England, but Livingstone refused.
After this, Livingstone crossed the Bemba Plateau and entered the Bangweulu Swamps. Here he
caught a terrible fever and finally died on 1st May 1873 at Chitambo Village. His African servants
Chuma and Susi buried his heart and organs under a tree. They embalmed his body and carried it to
the east coast of Africa. From there his body was shipped back to England.
He was buried in Westminster Abbey in London, England.
Achievements of David Livingstone
➢ He set up a route for traders and missionaries
➢ He made known the evils of slave trade to the outside world
➢ As a result of his work successful missions were later set up
➢ His exploration work led to other explorers following his examples.
THE RESULT OF IMPERIALISM AND THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
On the eve of the World War (1914-1918), Africa was very different from the way it was 40 years
before. Africa had been partitioned among the European countries. What was earlier an independent
continent was now almost entirely in the European hands. Britain and France held the largest share.
The Bristish had almost fulfilled Cecil Rhodes’ dream of an unbroken line of colonies from the
47 | P a g e

Cape to Cairo. Their colonies held promising economic potential, with gold in South Africa and
cash crops in East and West Africa. The French controlled huge amounts of territory in North and
West Africa, but much was a desert and only a few colonies were productive.
TOPIC FIVE: EUROPEAN OCCUPATION OF CENTRAL AFRICA
Agents instrumental in European occupation of Central Africa
➢ Missionaries
➢ hunters
➢ concession seekers
➢ Cecil John Rhodes and British South Africa (BSA) Company
Missionaries
➢ Missionaries faced resistance from slave traders who did not approve their opposition of slave
trade and some Africans resisted being converted to Christianity. These resistances led the
missionaries to seek protection from the British government by encouraging the government to set
colonies in the area. Main mission societies in central Africa
Hunters
➢ From the 1860s, increasing number of European ivory hunters entered Africa from the South and
from the coast.
➢ Reports from ivory hunter who wrote about vast deposits of gold deposits attracted European
interest in Southern Africa.
Concession seekers
➢ A concession is an official licence granted by land owners or government that allows work such
as mining or drilling for oil to be carried out in a specific area of land
48 | P a g e

➢ Concession seekers wanted to get mineral rights. This meant that they wanted to get concessions
that gave them control of areas of land where they could then search for minerals such as copper
or gold.
Cecil John Rhodes and the British South Africa Company
➢ Cecil Rhodes was one of the main promoters of British rule in Southern Africa. Rhodes was a
British imperialist who made his fortune with his mining company, De Beers, after the discovery
of diamonds in South Africa.
➢ Rhodes strongly believed in British imperialism, and therefore used his fortune to expand
British`s empire in Africa.
➢ However, his immediate aim was to occupy Mashonaland and Matabeleland in what is now
Zimbabwe. He believed gold could be mined there.
The British South Africa (BSA) Company
➢ Cecil John Rhodes used his influence to establish colonial control over the area that is now known
as Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi.

➢ He achieved this through a series of events that led to his new company, the British South Africa
(BSA) Company.
Northern Rhodesia under the BSA Company
Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) was occupied in two main ways:
➢ North Western Rhodesia was occupied through signing of treaties with some chiefs,
especially the Litunga of the Bulozi.
➢ North Eastern Rhodesia was occupied through battles, defeating chiefs who resisted colonial
rule. For example Chitimukulu of the Bemba, Mpezeni of the Ngoni and Mwata Kazembe of
the Lunda.
Colonisation of North Western Rhodesia
49 | P a g e

➢ British rule over the Barotseland, the area controlled by the Litunga of the Lozi, was
established through a series of treaties. This area became North Western Rhodesia. The
following were some of the concessions and treaties signed:
Ware Concession (1889)
In 1885, Lubosi was restored as Litunga of the Lozi after tatila Akufana had overthrown him. He also
faced threats from Ndebele raids and European hunters and concession seekers. In 1889, Lubosi
therefore asked for British protectorate from Sidney shippard, the British administrator of
Bechuanaland (now Botswana).
Before the British could respond, the Litunga signed the ware concession of 1889 with Henry Ware.
Henry Ware sold the concession to Cecil John Rhodes in 1890.
Lochner Treaty (1890)
Cecil John Rhodes sent Frank Lochner, his personal representative to the Litunga. Lochner had the
support of Khama, the king of Bechuanaland, as well as the missionary Francis Coillard. This led to
the Lochner Treaty between the Litunga and the BSA Company. This treaty granted the BSA
Company mineral rights in areas that were not settled by the Lozi, but which the Litunga claimed as
belonging to him.
After seven years the British sent a representative, Robert Corydon, to the area. Corydon found it
difficult to administer Bulozi since the treaty did not give them administrative powers. He then
requested Arthur Lawley to influence Litunga to grant him administrative powers.
Lawley Treaty
The Lawley treaty of 1898 granted the BSA Company administrative powers in the area that Litunga
claimed to be his.
Orders in Council
The responsibilities and involvement of BSA in the Orders in Council of 1899 were:
➢ The area of the Lozi became known as North Western Rhodesia
50 | P a g e

➢ Barotseland would fall under a representative of the BSA
➢ The Litunga remained in control; over Bulozi between Sefula and Lealui
Corydom treaty (1900)
Confirmed the Lawley treat and set out the responsibilities of the British government in
Barotseland:
➢ The BSA Company would administer the area.
➢ They had to provide schools, industries and transport services
➢ They were allowed to make land grants to settlers in Kalomo and Choma.
As a result of this treaty settlers began to come to the area.
Colonisation of North Eastern Rhodesia
The occupation of North Eastern Rhodesia did not happen peacefully, as local tribes resisted the
coming of the British. However, the spears of the local tribes were no match for British weapons such
as Gatling Machine gun.
However, the Ngoni of Mpezeni were defeated in 1897 after a series of battles against the British.
In 1899, the British marched into the area of the Lunda chief Mwata Kazembe. His rule had been
weakened by disagreement over who succeed him.
The administrative centre in North-Eastern Rhodesia was Fort Jameson (Chipata), while in North-
Western Rhodesia the capital at first was Kalomo, but was later moved to Livingstone. This was
after North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia were joined in 1911.
AFRICAN REACTION TO FOREIGN RULE IN CENTRAL AFRICA
➢ When the Europeans colonized Africa, the reaction of colonial rule by Africans was not
uniform. Due to different reasons some Africans welcomed it while others resisted. In fact
some countries like Ethiopia and Liberia were not colonized by Europeans at all. However,
51 | P a g e

resistance in Africa has been classified as in two (Primary resistance and Secondary resistance)
as follows:
➢ Primary resistance refers to the early stages when Africans were not yet trying to get rid of the
colonial authorities. They mostly protested peacefully against unfair colonial polices.
➢ Secondary resistance refers to later stages when Africans tried to overthrow colonial rule and
become independent. They worked for their rights and towards independence through
organisations such as welfare societies, trade unions and political parties. In some cases, they
undertook armed struggles for independence.
Primary resistance
In Central Africa, primary resistance was mainly led by independent churches that broke away from
the missionary churches. Their African religious leaders believed that the missionaries and colonial
governments were guilty of social, political and economic injustices. Injusctices which included things
such as:
➢ Taking land from Africans and giving it to the growing number of Europeans in colonies.
➢ Introduction of taxes such as the hut tax.
➢ Africans were forced to work for Europeans in order to pay taxes
In Central Africa, independent churches were set up by religious leaders such as the following:
Willy Makolapa
Makolapa set up the first Ethiopian Church in Barotseland in 1900 after breaking away from the Paris
Evangelical Missionary Society. His preaching was about equality for all races. The colonial
government did not approve of the Church because of his teachings.
Elliot Kamwana
Kamwana broke away from the Free Church of Scotland in Nyasaland. He became involved in
spreading the Watch Tower movement (an American religious movement which later became known
as the Jehovah’s Witnesses. Later he created his own independent church, the ―Mlondo or
52 | P a g e

Watchman mission. He criticized the colonial administration, taxation, oppressive laws and the loss
of land.
The colonial government and the missionaries did not approve of his approach. They sent him into
exile, first in South Africa and later in Mauritius.
Charles Domingo
Domingo a former student of Robert laws of the Livingstonia Mission started the Seventh Day
Adventists in Malawi. He then set up the African Seventh Day Baptist Church in Mozambique.
Later, he joined the British African Congress founded by Joseph Booth, which supported the interests
of Africans against their colonial masters.
He openly spoke out against the white missionaries and the colonial government. This led to him also
being sent into exile.
Mathew Zwimba
He formed a church in Southern Rhodesia in 1915 that was called church of the White Bird. This
church combined traditional beliefs with the Christian faith.
John Chilembwe
He is generally seen as the most important leader of the independent churches in Central Africa. He
also led a rebellion against the colonial authority popularly known as the Chilembwe Uprising.
Chilembwe, a Yao from Nyasaland, in 1893 became into contact with Joseph Booth, the leader of the
Zambezi Industrial Mission in Blantyre. Booth paid for Chilembwe to Study Theology in America
from 1899 to 1900. On his return, Chilembwe founded the providence Industrial Mission in Chirad
Zulu on the shire Highlands. By 1911, he had opened a number of schools.
In 1915, he led a rebellion against the colonial government with the aim: “Strike a blow and die, for
our blood will surely mean something at last.”
The main reasons for this Rebellion were the following:
53 | P a g e

➢ Racial discrimination: The colonial government discriminated against Africans and did not
allow them to take on responsible positions in government.
➢ Hut tax: Africans had to pay a hut tax, which whites farmers did not have to do. The hut tax
forced Africans to become laborers on white farms.
➢ Mistreatment of farm laborers: African laborers on white farms were treated very badly by
white supervisors. For example, on the large Bruce Estate, the supervisor, W.J. Livingstone,
was known for his cruel treatment of workers.
➢ Workers had to work for very long hours for little pay. They also had to pay rent for settling on
white farms, while also having to pay hut taxes to the government.
➢ Insufficient Schools: Chilembwe complained bitterly about the small number of schools
available for Africans. He blamed the missionaries who preached about equality but who did
not practice it.
➢ Involvement of Africans in the First World War (1914-1918); The immediate cause of the
1915 rebellion was the recruitment of Africans by the British to serve as soldiers. He observed
that Africans died more than Europeans in the war. He was the especially bitter that the families
of Africans who were killed in the war still had to pay taxes.
➢ Chilembwe and his men took advantage of the absence of British soldiers and police who were
on the border with the Germany colony of Tanganyika (now Tanzania) to prevent a possible
German attack.
➢ The uprising started on the Bruce Estates.
➢ However, the rebellion was quickly suppressed by the colonial government. Chilembwe was
killed on the Mozambique border while trying to escape.
Secondary resistance
Secondary resistance in Central Africa started through welfare societies (also called Native
Associations) and trade Unions.
54 | P a g e

The Welfare Societies were formed by mission-educated young Africans. They believed that the
education they received made them able to take part in the government of their countries.
At first, their aim was just to inform the government about the complaints of Africans so that the living
and working conditions of Africans could be improved. However, later these societies were changed
into political parties that fought for independence.
Nyasaland (Malawi)
In 1912, the colonial government in Nyasaland (now Malawi) passed a District Administrative
Ordinance to prevent educated Africans from having a say in the colonial government. This allowed
for districts councils in which only chiefs were allowed as representatives. Chiefs were usually older
and did not have a missionary education.
This system of indirect rule allowed the chief to keep their traditional powers, while at the same time
the colonial powers used these rulers to impose colonial rule on the Africans
➢ Creation of first native associations to resist colonial rule
➢ 1912: North Nyasaland Native Association under the leadership of Levi Mumba with support
from Dr. Laws
➢ 1915: Southern Province Native Association, with Gresham Njilima as its Secretary (the son
of one of the people killed during the Chilembwe rebellion)
➢ 1920 Mombera Native Association.
The Associations succeeded in bringing African people together and letting them rise above ethnic
divisions. This helped to prepare the way for national unity in the fight for independence.
Northern Rhodesia (Zambia)
Welfare societies in Northern Rhodesia were linked to the native associations in Nyasaland through
missionaries who came to work in Northern Rhodesia.
Main stages in the growing influence of these societies
55 | P a g e

➢ 1923: First Welfare Association at Mwenzo in Northern Province, led by David Kaunda,
Donald Siwale, Hezekiya Kawosa and Peter Sinkala.
➢ 1948 Northern Rhodesia African National Congress (NRANC), led by Godwin Mbikusita
Lewanika from the Feration of welfare societies into the first political party.
➢ 1951: African National Congress (ANC), led by Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula became the new
name of the NRANC.
➢ 1964: Federation of Welfare Societies, led by Dauti Yamba, united all societies so that they
could work together more effectively.
NOTE:
Another form of secondary resistance in Northern Rhodesia was through trade unions e.g. In 1948,
the Northern Rhodesia Mine Workers Union (NRAMWU) was formed led by Lawrence Katilungu.
NRAMWU worked together with the political parties that developed from welfare societies to resist
colonial rule.
Describe the struggle for independence in Central Africa.
Struggle for Independence in Central Africa
Nyasaland (Malawi)
Nyasaland was the first of three areas in the Central African Federation to become independent.
➢ Factors that led the people of Nyasaland to fight for independence:
➢ Little Economic Benefit: Nyasaland gained the least from the federation. For example, it
received only 6% of development loans. It was mostly seen as a source of labour.
➢ Unequal representation: The people of Nyasaland were unhappy that there was no African
representative on the executive council
➢ Taxation: Africans in Nyasaland resented the loss of land to white settler farmers as well as the
direct and indirect taxes that Africans had to pay.
56 | P a g e

Stages in the struggle for independence
➢ 1954: Formation of Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) by leaders such as wellington

Chirwa and Charles Matinga.
➢ 1955: The Young Turks, a group of younger, more radical leaders such as H. Chipembe,
ChiumeYaleta, Dunduza Chisiza T.D Banda replaced the more moderate older leaders. Their
aim was to achieve selfgovernment and a system of one man, one vote.
➢ 1957: Expansion of congress, to a mass political party through an active program of recruiting
new members.
➢ March 1959: states of emergency declared by the governor, Sir. Robert Armitage, after a
series of violent clashes between congress members and colonial officials. There were also
strikes, riots and demonstrations, of which the worst was at Nkanda Bay.
➢ July 1959: Malawi Congress Party (MCP), a new political party, formed under the leadership
of Orton Chirwa. When Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda was released from prison in 1960, he
became the new leader of MCP. Banda declared that the MCP would become continue fighting
for the total independence in Malawi.
➢ 1959: Devlin commission set up by the colonial office in London to investigate the causes of
the troubles in Nyasaland in 1955. In its report the commission stated the violence resulted
from wide spread opposition to the federation and the people’s desire to rule themselves.
➢ 1960: Monckton commission did further investigations and determinate that there was strong
opposition to the federation in Nyasaland as well as Northern Rhodesia.
➢ April 1960: More self-government and the rights to vote granted to Nyasaland by colonial
Secretary Macleod.
➢ August 1961: Elections under a new constitution were won by a large majority by the Malawi
Congress Party.
➢ January 1963: Responsible government status was granted to Malawi.
57 | P a g e

➢ July 1964: independent state of Malawi established with Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda as first
president.
Northern Rhodesia (Zambia)
➢ 1950: Federation Committee started in Ndola by a group of young men, such as Justin
Chimba, Simon Kapwepwe, Rueben Kamanga and Nephas Tembo to campaign against
federation.
➢ 1951: Northern Rhodesia African National Congress changed to the African National
Congress
(ANC), led by Harry Nkumbula. The ANC‟s aim was to prevent the formation of the federation. In
March 1953, Nkumbula burned the British White Paper on the proposed Federation Constitution
and called for two days of national prayer.
October 1953: Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland created despite African protests.
➢ 1958: Zambia African National Congress (ZANC) formed by younger members who felt
that the ANC was working too closely with the colonial powers. The aim of ZANC was to unite
Africans and to fight for independence. However, the ZANC was banned by the colonial
government. Its leaders, such as Kenneth Kaunda, Simon Mwansa Kapwepwe and
Munukayumba Sipalo, were arrested.
➢ 1959: United National Independence Party (UNIP) was created from other political parties
formed when the ZANC was banned. Mainza Chona led the party until Kenneth Kaunda was
released from prison in 1960.
➢ 1960: Self-government granted to Nyasaland led to increased demands from Kaunda for a
similar Constitution for Northern Rhodesia. Kaunda wanted a non-violent campaign to

continue working towards independence, but the campaign became violent in some cases.
➢ 1961: Civil disobedience campaign called the Chachacha, this campaign led to the government
revising the Constitution, on condition, on condition that the violence stopped.
58 | P a g e

➢ 1962: Election held, which were based on the new Constitution. UNIP got 14 seats, ANC 7
seats and the United Federal Party 10 seats. Kaunda and Nkumbula formed a coalition
government.
➢ 1963: Central African Federation ended
➢ 1964: Self-government granted, followed by another election on the basis of universal adults
franchise. UNIP won 55 SEATS, the ANC got 10 seats and the colonial government got 10
seats. UNIP under Kenneth Kaunda got the majority of the seats. Kenneth Kaunda became the
first African Prime Minister.
➢ 24 October 1964: Independent Republic of Zambia created. Kaunda took over the
administration from Sir Evelyn Hone, the last British Governor or Northern Rhodesia.
Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)
➢ Zimbabwe only became independent after a long period of armed struggle. This was
because the white settlers in Southern Rhodesia wanted self-government that did not
include Africans.
➢ However, in the 1960‟s, two important African political parties were formed: Zimbabwe
African People‟s Union (ZAPU), led by Joshua Nkomo and Zimbabwe African Nation
Union (ZANU), led by Ndabaningi Sitholi and Robert Mugabe.
Main stages in the struggle for independence led by these two parties:
➢ 1962: Rhodesia Front, led by Winston Field, formed by racist white groups.
➢ 1963: ZAPU banned by the government led by Field, after passing an emergency law
following disturbances in Bulawayo. Nkomo was forced into exile.
➢ 1963: ZANU formed when leaders such as Sithole and Mugabe broke away from ZAPU
because they wanted to start an armed struggle against the government. They decided to
again the support of rural African population who could give the guerrilla fighters opposed
to the government food and shelter.
59 | P a g e

➢ 1964: Ian Smith became the Prime Minister of the Rhodesia Front government. He
immediately began fighting for the right of the white government to become independent
from Britain.
➢ 1965: Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), which meant that Ian Smith
declared
Rhodesia an independent republic, even though the British government did not agree.
The British Foreign Secretary, Douglas Home, even tried to solve the Rhodesian
problem by offering to recognize Smith‟s government, provided that Africans were
given opportunities to advance towards majority rule
➢ 1972; Pearce Commission appointed by the British government to find out what Africans
thought about Home‟s proposed agreement. The commission‟s findings were that Africans
in Rhodesia were totally opposed to the agreement.
➢ Meanwhile, the armed struggle by Africans against the Smith government continued. By
1978, the Liberation Struggle Movement had won the war. After negotiations, an
independent Constitution was drawn up in preparation for elections.
➢ April 1980: ZANU won the elections. Robert Mugabe became the first Prime Minister of
an independent
The Central African Federation of 1953 to 1963
➢ The Central African Federation, also called the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
➢ It was formed on October 1953. Under this system, Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and
Southern Rhodesia fell under one central government.
➢ The Headquarter of the federation was in Salisbury (now Harare) in southern Rhodesia.
➢ However, each of these areas still had its own regional government.
➢ Many whites in both Southern and Northern Rhodesia were in favour of the amalgamation
or joining of the three areas.
60 | P a g e

➢ Africans in Northern Rhodesia had serious concerns about federation, as they believed that it
would lead to the dominance of Southern Rhodesia. They were concerned that the racial
segregation that was widespread in Southern Rhodesia would spread to Northern Rhodesia.
Reasons for the Central African Federation
Social reasons
➢ Settlers in Northern Rhodesia did not approve of the policy of the paramountcy of African
interests. They hoped that federation with Southern Rhodesia would end this policy.
➢ Africans in Southern Rhodesia supported federation because they believed that union with
Northern Rhodesia would bring the policy of the paramountcy of African interests to their area.
Political reasons
➢ Settlers in Northern Rhodesia did not approve of the policy of the paramountcy of African
Interests. They hoped that federation would mean an end to this policy.
➢ Africans in Southern Rhodesia supported federation because they believed that union with
Northern Rhodesia would bring the pramountcy of African interests to their area.
Economic reasons
➢ The white in Southern Rhodesia wanted to benefit from the income from the copper mines in
Northern Rhodesia, while those in Northern Rhodesia wanted to benefit from the southern gold
field.
➢ The conservative government in Britain believed that federation would result in economic
stability, with three main products (copper, gold and tea) for export.
➢ The British government also believed that federation would attract international funding for
large-scale projects, such as the building of a hydro-electric scheme and the extension of
railways.
Reasons against the Federation:
Social reasons:
61 | P a g e

➢ Whites in Southern Rhodesia wanted to have closer ties with apartheid in South Africa. The
policy of the paramountcy of African interests therefore met with their opposition.
Political reason:
➢ African in Northern Rhodesia did not trust the idea of partnership. Robinson Nabulayato said,
“Partnership is a leader for Europeans to climb on us.”
➢ In Britain, the Labour and Liberal Parties objected to federation if it was going to be imposed
on Africans.
Economic reasons:
➢ Both whites and Africans in Northern Rhodesia felt that those in Southern Rhodesia were just
interested in their copper mines.
➢ Whites and Africans in Nyasaland felt that federation would bring little benefit to them, and
would simply use them as a source of labour. .
Successes and failures of the Federation
Successes
➢ Federation attracted foreign funding. This resulted in the construction of the Kariba Dam and
hydroelectric power station, as well as the extension of the railway line to the Copperbelt.
Failures
➢ In the Federation, the ideas of partnership were soon forgotten. As Africans had feared, the
whites in Southern Rhodesia benefited the most.
➢ Racialism spread to Northern Rhodesia, where the hatch system and pass laws were introduced
➢ Politically, Africans made little progress as they were not given representation in the Executive
Council.
➢ Africans in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland lost fertile farmlands to white settlers and were
forced to work as labourers on white farms.
62 | P a g e

GEOGRAPHY
TOPIC ONE: MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT
BASIC MAP READING TECHNIQUES AND SKILLS

The difference between a diagram and a map
Diagram
➢ A diagram is a simplified drawing that shows the appearance and different parts of
something. They are usually line drawing that has labels. These labels help to explain
how something works or how something should be done.
➢ A diagram often shows something in three dimensions, that is: how long it is, how broad
(or wide) it is and how high it is. This can be abbreviated as or 3D. For example; a
plan for the house showing all the rooms in the house or a sports field showing the
dimension of each part of the field.
Map
On the other hand,
➢ A map is a specific type of plan that is a representation of a real place. This means that it
shows a likeness or image of a place, but it is much smaller than the real place.
➢ A map represents an area of land. It can show physical features of nature, such as
mountains and valleys unlike a diagram.
Characteristics of a map
➢ Symbols in a map key(A key)
➢ Direction indicator (Compass)
➢ Grid systems
➢ Scale
➢ Elevation
Symbols and key of a map
➢ Symbols on map are used to represent about information about a place to show different
things. Each symbol on a map tells something different about a place.
➢ The key is the name for the list of symbols and the description of what each symbols
means.
Types of Symbols
1) Point symbols:
63 | P a g e

➢ These mark specific place where something important must be shown. The point can be a
dot, square, triangle or a special symbol developed by the cartographer.
2) Line symbols:
➢ These show the route taken by roads or railways. They can also show the course of a river or a
boundary line between countries
3) Polygons:
➢ These are shapes with many sides of different lengths. They show areas such as forests, the
surface of a lake, or farmland used for a specific crop.
Importance of Symbols on a map
➢ Symbols or conventional signs used on a map are shown in the key at the bottom of the
map.
➢ Symbols or conventional signs are needed because it is impossible to show many features
correctly according to scale for they will be too small to be seen.
➢ Symbols are helpful as they show what the land is like and what man makes use of it as
well as the way man lives.
➢ However symbols or conventional signs are dependent on each and every map used
meaning that a pupil must study the key of every map given
Compass
➢ It is used to show directions on a map. It can be a small drawing with arrows showing the
cardinal points on a compass; north, south, west and east. Maps are usually drawn with north at
the top of the map.
A scale
➢ A map scale gives the relationship between distance on a map and distance on the actual
ground.
Types of scales
Statement of scale (word scale)
➢ A statement of scale or word sale uses words to describe the relationship between the
units measured on the map and the units measured on the actual ground.
➢ For example, one centimeter on the map to represent two kilometers on the ground. This can be
abbreviated as 1 cm represents 2km.
Ratio scale (Representative fraction (R.F. scale)
➢ Ratio scale refers to the level of measurement in which the attributes composing
64 | P a g e

variables are measured on specific numerical scores or values that have equal distances
between attributes or points along the scale and are based on a “true zero” point. For
example,1:50,000 or
Line scale
➢ A line scale is a line drawn below the map that shows the relationship between map
distance and ground distance. The length of the line matches the distance on the map.
➢ The units of measurement that are labeled on the line represent the distance on the
ground.
Elevation
➢ Elevation means the height of a place in landscape. Also called altitude, which means
height above mean or average sea level. Elevation is a characteristic of relief maps and
topographic maps only.
Grid systems
➢ A grid is a pattern of lines that cross each other, forming rows from side to side and
columns from top to bottom.
➢ A grid system is used to describe the position of any given point within the grid pattern.
➢ The starting place for reading the grid reference is called the point of origin and it is
important to take note of it.
The importance of grid references
➢ A map is a representation of the earth or part of it drawn on a piece of paper, wall plank
etc. Position of places on the earth‟s surface:
➢ To find a particular place on a map, these must be an accurate method of locating it.
➢ The accurate method to be used when finding a particular place on a map is the grid
reference system
➢ The grid reference system consists of a series of lines drawn across a map running from
top to bottom and from side to side.
➢ These lines are numbered making it easy to locate the exact place.
How to read grid references
➢ The grid lines running from North to South (Top to Bottom) are called Eastings because
they represent distances eastwards from the origin.
➢ The grid lines running from West to East (side by side) are called Northings because they
represent distances Northwards from the origin.
65 | P a g e

➢ When locating a place you have to start with Eastings and then Northings.
➢ Grid Reference are given in one of two ways:
➢ Four Figure grid reference - Used to identify a 1km x 1km square
➢ Six Figure grid reference - Used to identify a location 100m x 100m
➢ A grid of squares helps the map-reader to locate a place. The vertical lines are called eastings.
➢ They are numbered - the numbers increase to the east.
➢ The horizontal lines are called northings as the numbers increase in an northerly direction.
Things to remember:
➢ When you give a grid reference, always give the easting first: "Along the corridor and up the
stairs".
➢ Four-figure grid references can be used to pinpoint a location to within a square. To find the
number of the square:
➢ Start at the left-hand side of the map and go east until you get to the bottom-left-hand
corner of the square you want. Write this number down.
➢ Move north until you get to the bottom-left corner of the square you want. Look at the
number of this grid line and add it to the two-digit number you already have.
➢ This is your four-figure grid reference.
➢ In this case, the tourist information office is in grid square 4733.
Six figures grid reference
➢ Sometimes it is necessary to be even more accurate. In this case you can imagine that each grid
is divided into 100 tiny squares.
➢ The distance between one grid line and the next is divided into tenths.
➢ First, find the four-figure grid reference but leave a space after the first two digits.
➢ Estimate or measure how many tenths across the grid square your symbol lies.
➢ Write this number after the first two digits.
➢ Next, estimate how many tenths up the grid square your symbol lies.
➢ Write this number after the last two digits.
➢ You now have a six figure grid reference. In this instance, the tourist information office is
located at 476334.
TOPIC TWO: PHYSICAL AND CULTURAL FEATURES IN ZAMBIA
TOPIC FOUR
66 | P a g e

MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT
PHYSICAL AND CULTURAL FEATURES OF ZAMBIA
Relief levels of Zambia
➢ Relief refers to how high or low the land in different parts of an area is. Also called altitude
which means the height above sea level
➢ Physical features are natural features such as mountains, rivers, streams, swamps, hills,
highlands, islands and some lakes.
➢ Mountains are at higher levels, while valleys or plains are at lower levels. We describe relief by
how many metres above sea level an area is. Sea level is the lowest level along the coastal areas
of continents.
➢ To understand the relief of Zambia, it helps to first understand the general relief of the African
continent, as explained in the box below.
Relief of the African Continent
➢ Most of Africa consists of a higher, fairly level central part which is called a plateau.
➢ Most of the land on the plateau in the southern, central and eastern parts of Africa is
more than 2000 metres above sea level.
➢ Around the edge of this large central plateau, the rest of the continent is mostly consists
of an area that drops down from 2000 metres to 250 metres above sea level.
➢ Around the coast of the continent, there is usually a narrow coastal strip that is less than
250 metres above sea level.
➢ Higher mountain ranges and mountain peaks rise up above these levels in some parts of
the continent.
➢ A larger numbers of rivers start from the highest part of the plateau. As smaller streams
join up to form larger rivers, the rivers create deep, lower areas called valleys as they
flow down towards lakes or the sea.
Relief of Zambia
➢ Zambia does not have a coastal area as it lies in the central part of the continent,
surrounded by other countries. Most of the land in the country lies 900 metres or more
above sea level.
➢ CHAPTER FOUR
➢ The relief of Zambia can be divided into three main levels: Land over 1200 meters, land
between 900 and 1200 meters and land below 900 meters.
Land over 1200 metres above sea level (High Veld)
➢ The highest parts of Zambia, also known as the highlands or Highveld, form a natural
boundary with the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in the north, and continue as a
natural boundary with Malawi and Tanzania in the northeast.
➢ The highest parts are the Mbala highlands, Mafinga hills and Makutu Mountains.
➢ Almost all the major rivers in the country have their sources on these highlands.
➢ The highlands are divided into two clear areas that are also called divides or watersheds.
➢ These watersheds separate waters flowing in different directions to rivers, lakes or seas:
The Zambezi-Congo watershed forms a natural boundary between Zambia and the
Democratic Republic of Congo. This watershed separates the conga river system
67 | P a g e

(flowing towards the DRC) from the Zambezi river system (flowing towards
Zambia), and the tributaries that feed into each of these two river systems.
➢ The Luangwa- Malawi watershed forms a natural boundary between Zambia and
Malawi. It separates the Luangwa river system in Zambia and the Shrine River
system in Malawi.
Land between 900 metres and 1200 metres above sea level (Middle Veld)
➢ This area, also known as the middle veld, is a large, flat plateau with smaller hills that
gently rise and fall.
➢ This plateau makes up the largest part of the country.
➢ Many of the swamps and lakes that are part of the drainage system of Zambia also lie in the
plateau.
Land below 900 metres above sea level (Low Veld)
➢ This area, also known as the low veld, consists of deep valleys formed by larger rivers,
such as the Zambezi, Luangwa and Luapula.
➢ As smaller streams join together to form larger rivers, the erosion caused by the force of
large volumes of water flowing downwards from the plateau create these valleys.
➢ Another low-lying area is the basin around Lake Tanganyika, which forms part of the
series of low-lying lakes of the East African Rift Valley. You will find out more about
how this lake was formed in the section on drainage systems later in this sub-topic.
➢ Along the edges of these valleys there are long, steep slopes called escarpments, which
are broken up by the smaller valleys of tributaries flowing into the larger rivers.
➢ The main escarpments are the Muchinga and Zambezi escarpments.
68 | P a g e

Map showing the three main relief levels of Zambia
MAJOR DRAINAGE FEATURES OF ZAMBIA

➢ Drainage refers to the system of rivers, lakes and swamps.
➢ The drainage of Zambia refers to how rainwater is drained by rivers that flow into lakes
and swamps, and eventually into the oceans.
➢ The fresh water lakes, rivers and swamps that make up the water supply of Zambia have
many functions and uses.
Functions/importance/uses of rivers, lakes and swamps
Transportation
➢ Most lakes are used by locals as a means for transportation of people and domestic goods for
their own use, as well as for exports to other countries. Many Zambian families who live near
rivers and lakes use small boats as a form of transport as part of their daily lives, such as for
going to school or to work. Lake Tanganyika for example, is used to transport sugar and
cement to the Great Lakes region of Rwanda and Burundi, as well as to Tanzania.
Farming
➢ Some rivers and lakes provide water for irrigating a wide variety of crops farmed in Zambia, as
well as water for cattle and poultry to drink.
Fishing
➢ Fishing is an important industry, both in the form of catching fish occurring naturally in rivers
and lakes and fish farming.
69 | P a g e

Power generation
➢ Hydro-electric power stations make an important contribution to Zambia‟s power supply by
using the power of falling water to generate electricity. Hydro-electric power stations are found
at Lake Kariba and at the Kafue Gorge on the Kafue River.
For domestic use
➢ It includes washing, cooking, drinking, bathing and other domestic use.
Tourism
➢ Tourists from all over the world enjoy observing the rich wildlife along Zambia‟s waterways.
➢ But they do not always realize the dangers that water animals such as hippos and crocodiles
present to both visitors and local people who make use of the Countries Rivers and lakes.
Hippos are responsible for more deaths in Africa each year than any type of wild animal.
Rivers of Zambia
Four main rivers:
➢ Zambezi River
➢ Kafue river
➢ Luangwa River
➢ Chambeshi-Luapula River
Zambezi River
➢ The Zambezi, the river that has given our country its name, is the fourth largest river in
Africa. The source of the Zambezi is in the kalene hills near mwinilunga in the far
northwest of Zambia. The river starts small, flowing deeply down a deep, narrow valley
and winding its way around the slopes of hills. The river then flows through the flatter
Kashiji plains and the Barotse (also known as the Bulozi) floodplains, on the plains, the
rivers flows more slow over sand that washed down the river and settled on top of an
impermeable clay layer.
➢ The impermeable clay layer causes the area to become waterlogged during the rainy
season, which results in shallow swamps or floodplains. As the Zambezi flows further
south, it flows through an area where Zambia meets up with Namibia, Botswana and
Zimbabwe, to the best known feature of the river: the Victoria Falls. As the river flows
further through Zambia, it is joined by various tributaries, such as the Kafue and
Luangwa Rivers. On the last part of its course through Zambia, the Zambezi has been
dammed at Lake Kariba, on the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. You will find out
more about Lake Kariba on the Lakes of Zambia.
➢ Soon after the river enters Mozambique, it enters the Cahora Bassa dam, before it
eventually flows into the Indian Ocean on the coast of Mozambique.
REMEMBER:
➢ The Victoria Falls on the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe is recognized by
UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation) as a
world Heritage site.
Kafue River
➢ The Kafue River is one of the tributaries that flow into the Zambezi.
70 | P a g e

➢ It has its source on the Zambezi-Congo watershed.
➢ It flows south then Southwest towards Lukanga swamp in central province. From there
it flows westwards, then southwards, entering the Kafue flood plains.
➢ It then winds its way down to a narrow gorge were it has been harnessed for power
before it joins the Zambezi River near Chirundu.
Luangwa River
➢ The Luangwa River is also one of the tributaries of the Zambezi.
➢ Its source is on the Luangwa/Lake Malawi watershed in the Mafinga hills.
➢ It joins the Zambezi River in the Luangwa District.
➢ The north and south Luangwa National Parks that lie along the river are popular tourist
attractions.
Chambeshi –Luapula River
➢ This is one river with two names. In the Northern Province it is called the Chambeshi.
➢ The same river is called Luapula in Luapula province.
➢ This river flows towards the northern side of the Congo-Zambezi watershed: Its source
is in the Mbala highlands, from where the Chambeshi River enters the Bangweulu
swamps.
➢ It then flows from Lake Bangweulu as the Luapula River before entering Lake Mweru.
➢ From Lake Mweru it joins the Luvua River, which is the tributary of the Congo River in
the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Lakes of Zambia
➢ Any body of water that collects in a depression or low-lying inland area is called a
Lake.
➢ The size of lakes can vary from a few square meters to a hundreds of square kilometers.
➢ Lakes can be formed in different ways. These ways include: Artificial or man-made,
earth movement and erosion
Artificial or Made lakes
➢ People build dams across streams and rivers, resulting in artificial lakes varying in sizes.
This is done to use water resource either for generating electricity or for irrigating
farmlands. Examples are Lake Kariba (shared by Zambia and Zimbabwe) and Cabora
Bassa in Mozambique. Both these lakes were created by the building of dams on the
Zambezi River.
Earth movements or Rift valley lakes
➢ The earth‟s outer layer, also called the lakes crust, has two main movements.
Forces of compression, where the crust is flexible, results in the earth‟s crust bending or
warping to form Fold Mountains.
➢ Tension forces occur where two parts of the earth‟s crust are moving or pulling away
from each other, causing deep fractures in the earth‟s crust.
➢ Water is then collected in these deep fractures forming lakes.
➢ These lakes are called rift valley lakes.
Erosion or Depression lakes
➢ Lakes could also be formed by erosion caused by the action of wind or water.
71 | P a g e

➢ Lakes formed in this way are usually not very deep. Lake Bangweulu may have been
formed as a result of wind erosion.
➢ River erosion occurs after the stream cuts a new path straight through a bend in the river,
called a meander. The lake formed by this type or erosion is called an oxbow lake.
➢ Oxbow lakes are often found on the Balozi floodplains during the dry season
Lake Kariba
➢ One of the world‟s largest artificial lakes is Lake Kariba, found on the Zambezi River
along the Gwembe valley in the southern province of Zambia. The lake is shared by
➢ Zambia and Zimbabwe. Lake Kariba was created was created by the building of the
Kariba dam, mainly for the generation of hydro-electric power by Zambia and Zimbabwe
on the south bank of the Zambezi River.
➢ Another power station has since been built on the north bank by Sinoh Hydro Power
Company.
Lake Tanganyika
➢ Lake Tanganyika lies in the northern province of Zambia. The lake forms part of the
East African Rift valley. It is believed to be the second largest, and also the second
deepest, freshwater lake in the world.
➢ The lake is shared by Zambia, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi. It
forms an important waterway that provides transport connections by boat and ferry
between these countries.
Lake Mweru
➢ Lake Mweru is a depression lake that lies on the border between Zambia and the
Democratic republic of Congo (DRC).
➢ The Luapula River flows into the lake from Zambia. It is the only one of the four largest
rivers in Zambia that flows northward from the Congo-Zambezi watershed.
➢ On the DRC side, the Ruvuma River flows from the lake, from where it later joins the
Congo River.
Lake Mweru-wantipa
➢ This is a smaller depression lake than the bigger Lake Mweru.
➢ It lies in the Northern Province of Zambia and is not shared with any other country.
➢ The lake is also known for swamps that lie around it.
Lake Bangweulu
➢ You have already learnt that the Chambeshi River flowing into this lake is the same river as the
Luapula River that flows from the lake.
➢ The lake mostly lies just above 1000 metres above sea level.
➢ The Luapula River probably got its name because in the local Bemba language ukupula
means ``pass through``, like the river passing through Lake Bangweulu.
➢ The lake is almost surrounded by the Bangweulu swamps.
Swamps of Zambia
➢ Swamps are wetland areas, usually found near lakes or rivers.
➢ These are land areas that are not totally under water as in the lakes or rivers themselves,
but they remain wet and soggy all year round.
72 | P a g e

➢ Trees and other plants such as reeds grow very well in these swamps, and they provide a
home to a large variety of birdlife and other animals.
➢ Swamps act like giant sponges that trap water, while at the same time the act like filters
to purify the water.
Examples of swamps found in Zambia.
➢ Bangweulu swamp
➢ Lukanga swamp
➢ Mweru-Wa-Ntipa swamp
➢ Luena flats
➢ Kashiji plains
CULTURAL FEATURES OF ZAMBIA

➢ Cultural features are man-made features and they include roads, railway lines, bridges,
buildings, dams and some lakes.
Zambia’s road, railway network, and bridges
➢ Zambia is criss-crossed by a network of roads and railway lines, with bridges across
rivers and valleys on the major road routes and railway lines.
Road network and bridges
➢ Zambia has more than 90 000 km of roads, of which only around 20 000 are paved. Only
about 7 000 km of the roads are trunk or main routes. Many of the untarred roads in
➢ Zambia become impassable during the rainy season.
In the 1970s, Zambia used to have one of the best highway networks in Africa, but the
high cost of maintaining these roads led to many becoming badly neglected, the
government is however working on improving the road network through the introduction
of a road fund levy on fuel and with international aid.
➢ Bridges are expensive to build and maintain. Therefore, on smaller roads, pontoons and
ferries are still used as an alternative ways of crossing rivers as part of the road network
in the country.
Railway network and bridges
➢ The rail system connects landlocked Zambia with harbors in various neighboring countries.
This ensures various routes for exports such as mining and farming products. Passenger
transport is also available on some of the routes.
Zambia Railways
➢ The national railway of Zambia operates most of the railway routes in Zambia.
➢ The Victoria Falls bridge connects the Zambian rail network to the Zimbabwe rail
network, and then to ports in Mozambique (Beira and Maputo) and Durban in South
Africa.
➢ The Copperbelt railway line links up with Lubumbashi in the Democratic Republic of
Congo via Ndola and Sakania. A line connected to the Benguela railway through Angola
has not operated since the 1970s.
➢ A rail link between Malawi and Zambia to allow access to the port of nacala via Chipata
73 | P a g e

is not used much because there are few facilities available at Chipata.
TAZARA:
➢ (The Tazara railway) is a separate railway system linking Zambia and Tanzania.
➢ It links up with Zambia Railways at Kapiri-Mposhi just north of Lusaka, and provides a
link to the Tanzanian port of Dar es Salaam.
➢ It was completed in 1976 by Chinese construction crews to give Zambia an alternative
export route for copper that did not depend on South Africa during the apartheid.
Revision questions
➢ State four major rivers found in Zambia stating their sources.
➢ Mention the importance of rivers, lakes and swamps.
➢ What is the difference between physical and cultural features?
➢ Give examples of physical and cultural features.
SETTLEMENTS
➢ A settlement is a place where people live. A human settlement is defined as a place inhabited
more or less permanently.
The following are the types of settlement:
Dispersed or isolated settlement:
➢ This is the type of settlement where individual buildings lie isolated or part from one another.
➢ This type of settlement is mostly common in rural areas where the population is sparse
Nucleated or clustered settlement:

➢ These are settlement arranged in such a way that there are a number of houses close together. In
these settlements there are social amenities such as shops, schools, places of worship etc.
Linear settlement:
➢ This is the type settlement where buildings are built in a line along a road, river or stream. This
type of settlement is usually planned
74 | P a g e

Factors influencing rural settlement
➢ Water supply: people in the rural areas settle in areas with water bodies especially rivers
➢ Land: people want to settle in areas with fertile soils for the to practice agriculture
➢ Upland: villages are located on uplands which is not prone to flooding. Thus in low lying
rivers basins people chose to settle on terraces and levees which are “dry points.”
➢ Building materials: the availability of building materials such as those for constructing
houses
➢ Mining: people have settled in areas with mineral e.g. in the copper belt
➢ Transport: most settlements tend to develop along the lines of communications e.g. along
roads and railway line
DRAINAGE PATTERNS
➢ A drainage pattern refers to the total network formed by the river and its tributaries over the
surface of the earth. There are three types of drainage patterns namely:
➢ Dendritic drainage
➢ Trellis drainage
➢ Radial drainage
Dendritic drainage
➢ Dendritic or tree like drainage pattern developed on homogenous rock or beds of equal
resistance. The initial stream that exists as a consequence of the slope is called the
consequent stream.
➢ If the rocks are composed of homogeneous beds of uniform resistance to erosion, the tributaries
will join the main valley obliquely as in sequent streams.
Trellis or rectangular drainage pattern

➢ This forms when faulting causes rectangular rock joining on which rivers develop. The
tributaries join the main streams at right angles (900). The drainage pattern which will be developed
will be rectangular in shape and is called trellis drainage pattern. Trellised or
rectangular drainage pattern developed on alternating outcrops of harder and softer rocks
75 | P a g e

Radial drainage pattern
➢ This is develops on a dome shaped landforms such as volcanic or glaciated hills from which
rivers radiate into different.
➢ It appears just like the spokes of the bicycle wheel
➢ An example of radial drainage pattern is on Mount Egmont in North Island, New Zealand
Revision questions
1. What is the difference between a map and a diagram?
2. Give the characteristics of a map.
3. Define settlement and give the three types of settlement pattern.
TOPIC THREE
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Weather
➢ Weather is the average atmospheric condition of a place at a specific time or for a short period
of time. It can also be said to be the state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place is called
➢ weather. Weather conditions are made up of different elements, such as sunshine or rainfall.
Climate
➢ Weather is the average atmospheric condition of a place over a long period of time usually the
minimum being 30 years. The word climate refers to the average weather over a long period of
time, such as over 30 years. Climate is therefore the variation in weather in elements, such as
temperature or rainfall, for a given area over a much longer time period than in the case of
weather.
The difference between weather and climate
76 | P a g e

➢ The words weather and climate are sometimes used as if they mean the same thing, but
there is a difference between them.
➢ Both refer to the conditions of the atmosphere; that is, to what is happening in the layer of
air that surrounds the earth.
➢ The difference lies in the time period that each word refers to, as explained below
Elements of weather
➢ Temperature
➢ Rainfall
➢ Humidity
➢ Pressure
➢ Cloud cover and sunshine
➢ Wind direction and strength.
➢ These elements are measured and recorded at a place called weather station or meteorological
station.
➢ A weather station is a place where the elements of weather are measured and recorded as
accurately as possible.
➢ Each station has a Stevenson screen which contains four thermometers all hung from a
frame in the centre of the screen.
➢ These are the maximum thermometer, minimum thermometer, wet bulb
thermometer, dry bulb thermometer.
77 | P a g e

The screen has the following features
➢ It is built so as to measure the shade temperature of the air.
➢ It has louvered sides of allow free entry of air.
➢ The roof is made of two wooden layers to form a bad conductor of heat
➢ The screen is painted white so as to improve insulation.
➢ The screen is placed on a stand about 121 cm above ground level.
➢ One side of the screen is hinged and it acts as a door.
Atmospheric temperature
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of something. It is how hot or cold
something or an object is.
➢ Temperature is measured using an instrument called thermometer.
➢ Temperature is observed by measurering the highest (maximum) and lowest (minimum)
temperatures of a day
➢ Temperature is measured in degrees centigrade (oc) or degrees Fahrenheit (oF)
➢ The Celsius or centigrade scale is commonly used on this scale 0oC represents freezing point
of water, and the 100o represents the boiling point of water.
➢ On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 320F and the boiling point is 212oF.
Measurement of temperature
➢ Maximum and minimum temperatures are measured by the maximum and minimum
thermometers
➢ These are in form of separate thermometers or joined in a U – Shaped tube called a six‟s
thermometer.
Maximum and Minimum Thermometer

To measure maximum temperature
➢ Mercury in the glass tube expands when the temperature rises. This pushes the index in the
right hand limb up to maximum
➢ The end of the index nearest the mercury gives the reading of the maximum temperature this
is 30oC in our example
➢ To reset the index for next day‟s reading; draw it back by a magnet.
To measure minimum temperature
78 | P a g e

Minimum temperature probably occurs early in the morning when temperature falls.
➢ The alcohol in the left – hand limb contracts.
➢ The mercury flows in the reverse direction.
➢ The index is pushed up along the left hand limb.
➢ When temperature rises, the alcohol flows past the index leaving it where it was pushed
➢ The end of the index farthest from the bulb gives the reading of the minimum temperature.
➢ This is 100C in our example
➢ To reset the index draw it back by a magnet.
Temperature Record
The following are used to keep a temperature record;
Mean daily temperature:
➢ This is the average of maximum and minimum e. g (30oC+10oC) ÷ 2 = 20oC
Daily or Diurnal Range:
➢ This is the difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures of a day. e.g. (Max
30oC- Min10oC) = 20oC
The annual temperature:
➢ This is the difference between the mean temperature of the hottest month and that of the
coldest month.
The mean annual temperature:
➢ This is the sum of mean month temperature for one year divided by 12 months.
The mean monthly temperature
➢ This refers to the sum of mean daily temperatures for one month divided by the number of
days in that month.
26
➢ On weather maps places having the same temperature are joined by a smooth line. Such a
line is called an isotherm.
Rainfall
➢ Rainfall is caused by the effect of solar radiation over land and water bodies.
➢ Solar radiation refers to the energy from sun.
➢ This energy gives rise, to various types of weather and climate.
➢ Solar radiation over sources or bodies of water causes evaporation.
The process of evaporation
➢ Solar energy causes water to be transformed into vapour. This vapour enters the atmosphere
by: Evaporation from sea and land surfaces and transpiration from plants
➢ The combined total of evaporation and transpiration is termed Evapotranspiration.
The rate of evaporation depends on the following factors:
➢ The temperature of evaporating surface. Evaporation is higher if the temperature of
evaporating surface is higher than that of the air.
➢ Relative humidity of the air evaporation is also highest if air is relatively dry.
➢ Wind speed. It is also high if winds are strongest evaporation is greater in summer than in
winter.
➢ It is also higher in tropical latitudes than in winter. It is also higher in tropical latitudes than
in temperate and polar latitudes.
Condensation
➢ When warm air rises, it is cooled and its capacity to hold water vapour is reduced
➢ Condensation will occur if the rising air contains water vapour
➢ The water molecules will pass into a liquid state and subsequently return to land and sea
79 | P a g e

as precipitation, condensation may take the form of minute droplets of clouds, rain, mist
dew or fog.
➢ Water of oceans, atmosphere and land moves in a great cycle
➢ This involves evaporation from sea and land, condensation to form clouds and
precipitation in form of rain or snow
➢ This exchange is called the water cycle or hydrologic cycle.
Types of rainfall
There are three major types of rainfall and these are:
Convectional rainfall.
➢ This type of rainfall is most common in regions that are intensely heated, either during
the day, as in the tropics, or in the summer, as in temperate interiors
➢ When the earth‟s surface is heated by conduction, moisture-laden vapour rises because
heated air always expands, and becomes lighter
➢ Air rises in a convection current after a prolonged period of intense heating
➢ When ascending, the water vapor condenses into cumulonimbus clouds with a great
vertical extent
➢ This probably reaches its maximum in the afternoon when the convectional system is
well developed
➢ Hot, rising air has great capacity for holding moisture, which is abundant in regions of
high relative humidit. As the air rises, it cools and when saturation point is reached, torrential
downpours occur accompanied by thunder and lightning.
Conventional Rainfall
Orographic or relief rain

➢ Unlike convectional rain which is caused by convection currents, orographic rain is
formed whenever moist air is forced to ascend a mountain barrier
➢ It is best developed on the windward slopes of mountains where the prevailing moisture –
laden winds come from the sea
➢ The air is compelled to rise and is thereby cooled by expansion in the higher altitudes and
the subsequent decrease in the atmospheric pressure
➢ Further ascent cools the air until the air is completely saturated (relative humidity is 100
80 | P a g e

per cent)
➢ Condensation takes place forming clouds and eventually rain
➢ Since it is covered by the relief of the land it is also known as relief rain
➢ The other side of the mountain where there is little or no rainfall is called the leeward
slope
➢ The wind is dry and does not bring rain
➢ The area is termed the rain shadow e.g. the Luangwa valley in the lee of the Muchinga
Escarpment.
Cyclonic or frontal rain
This type of rainfall independent of relief or convection

➢ It is purely associated with cyclonic activity whether in temperate regions (depressions)
or tropical regions (cyclones)
➢ Basically it is due to the convergence (meeting) of two different air masses with different
temperatures and other physical properties
➢ As cold air is denser, it tends to remain close to the ground
➢ The warm air is lighter and tends to rise over the cold air
➢ In ascent, pressure decreases, the air expands and cools, condensat ion takes place and
Light showers called cyclonic or frontal rain occur.
81 | P a g e

Cyclonic or frontal rain (depression)
Measurement of rainfall
➢ An instrument called a rain gauge is used to measure rainfall. Rainfall is measured in
millimetres or inches.
A rain gauge consists of the following parts;-
a. A metal or plastic container
b. A funnel
c. A graduate jar or measuring cylinder.
➢ Rain falling in the funnel trickles into the jar or measuring cylinder shown above
➢ Measurements are taken every 24 hours.
➢ The reading obtained is the depth of rain that has fallen over area equipment to the top of
the funnel.
Position of rain Gauge
➢ It must be sunk into the ground level. This is to prevent rain from splashing into the funnel
from the g round.
➢ It must be sunk into the ground to prevent excessive evaporation of rain water from the jar
➢ It must be placed in an open space. This is to prevent run - off water from buildings and trees
from entering the funnel.
Recording rainfall
➢ On weather maps all places having the same quantity of rainfall are joined by a line known as
isohyets.
Humidity of the air
➢ Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour that may be present in the air.
➢ This amount of water vapour varies from what air can hold at a given temperature and the
actual amount of water vapour in the air is very important.
➢ This is called relative Humidity (R. H.). It is expressed as a percentage (%).
Example:
➢ If R. H. is 60% a temperature of 30oC, then air is only holding 6/10th of the water vapour it
could hold at that temperature.
➢ There is a limit to the quantity of water vapour that can be held by the air.
This limit is known as the saturation point.
➢ This means that the air is saturated when the R. H. is 100%.
Humidity and temperature
82 | P a g e

➢ The amount of water vapour air can hold depends on temperature. When temperature
rises air can hold more vapour.
➢ When temperature falls it cannot hold as much wate4r vapour.
➢ When relative humidity is at 100% the air cannot cont6ain excess water vapour.
➢ Any further addition will cause condensation to occur.
➢ Condensation may take the form of; Minute droplets of clouds, Rainy, mist, Dew or fog
NOTE: The critical temperature at which the air is fully saturated is called the dew point. Below
this point condensation will take place.
Measurement of humidity
➢ An instrument called a Hygrometer is used to measure Humidity.
➢ This consists of a wet bulb and dry bulb thermometers.
The hygrometer
The wet and dry thermometers, (also called hygrometers) allow the calculation of the humidity
of the air
➢ When air is not saturated water evaporate from the container and the muslin become wet.
➢ This cools the wet bulb and caused the mercury to contract.
➢ The dry bulb is not affected and so the two thermometers show different readings.
➢ The difference between the readings of the two thermometers is an indication of humidity
in the air.
Thermometer reading Amount of Humidity
➢ Large difference low humidity
➢ Small difference High humidity
➢ No difference air is saturated
Atmospheric air pressure
83 | P a g e

➢ Air exerts weight on the earth‟s surface.
➢ This weight is called atmospheric pressure.
➢ A column of air 1sq cm in cross sectional areas extending from the sea level to the top of
the atmosphere weights 1. 034 kg.
➢ Hence at sea level the atmospheric pressure is 1.034 kg per sq cm or 14.7 ibs per sq in.
➢ Pressure is made up of a number of mixed gases and has weight.
➢ It therefore exerts a pressure on the earth‟s surface which varies from place to place and
from time to time.
➢ On the maps places of equal pressure are joined by lines called isobars.
➢ Atmospheric pressure varies with both temperature and altitude.
Temperature and air pressure
➢ High temperature causes air to rise.
➢ This lessens pressure acting on the surface. Hence;
➢ High temperature areas are associated with low pressure (e.g. Equator belt). Regions of
continuous low pressure belt are known as doldrums areas.
➢ Low temperature areas are commonly associated with high pressure. This is because air is
always descending.
Altitudes
➢ This is the height above sea level
➢ Air is compressible; Air which lies lowest is most greatly compressed, and is therefore
densest.
➢ Upwards both density and pressure fall rapidly
Measurement of pressure
➢ Air pressure is measured in a unit known as millibar (mb) and instrument that measures
atmospheric pressure is a barometer.
These are two types of barometers. These are:
The Mercury barometer
➢ This is a very accurate although cumbersome instrument.
➢ In this instrument pressure is read in inches or in height of mercury in the glass tube
balanced by the atmospheric pressure.
At sea level this is 29.92 inches or 76 cm (760 mm) in metric units
A Mercury Barometer
➢ A mercury barometer is an inverted tube which has a vacuum at the top, the open end is
placed in mercury bath.
➢ The pressure of the air forces the mercury up the tube and the height of the mercury
gives the air pressure, this is often quoted as „inches of mercury‟.
84 | P a g e

➢ This varies with the weather. Low air pressure usually suggests changeable weather,
whereas high pressure usually means stable weather.
The Aneroid Barometer
➢ This instrument consists of a hollow metal box which contains very little air.
➢ The top of the box is flexible so that it expands and contracts according to changes in
atmosphere pressure outside the box.
➢ This movement operates a hand which is read against the graduated circular dia.
Aneroid Barometer
Wind direction and speed
➢ Wind is air in motion and has both direction and speed.
➢ The instrument widely used for measuring wind direction is a wind vane or weather
cock.
➢ As wind direction is always deflected by trees and tall buildings weather cocks and wind
vanes need to be created in an exposed position to get a true direction.
It is made up of top two parts. These are:
➢ One part is an arrow or vane on the top, which is free to move with the prevailing wind.
➢ The other part with the four compass points is stationery and shows in which direction
the wind is moving
➢ Winds are always named from the direction they blow; an east wind is one that blows
from east to west and a south –west wind is one that blows from the south to west.
Wind vanes
85 | P a g e

Wind rose
➢ It is used for recording the direction of prevailing winds of a place over a period of a
month.
➢ It consists of an octagon with the eight compass points.
➢ Each of the rectangles represents the date in which the wind comes from that direction
(e.g.) on the fourth of the month, the wind is north east.
➢ These days which are without any wind is recorded in the box of the calms, and the
number of calm days are indicated in the centre of the octagon e.g. 3 days in that month.
A wind rose
Anemometer
➢ It is used to measure the speed of wind.
➢ It consists of three or four semi – circular cups attached to the ends of horizontal spokes
mounted on a high vertical shaft.
➢ Metal cups are fixed to the ends of the arms, and they do rotate when there is wind.
➢ The movement operates a meter which records the speed of the wind in km per hour.
The Anemometer
➢ Since an anemometer is not easily available, a little practice of local wind observations
will help us to assess the speed can be said about the strength of winds.
➢ The best guide is obtainable from the Beaufort wind scale
Sunshine
➢ The amount of sunshine a place receives depends on the seasons a factor determined by
latitude and by the position of the earth in its revolution around the sun.
➢ In the tropics sunshine is abundant and at the poles there is less or no sunshine in the
metrological station, sunshine duration is recorded by a sun dial, 102 mm (4inches in
diameter, through which the sun‟s rays are focused upon a sensitized card graduated in
86 | P a g e

hours.
➢ An instrument which is used to measure sunshine is called sunshine recorder.
➢ On the maps places with equal sunshine duration are joined by isohels.
Sunshine recorder
Clouds Cover
➢ When air rises, it is cooled by expansion.
➢ After dew point has been reached cooling leads to condensation of water vapourin the
atmosphere.
➢ Tiny droplets of water vapour which are too small to fall as rain or snow will be
suspended in the air and float as clouds.
➢ Their form shape, height and movements tell us a great deal about the sky conditions and
the weather we are likely to experience.
➢ The amount of cloud cover in the sky is expressed in eights or oktas (e.g. 2/8 is quarter
covered 4/8 is half covered; 6/8 is three quarters obscured and 8/8 is completely overcast).
➢ On the maps places with an equal degree of cloudiness are joined by lines known as
isonephs
Factors influencing weather
➢ Different factors influence the weather in different parts of the world, and therefore also
cause the climate to be different in different parts of the world.
➢ These factors include seasons, latitudes, altitudes and prevailing winds from the sea
Seasons
➢ To understand seasons, we need to understand that the earth moves in two ways:
➢ The spins or rotates on its axis (an imaginary line down its centre), like soccer
player spinning a ball on his or her fingertip.
➢ This rotation of the earth cause day and night.
➢ While the earth is rotating on its axis, it also revolves or moves in a fixed path
called an orbit around the sun.
➢ One revolution of the earth around the sun takes 365
days.
➢ The earth‟s is title at 23 degrees. This tilt is why we have seasons.
➢ When the axis points towards the sun, it is summer for that hemisphere.
➢ When the axis points away from the sun, that hemisphere will have winter.
87 | P a g e

Altitude
➢ Altitude refers to how high or low a place is above sea level.

➢ Generally places at a higher altitude are cooler than places at a low altitude.
➢ When we look at the climate of Zambia in the next section, we will see how the effects of
altitude and latitude (discuss on the next page) together affect the temperatures in different
parts of the country.
Latitude
➢ Latitude refers to how far north or south of the equator a specific place is. Since the earth is
round and not flat, the sun‟s rays fall unevenly on the land and oceans on different parts of
the earth:
➢ The sun‟s rays are direct near the equator.
➢ It is hotter closer to the equator.
➢ The polar region at the top and bottom of the globe, however, at such an angle to sun that
they get little or no sunlight during the winter, causing much colder temperatures.
Prevailing winds and distances from the sea
Global air movements
➢ The differences in temperature between parts of the world at different latitudes create a
movement of air and water in great swirling currents.
➢ These movements distribute heat energy from the sun across the planet.
➢ When air in one region is warmer than the surrounding air, it becomes less dense and begins
to rise, drawing in more air underneath. Cooler, denser air sinks, pushing air outward to flow
along the surface and complete the cycle.
➢ These movements of air create winds that blow from a certain direction at certain times of the year
for different places.
➢ We refer to these typical wind patterns as the prevailing winds for a certain area.
Ocean currents
➢ Ocean currents also distribute heat energy around the planet.
➢ The position and distance from the sea of a certain place also therefore affect its weather.
➢ For example, temperature of places along the coast is affected by ocean currents.
➢ Along the east coast of southern Africa, there are the warm agulhas and Mozambique
currents.
➢ On the west coast of southern Africa, there is a cold current called the Benguela current.
88 | P a g e

➢ Temperatures along the east coast of Africa are therefore higher than along the west coast.
➢ When winds blow in from the sea, they contain more moisture than winds that blow fro,
inland areas.
➢ The distance and position of a place relative to the sea will therefore also affect its rainfall.
Climate of Zambia
Zambia’s tropical climate
➢ Zambia lies in the tropical areas near the equator, and therefore has a tropical climate.
A tropical climate has the following characteristics:
➢ Summers have high temperature and rainfalls in the summer.
➢ The rainfall is usually in the form of thunderstorms.
➢ Winters have low temperature and have on rainfall.
➢ Winter temperatures are not as low as in areas further away from the equator, so it does
not snow in the tropics (except on some very high mountain peaks, such as mount Kilimanjaro in
Tanzania)
Seasons in Zambia
➢ Because of its tropical climate, Zambia does not experience seasonal changes between
spring, autumn and winter as in areas further away from the equator. There are three main
seasons in Zambia:
➢ Hot, dry season (August to November)
➢ Rainy season (mid November to April)
➢ Cool season (May to August).
Zambia’s temperature and rainfall characteristics
Temperature
➢ Temperatures in different parts of Zambia are influenced by two factors:
Latitude:
➢ This means the distance away from the equator. It is hotter near the equator because the
sun is are more direct throughout the year.
➢ Example: Mwinilunga is hotter than Lusaka because it is closer to the equator.
Altitude:
➢ This means how high or low a place is above sea level. It is generally cooler at higher
altitudes, such as on highlands or mountains, than at low altitudes, such as valleys.
➢ Example: Mbala lies at a high altitude and is therefore cooler than Chirundu in the lowlying
Zambezi valley.
Relationship between altitude and temperature
➢ In terms of temperature, Zambia can generally be divided into two regions: the hot lowland
region and the warm highland region.
➢ However, there are intermediate regions in between these two general region where
temperature patterns differ from the general patterns.
Hot lowland region
➢ Hot low land regions include the Zambezi and Luangwa valleys
➢ Hot low regions have about 8 months of maximum temperature of over 26◦C
➢ Hot low regions are usually very days and warm nights
➢ Temperature decreases a little during rainy season, but with high humidity.
➢ There is a very short period of cool weather.
Warm highland region
➢ The plateau and highlands areas make up the rest of the country is the warm region.
➢ Most towns in Zambia fall in this region
89 | P a g e

➢ The highland region has generally pleasant climate
➢ Average annual temperature ranges from 18◦C to 21◦C.
Effect of climate on human activities
➢ It affects our health, behavior, eating habits, choice of clothes and recreation
➢ It affects our farming system as farmers depend on weather factors
➢ It affect how people live as people wants to live in areas with pleasant weather
➢ The type of houses people live in are also influenced by climate.
➢ It affects population distribution, places with good climate are popular and vice versa.
Impact of human activities on climate
➢ The effects of human on climate are often negative.
➢ Three processes are related to understanding the effects of human activities on climate
➢ These processes are: climate change, global warming and Greenhouse effect.
Climate Change
➢ Climate change" is a broader term that refers to weather trends observed over relatively
long periods of time (many decades or longer)
➢ Climate change can include many variables (temperature, precipitation, wind direction,
wind speed) and different geographic scales (over a continent, within an ocean, for the Northern
Hemisphere, for the planet
Global Warming
➢ Global warming" refers to the increase of the Earth's average surface temperature due to a build-up
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
➢ The measurable increases in the average temperature of Earth‟s atmosphere, oceans, and
landmasses.
➢ The rise in the temperature of the earth‟s atmosphere due to natural causes and human
activities.
➢ Example of natural causes: emissions from volcanic eruptions.
➢ Example of human activities: burning of fissile fuels and destruction of vegetation cover.
➢ Scientists believe Earth is currently facing a period of rapid warming.
➢ Warming brought by increasing levels of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere.
➢ These gases are known as greenhouse gases.
➢ Earth has warmed and cooled many times since its formation.
This has led to global climate change.
Reasons for global climate change:
➢ Massive volcanic eruptions, which increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
➢ Changes in the intensity of energy emitted by the Sun.
➢ Variations in Earth‟s position relative to the Sun, both in its orbit and in the inclination of its spin
axis.
➢ Variations in Earth‟s position, known as Milankovitch cycles, combine to produce cyclical
changes in the global climate.
➢ These cycles are believed to be responsible for the repeated advance and retreat of glaciers
and ice sheets during the Pleistocene Epoch.
➢ During this period (pleistocene Epoch), the Earth went through regular cycles of colder
“glacial” periods and warmer “interglacial” periods.
➢ Eras of colder “glacial” periods are known as ice ages. This led to formation of different
kinds of landforms of erosion and deposition in Canada and USA.
➢ In interglacial periods, greenhouse gases (e.g. carbon dioxide and methane) naturally
90 | P a g e

increased in the atmosphere.
➢ The increase was from increased plant and animal life.
➢ Since 1750 (Industrial Revolution) greenhouse gases have increased dramatically.
➢ This is due to rapid growth of human population together with developments in technology
and agriculture.
➢ Human activities now a major cause of global warming and climate change.
The Greenhouse Effect
➢ When sun‟s rays pass through the atmosphere, certain gases trap some of the sun‟s heat.
➢ This causes the earth to warm.
➢ This natural way of warming the earth is known as greenhouse effect.
➢ Greenhouse gases occur naturally, and without them the planet would be too cold to sustain
life.
➢ Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the mid- 1700s, human activities have
added more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
➢ For example, levels of carbon dioxide, a powerful greenhouse gas, have risen by 35 percent
since 1750.
➢ The rise is largely from burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
How it takes place
➢ Solar energy enters the atmosphere and is absorbed by the earth.
➢ The energy is reflected back through the atmosphere.
➢ Some of the energy is (one third) is trapped by greenhouse gases.
➢ This increases the warmth of the atmosphere.
Examples of greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide. Methane. CFCs. Nitrous Oxide.

➢ Water Vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas.
91 | P a g e

➢ It reaches the atmosphere through evaporation from oceans, lakes, and rivers.
➢ The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is not directly affected by human activities.
➢ Carbon Dioxide is the second most abundant greenhouse gas after water vapor.
➢ It is released into the atmosphere from natural processes and human activities.
➢ Carbon Dioxide Natural sources include: Eruptions of volcanoes.
➢ Respiration of animals, which breathe in oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide.
➢ Burning or decay of plants and other organic matter.
➢ Carbon dioxide can also remain in the atmosphere a century or more before nature can
dispose of it.
Adverse effects of global warming and climate change:
➢ Increase in sea level.
➢ Decrease in water resources.
➢ Change in ecosystems.
➢ Change in landscapes.
➢ Change in vegetation zones.
➢ Increased risk of drought and fires.
➢ Increased risk of floods.
➢ Increase in disease levels.
➢ Increased migration pressures and conflicts.
➢ More stronger storms and hurricanes.
➢ Increased economic loss and damage.
➢ Higher temperatures.
➢ A decrease in global food production levels.
Solutions to Global Warming
➢ Reduce methane emissions.
➢ Reduce emissions of nitrous oxide and ozone Preserve the carbon dioxide sink.
➢ Reduce greenhouse gases.
➢ Replace fossil fuels; Replace fossil fuels with cleaner sources of energy.
➢ Replace with solar power, wind power and hydrogen cells.
➢ They do not emit any greenhouse gases.
➢ Preserve and plant trees, Trees absorb carbon dioxide. Need for re-forestation and reafforestation.
➢ Recycle paper, Recycle paper and buy recycled products.
➢ Recycling paper saves trees. Recycling paper also saves energy.
➢ Reduce use of CFCs, use of new chemicals to replace CFCs.
➢ The substitutes include hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs),
and per fluorocarbons (PFCs).
Revision questions
1. What is the difference between weather and climate?
2. List the elements of weather and climate.
3. State and explain factors which influence climate.
TOPIC FOUR: FORESTS AND THEIR PRODUCTS

Meaning of forest
92 | P a g e

➢ It is the caring and planting of trees
➢ It is done by the forestry department which is under the ministry of environment and
natural resources
Types of vegetation in Zambia
➢ The natural vegetation (types of plants) found in Zambia is referred to as tropical grasslands or
savanna. This means that the veld has a mixture of grasses and trees, and that there are also area
with denser forests of trees.
Open forests
➢ Open forests consists of trees which do not form a dense canopy such as acacia and
monape trees.
➢ Forests are large areas covered with trees. This allows sun-loving smaller bushes and tall
grasses to grow under them. These open forests make up part of the savanna grasslands
that cover most of Zambia.
➢ These areas are also called woodlands. The fires are sometimes caused by lightning or
other natural causes, but are always caused by human activities, such as burning trees to
clear land for planting crops.
Closed forests
➢ Closed forests are very dense that they form a canopy, blocking out the sun from the
ground.
➢ The trees may grow naturally or maybe planted by people.
➢ Where trees have grown naturally, it is called a natural forest.
➢ If trees have been planted by people, such a forest, it is referred to as a forest plantation.
Swamps
➢ Here the vegetation mostly consists of grasslands and logs that can survive the waterlogged soil
conditions.
Types of tree species
➢ There are two groups of forests that are under the forestry department and these are
exotic forests and indigenous forests
Exotic Forests
➢ These are planted by people inn forest plantations for the purpose of using the wood, or
trees from other countries growing in gardens or parks in cities. Example pine trees.
93 | P a g e

➢ These are plantations that have been established by the forest department in all. The districts in
Zambia
➢ They are made up of the foreign types of trees like the pine, eucalyptus, fir and
Cedar most of these trees are soft wood trees except the eucalyptus, they have a fast growth,
grow in pure stands, are of a timber value and are evergreen
➢ They are also resistant to diseases
➢ They grow straight
Indigenous Forests
➢ There are trees naturally found in forests and woodlands in Zambia example is mopane
trees.
➢ These are forest reserves that have been established throughout the country
➢ These are reserved for research and future use
➢ They are mainly found on stream banks and catchment areas
➢ They are made up of the local type of trees
➢ The trees are deciduous, have an umbrella shape, do not grow in pure stands, hard to work on
have a slow growth and very few types are of timber value
Indegenous forests and tree species
➢ Natural forests include the Livunda dry evergreen forests south of Kabompo River in
North-Werstern province, and the dry evergreen forests bordering in dambo (westlands).
➢ They also include swamp forests in high rainfall areas in the copperbelt, and the mopane
forest of the Nyika plateu and Makutu mountains.
➢ Natural forests are also found along the upper escarpments of the Luangwa and Luapula
Rivers.
Trees of the savanna woodlands
Savanna woodlands cover most of the country and consist of three types:
Milombo woodlands cover about 70% of the country.
➢ Kalahari woodlands are found in the sandy areas of the Western province.
➢ Munga woodlands consist of acacia trees.
➢ All these woodlands are made up of trees with grasses growing beneath them.
➢ The savanna woodlands consist mostly of deciduous trees.
➢ This means that the trees lose their leaves during the dry season.
➢ The trees have adapted to survive dry conditions in different ways.
94 | P a g e

Main tree species in the woodlands
Msasa trees are the most common trees in the savanna woodlands.
➢ These trees can grow up to 18 meters high in areas with higher rainfall, such as in Northern and
North-western provinces.
➢ The grasses growing in msasa woodlands provide good grazing for cattle and wildlife.
➢ Mopane woodlands are found in hotter and drier areas. Mopane trees can resist fires, but are
sensitive to frost that might occur when night temperatures drop suddenly.
➢ Baoba trees are also found in mopane woodlands.They have thick trunks to store in water.
➢ Acacia or thorn trees are umbrella-shaped to shade their roots from the hot sun.
➢ Mukusi (Zambian teak) trees are found in denser decidious forests in dry areas.
Evergreen forests
➢ Evergreen forests occur in high rainfall areas, such as in some highland areas.
➢ There is enough rainfall for the trees to grow new leaves and appear green throughout the
year.
➢ Evergreen forests are made up of taller trees that can grow as tall as 25 to 30 metres.
➢ There is a lower layer of smaller trees growing beneath the taller trees.
➢ Common trees in the evergreen forests include mupundu, kayimbi and mukwa.
➢ A type of evergreen forests called riverine forests are found along rivers and swamps, and in
areas that get flooded seasonally.
Exotic tree species and forest plantations
➢ Forest plantations are found in all the provinces of Zambia.
➢ They are planted by the forestry department to provide alternative sources of wood so that
Zambia's indigenous tree species and can be preserved.
➢ The largest is the Chichele plantation in the copperbelt.
➢ Pine trees are the most common type of exotic tree planted in forest plantations.
➢ Other exotic tree species include eucalyptus trees.
➢ Some exotic trees and plants can be invasive and take over the natural vegetation.
➢ It is therefore important for exotic to be controlled to prevent this.
Forest products and their uses
➢ Trees and forests provide a range of benefits.
➢ The most important of these is that forests act as the “green lungs” of the planet.
➢ Trees absorb carbon dioxide which they use in making their own food through the
95 | P a g e

process of photosynthesis.
➢ Oxygen, which humans and animals need to breathe in to stay alive, is then released.
➢ Forests provide many products that we use in our everyday lives.
Importance of Forests
➢ Construction materials for homes and public buildings like schools and hospitals
➢ Countries to oxygen production in the atmosphere through photosynthesis
➢ Fire wood for cooking and heating
➢ Food for both animals and human beings
➢ For production of charcoal
➢ Good scenery especially in highland areas
➢ Grass and fibres for mats and baskets, building houses and shelters
➢ Protection of the catchment areas from soil erosion.
➢ Protection of the soil from drying up
➢ Raw materials for industries like sawmills, pulp and paper
Constraints on forestry
➢ Chitemene system which has contributed to deforestation in most parts of Zambia
➢ Forest fires which destroys the trees especially late burning
➢ Lumbering and charcoal burning which has contributed to the finishing of trees.
➢ Overgrazing by animals
➢ Pests and diseases which attacks the trees
Deforestation
➢ Deforestation means that forests are cleared for various purposes at a faster rate than the
forests can grow again.
Causes of deforestation
➢ Clearing forests for commercial farming practices that require and burning of trees for
farmland.
➢ Commercial logging for timber.
➢ Cutting of trees for charcoal and firewood.
Negative effects deforestation.
➢ Destruction of biodiversity and changes in climate patterns all over the world.
➢ It can lead to desertification, with useful forests turning into useless deserts.
96 | P a g e

➢ Migration of animals and birds to other areas for shelter. Shortages of wood fuel.
Forest conservation
➢ Forests can be conserved and preserved through dedicated efforts by all citizens and
government.
Ways to conserve forests:
➢ Commercial forestry programs for timber to protect our natural forests.
➢ Control and regulation of bush fire.
➢ Control and regulation of charcoal burning.
➢ Control of commercial logging.
➢ Educating communities on the importance and values of forest resources.
➢ Tree planting programs
➢ Using renewable sources (wind, solar and water energy) instead of burning wood.
Efforts made by The Government to Boost Forestry
➢ By allowing the non-governmental organizations support the forestry industry
➢ Delinking of ZAFFICO from the forest department in order to improve efficiency
➢ Educating the communities on the importance of caring for forest resources
➢ Embarking on rural electrification which may reduce on use of wood fuel
➢ Encouraging people to plant trees during the tree planting day
➢ Establishment of forest reserves and plantations throughout the country by the forestry
department.
➢ Establishment of the forestry department to control forestry
➢ Fire controls which may destroy trees is being done by the GOVT.
➢ Giving of licences to all those willing to do forestry and lumbering
➢ Introduction punishments to all those found disturbing the forests
➢ It has embarked on afforestation and reafforestation programmes
➢ The forestry department is promoting agro-forestry.
Revision questions
1. Give the importance of forests.
2. Define deforestation and state its causes and effects.
3. State the ways of conserving forests.
97 | P a g e

TOPIC FIVE : AGRICULTURE/FARMING IN ZAMBIA
Agriculture
➢ This is the growing of crops (arable farming) and the keeping of domesticated animals (pastoral
farming) as well as the keeping of birds (poultry farming) either for sell (commercial farming)
or home consumption (subsistence farming).
Factors affecting Agriculture
➢ Climate
➢ Distance from the market
➢ Soils
➢ The role of the government
➢ Transport facilities
Importance of Agriculture
➢ Brings in foreign exchange through exports like tobacco, coffee and cotton
➢ Generates 22% of the Gross Domestic Product (G. D. P) in Zambia.
➢ It contributes to food security, income and economic growth.
➢ Provide raw materials such as cotton, Soya beans and sugar cane for industries
➢ Provides food for people and livestock
➢ Source of income for the majority of people in rural Zambia
Types of Agriculture
There are three types of agricultural systems practiced in Zambia and these are:
Subsistence/Traditional Agriculture
➢ It is the cultivation of crops and the keeping of animals as well as birds for home consumption
with little or no surplus for sale.
➢ The intention of the farmer is to grow crops to feed the family.
➢ This is also called small scale farming
Emergent Agriculture
➢ This is also called semi commercial farming.
➢ It is the growing of crops and the keeping of animals as well as birds enough to feed the
family and sell the extra food.
➢ It is different from traditional farming in that, farmers use modern methods of farming e.g
spraying crops with chemicals.
Commercial Agriculture
➢ This is the growing of crops, keeping of animals as well as birds on large scale for sale.
Subsistence/Traditional Agricultural system
Characteristics
98 | P a g e

➢ Farms are small
➢ Mainly food crops such as maize, millet, cassava, beans, groundnuts, sweet potatoes e.t.c
are grown
➢ Simple tools are used e.g. axes, hoes, pangas and even sticks
➢ The yields are low
➢ They do not use chemicals and fertilizers
Types of Subsistence farming
➢ There are three kinds of subsistence farming systems in Zambia and these are;
The Chitemene system of Agriculture
➢ This system of agriculture is practiced among the Bemba peaking ethnic group of
➢ Northern and Luapula Province.
➢ It is also practiced in various forms in Central, North-Western, Western and Copperbelt
Provinces.
➢ The term „Chitemene‟ is a Bemba word which means cut-over area.
➢ In North-Western Province it is called „Ntena‟
How Chitemene is done
➢ Between May and August, small trees and branches of large trees are chopped down by
men and boys
➢ Smaller trees are chopped about a meter above the ground.
➢ In September/October, women carry branches and pile them up in circular stacks (heaps)
within the cleared area.
➢ Around October/November, at the onset of the rains, the stacks are burnt to produce an
ash bed.
➢ The ash-covered patch is then cultivated
➢ Sowing/planting is done in November/December.
➢ After using the piece of land for 3-4 years, it is abandoned and then the farmer shifts to a
new piece of land (normally virgin) as the old one has lost fertility (hence the name
shifting cultivation).
Crops grown include;
➢ Millet, maize, cassava, pumpkins, myungu, cowpeas, sweet potatoes, sorghum,
groundnuts e.t.c
Factors favouring (encouraging) Chitemene system
Physical factors
➢ High rainfall of about 1000-1600mm makes the soil leached and acidic.
➢ Burning it turns to neutralizes the acidic soil to make it fertile
Poor, infertile soils
➢ Presence of heavy rainfall which encourage the growth of trees.
Social factors
➢ Bembas are not traditional cattle-keepers
➢ Low population densities in places where Chitemene is practiced
Economic factors
➢ The farmers are poor and cannot afford to buy farming inputs e.g. pesticides, inorganic
fertilizers e.t.c
Advantages of Chitemene
➢ Cheap labour (family members provide labour)
➢ It is not time consuming as it avoids stumping which is time consuming (slow)
➢ Makes constant weeding unnecessary as most weeds are burnt
99 | P a g e

➢ No need to buy fertilizers (ash acts as fertilizers)
➢ Soil is not disturbed by deep ploughing
Disadvantages of Chitemene
➢ Although a large area is cleared and so much labour invested, production is low
➢ Encourages soil erosion by cutting down trees and burning the surrounding grassland.
➢ It is very wasteful of trees and encourages deforestation
➢ Nitrogen is lost in the atmosphere by burning
➢ The Eco-system is disturbed.
➢ The habitat (homes for living things) is destroyed.
➢ Useful soil bacteria‟s are destroyed by heat from the fire
Reason for the decline of Chitemene
➢ The government is educating people on the importance of trees and the dangers of
deforestation.
➢ There is decline in the amount of woodland or forests
➢ There is population pressure due to an increase in the number of people in the areas
where Chitemene is practiced.
➢ Transport network to the market has been improved.
The Mambwe-Lungu-Namwanga system
➢ This is another traditional system of farming in Zambia.
➢ It is also called fundika
➢ It is practiced by the Mambwe speaking people.
➢ While Chitemene depends on availability of trees, the Mambwe-Lungu-Namwanga system
evolved due to population pressure and exhaustion of the trees.
How it is done
The system involves:
➢ Making mounds towards the end of the rainy season, between May and April.
➢ A grass patch is usually chosen so that the covered grass can serve as manure.
➢ Opening of the mounds and spreading the manured soil at the beginning of the rainy
season, October/November.
➢ Sowing of millet which is the main staple food crop interspaced by maize, pumpkins and
myungu.
➢ After the first harvest of millet, stubbles are collected in heaps and covered with soil to
make mounds for the second year.
➢ When these are opened up another crop of millet can be planted.
Advantages of the system
➢ Trees are not destroyed as fields are made over grassy patches and uses grass as fertilizer
➢ Allows for intensive cultivation of crops such as millet, beans, cassava, maize, and
groundnuts.
➢ Maintain soil fertility through grass manuring and crop ration.
➢ Requires no use of chemical fertilizers.
➢ Can support large population settled on permanent basis.
Lozi system
➢ The system is practiced by the Lozi people
100 | P a g e

➢ It is practiced on the upper Zambezi flood plain
➢ The seasonal movement of the Lozi people and their animals from the flood plain when it
gets flooded to the upland and back is referred to as transhumance
The Lozi system includes:
Litapa (Silapa)
➢ Done in plains with large shallow depressions which receives annual flooding
➢ Sometimes crops are flooded before they become mature
Mazulu (Lizulu)
➢ Involves cultivation of crops on raised mounds in the flood plains.
Lishango (Sishango)
➢ It is practiced at the edge of the plain which has constant seepage of water from the
plateau.
Matongo (Litongo)
➢ This is practiced at the edge above the Lishango zone
➢ Most villages are located in this area because it is suitable for human settlement.
Matema (Litema)
➢ These are found on the Barotse sands of the plateau
➢ Fields cultivated are large because soils are not fertile.
Advantages of the system
➢ It allows the growing of a variety of crops
➢ It allows the growing of crops throughout the year.
➢ It provides rich and productive grazing land for cattle throughout the year.
Problems associated with subsistence farming
➢ Soil erosion – This is the removal of topsoil by agents such as rain, wind or running
water.
➢ Diminishing yields – This is the decrease in production mainly due to unsustainable
methods of farming e.g. Chitemene.
➢ Deforestation – Due to cutting of trees which help hold soil together. This can lead to soil
erosion and desertification.
➢ Bush fires – This is due to early burning of fields and hunting.
➢ Lack of capital – No money to purchase inputs or machinery.
➢ Lack of inputs e.g. fertilizers and seed etc.
101 | P a g e

➢ Lack of education – e.g. environmental awareness.
➢ Unreliable climatic conditions – rainfall and droughts.
➢ Mono cropping – leads to soil impoverishment.
➢ Pests and diseases – e.g. Tripanosomiasis and corridor disease.
➢ Poor buying capacity – market leading to poor sales.
➢ Poor transport – especially the impassable roads.
➢ Long distance to markets especially to urban areas.
Effects of agricultural practices on the environment
➢ Soil erosion
➢ Deforestation
➢ Destruction of natural homes of plants and animals
➢ Displacement of wildlife due to cleared land
➢ Desertification caused by cutting down of trees
➢ Pollution caused by burning
Soil conservation measures and sustainable agricultural practices
➢ Contour ploughing – to retain moisture and avoid erosion.
➢ Strip cultivation – protects the soil from erosion.
➢ Crop rotation – to restore and replace nutrients.
➢ Terracing – to retain moisture and check the flow of water downhill.
➢ Mulching – covering the soil to retain moisture.
➢ Ploughing – across the slope to avoid erosion.
➢ Controlled grazing – to allow for land regeneration.
➢ Soil additives – adds nutrients to the soil.
➢ Cover cropping – retains moisture and protects soil from erosion.
➢ Afforestation – replaces cut down trees.
➢ Fallowing – Allows soil to regenerate
➢ Irrigation – Supplies additional water especially during droughts.
➢ Organic farming – Use of leguminous plants to fertilise soil e.g. velvet beans, peas and
other legumes.
➢ Government measures to improve subsistence farming
➢ Provision or creation of co-operatives.
➢ Creation of resettlement schemes.
102 | P a g e

➢ Provision of extension services to educate the farmers.
➢ Construction of feeder roads.
➢ Use of drought animals e.g. donkeys in the southern province.
➢ Provision of rural information services.
➢ Distribution of inputs like fertilizers by government agents e.g. NGOs.
➢ Purchasing and collection of harvested crops by Zambia Army and ZNS.
➢ Fixing of purchase price of maize to avoid briefcase traders.
Ways to improve food security
➢ Improve marketing and storage facilities by Food Reserve Agency.
➢ Production and distribution of seed by such as Zamseed, Pana Seeds.
➢ Increase food production.
➢ Improve crop research to have improved varieties of seeds e.g. drought resistant.
➢ Improve transport especially feeder roads.
➢ Providing credit facilities to small scale and emergent farmers.
➢ Educating the farmers on sustainable methods of agriculture.
Commercial agriculture
➢ This is the growing of crops and raising of livestock for sale.
Characteristics of Commercial Farming
➢ Involves inputs such as fertilizers, certified seeds, pesticides e.t.c
➢ Involves large capital investment
➢ Large farms
➢ Mainly monoculture type of farming is done annually.
➢ Uses large labour force both skilled and unskilled
➢ Uses machinery e.g. tractors, combine harvesters e.t.c
Types of Commercial Farming
Plantation farming (Estate)
➢ Plantation or Estate farming is concerned with the growing of tree crops such as cotton,
tobacco, sugarcane, coffee, cocoa, tea, rubber.
The main Estates include:
• Nakambala sugar Estate in Mazabuka
• Ngoli coffee Estate in Kasama
• Kawambwa tea Estate in Kawambwa
103 | P a g e

• Mununshi Banana Scheme in Luapula
• Dunlop rubber plantation at Nchelenge.
Characteristics of estate/plantation farming
➢ Plantations are usually foreign owned by large companies.
➢ Processing of produce is done on site
➢ They are labor intensive, meaning they employ a lot of people
➢ They are usually export-oriented, meaning they mainly export their produce
➢ They require large capital
➢ They require large scale irrigation
➢ They require long term investment
Mixed Farming
➢ This is the cultivation of different crops and the rearing of livestock at the same time on
the same farm.
➢ Crops grown are maize, wheat, Soya beans e.t.c
➢ Livestock reared are cattle, goats, sheep e.t.c
Market garden Farming
➢ This is the intensive growing of vegetables and mainly for sale near urban areas.
➢ It is also called Truck Farming (transportation)
➢ This is carried out near urban areas where transport is available and ready market for the
products.
➢ The chief vegetables grown are potatoes, tomatoes, onions, cabbage, beans, egg plants,
carrots, beet roots, lettuce and chili pepper.
➢ Fruits such as bananas, mangoes, avocado, guava and pineapples are produced
seasonally.
Horticulture
➢ This involves the production of ornamental plants e.g flowers for sale locally and for
export.
Commercial Livestock farming
➢ It deals with the keeping of animals and poultry for meat and eggs on large scale.
It includes
• Dairy farming for milk and milk products
• Ranching for beef and beef products
104 | P a g e

• Pig rearing for pork and pork products
• Goat rearing for meat and milk
• Poultry for meat and eggs
Factors influencing commercial livestock farming
➢ Diseases and pests
➢ Poor pasture especially during the dry seasons
➢ Water scarcity
➢ Market
➢ Traditions
➢ Thefts of livestock
Irrigation Agriculture
➢ This is the growing of crops in the dry part of the year by supplying water from rivers,
boreholes, reservoirs e.t.c
Importance of Irrigation
➢ Irrigation transforms bare land into areas of green vegetation.
➢ It enables the farmers to use a piece of land to produce crops two three times in a year.
➢ It is one way of increasing food production to achieve household and National food
security (self-sufficiency)
Methods of Irrigation
➢ Sprinklers
➢ Canals
➢ Flooding
➢ Over-head irrigation
Areas of Irrigation
➢ Areas around Lusaka for green maize, vegetables, flowers and wheat.
➢ Chisamba area for green maize, vegetables, wheat and flowers.
➢ Mpongwe area mainly for wheat but also coffee.
➢ Mazabuka area for wheat and sugarcane.
Factors which makes necessary to undertake Large scale Irrigation in Nakambala
➢ Its flat land which gently slopes towards the river is ideal for irrigation.
➢ The presence of Kafue river and its tributaries as fallows are made from there.
105 | P a g e

Crops grown by Irrigation
➢ Maize (sweet corn), cabbage, tomatoes, onions, Irish potatoes, rape, carrots and green
pepper for local market.
➢ Also roses, gladioli, fillers and vegetables such as baby corn, paprika, green beans, peas
and asparagus for the export market are grown.
Positive effects of Irrigation
➢ It transforms bare land into an area of green vegetation
➢ If the land is planted with tree crops like coffee, bananas and tea, this increases the land‟s
retention of rainwater as ground water.
➢ Large scale growing of tree crops aided by irrigation makes the climate wetter in the long
run.
➢ Growing crops twice or three times in a year increases food and raw material production
in the country.
Negative effects of Irrigation
➢ Salination: when the land ids continuously used for irrigation, the fertilizer used make it
saline and this reduce productivity.
➢ Water diseases: Irrigated areas have an increase I snails and mosquito populations which
transmit bilharzias and malaria respectively.
➢ Fertilizers used on agricultural lands next to the river under irrigation will be washed into
the river. This will lead to the growth of aquatic plants which may sometimes be
obstacles to navigation on rivers.
Location of Commercial farms
➢ Most commercial farms are located in the following areas:
➢ Along the line of rail: Areas near Livingstone, Choma, Monze, Mazabuka, Lusaka,
Kabwe, Mkushi and also Copperbelt.
➢ Eastern Province from Petauke through Chipata to Lundazi.
Reasons why commercial farms are located along the line of rail
➢ The presence of large urban market e.g. Copperbelt and Lusaka has large number of
people which translate into high demand for agricultural goods.
➢ There is suitable climate for farming as the areas experience moderate temperatures of
between 15ºC to 24ºC and an average rainfall of about 1000mm. This type of climate is
106 | P a g e

ideal for human settlement.
➢ Much of the line of rail is a plateau and free from tsetse flies.
➢ The soil along the line of rail is fertile as the area has loam soils.
➢ Availability of Hydro-Electric Power reduces the cost of farm production.
➢ There is availability of cheap railway transport.
Reasons why some commercial farms are located in Eastern Province from Petauke to
Lundazi.
➢ Soils in Eastern Province are fairly fertile rich in humus.
➢ Road transport network is also fairly good as most roads can be used throughout the year.
➢ There is ready market.
➢ Favorable rainfall.
Environmental impact of commercial farming
➢ Pollution through the use of chemicals
➢ Increased soil erosion
➢ Deforestation
➢ Displacement of people and animals
Revision questions
1. State the importance of farming.
2. Give the characteristics of small scale farming.
3. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of chitemene system of farming.
4. List different types of farming systems.
5. What are the characteristics of estate farming?
6. What are the problems facing agriculture
7. Explain the efforts of the government to boost agriculture in the country.
TOPIC SIX: FISHING IN ZAMBIA
107 | P a g e

Fishery is a place where fish is caught.
Fishing is an industry which deals with catching and processing of fish
Importance of fishing
➢ It brings foreign exchange through selling of fish to other countries
➢ It provides food to the people of Zambia
➢ It is a tourist attraction
➢ It is a basis for some industries which means there are some industries which depends on
fishing
➢ It provides employment to the people of Zambia
Zambia’s fishing areas or fisheries
➢ Fisheries are place where fish is caught. They include; lakes rivers, swamps, dams and
fish ponds.
The main fishing areas are:
➢ Luapula river, Zambezi river, Kafue river, lukanga swamp, Luangwa river, chambeshi
river
➢ Lake kariba, lake Tanganyika, lake Mweru, lake mweru wantipa
Lake Kariba fishery
➢ It is 280 km long.
➢ Fingerlings (baby fish) of Tilapia from Chilanga and Kapenta form Tanganyika were
introduced.
➢ A fisheries training center was introduced at Sinazongwe.
➢ Fish caught include Kalongwe, Mutaba, bream, tiger fish, and Kachesa.
Kafue fisher
➢ It is 292 km from Kafue gorge to Itezhi-tezhi gap.
➢ Droppings from wild animals and cattle provide rich food for the fish.
➢ Gill nets, lines, spears, clubs, scoops and traps are used to catch the fish.
➢ Types of fish include bream, barbell, pike, bulldog and bottlenose.
➢ Lusaka provides a good market for the fish.
Lake Tanganyika fishery

➢ Zambia occupies 1/8 of the lake.
108 | P a g e

➢ Fish include Nile perch, Kapenta, and bream.
➢ Scoop nets and gill nets are used.
➢ Commercial firms like Sopelac and Chani operate here, using motor powered boats.
➢ Distance to the copper belt town for market is too far.
Bangweuru fishery
➢ This includes the lake and all the swamps around.
➢ Fish include bulldog, barbell, tiger fish, and bream.
➢ Fishermen use gillnets, long lines, spears and baskets.
➢ Fish is marketed and dried due to long distance to markets.
Lake Mweru and mweru-ntipa fishery
➢ Extends from Mambilima to the edge of Lake Mweru.
➢ Gillnets, lines and baskets are used by fishermen.
➢ Fish caught include snout fish, tiger fish, mud suckers, catfish, barbell, and green-headed
bream.
➢ Most fish is sold fresh
Other fisheries
➢ These include upper Zambezi and Lukanga in Central province.
➢ Fish include tiger fish, mud suckers and bream, etc
109 | P a g e

A map showing major fisheries of Zambia.
Types of fish
➢ There are more than 300 types of fish found in Zambia and these are:
➢ Nile perch (buka buka) • Tiger fish
➢ Pike
➢ Sardines(kapenta)
➢ Bulldog
➢ Barbel bream(umulonge)
➢ Green headed bream (pale)
➢ Bottle nose(umuntesa)
➢ Yellow berry bream (insuku)
Types of fish caught in major fishing areas
➢ From lake Tanganyika we have sardine and Nile perch
➢ In lake kariba we have sardines, breams and tiger fish
➢ Bull dog is common in lake bangweulu and Zambezi fisheries
➢ Kafue fisheries ,the chief type of fish caught is bream
Fishing methods
➢ There are two types fishing methods and these are: Small scale and large scale fishing
110 | P a g e

methods.
➢ Fishing methods
➢ Small scale
➢ This is the type of fishing done on all the rivers and lakes.
➢ These use traps, baskets, hooks and lines to catch fish for home consumption only.
➢ They also use dugout canoes and lamps to attract fish at night
Commercial fishing
➢ These are done by large-scale fishermen who catch fish mainly for sale.
➢ The three main types of nets are used namely: Gill nets, Seine or draw nets and hand
nets
Hand nets
➢ These are scoop nets attached to a round or oval frame of wood used to catch Kapenta.
➢ Kit is locally called Lusenga, especially on Lake Tanganyika and also called Matope on
Lake Mweru.
➢ Commercial fishermen also use motor powered boats e.g. gill net skiff pulled by boats.
Processing of fish
➢ It is the treatment which is done to fish before it is consumed by man and the methods
used are
• Frozen
• Canned is when fish is cooked and some chemicals are applied to it so that it does not
go bad and then it is put in tins
• Smoked is when fish is dried using smoke coming from un dry fire wood
• Salted is when salt is applied to fish and then it is either sun dried or smoked
• Sun dried is when fish is dried using sun shine is the method they use to dry the
smallest type of fish like kapenta
Marketing of fish
➢ fresh and frozen fish is transported to the market by refrigerated vans to copper belt,
Lusaka and other urban areas where demand is high major fishing companies have established
retail outlets in Lusaka and copper belt. establishment of cold rooms e.g. mpulungu, Kashikishi
and Kariba
Problems affecting fishing industry
➢ Long distances to the market especially lake Tanganyika and lake Mweru wantipa
➢ poor transport especially in the rain season
➢ lack of storage facilities
➢ modern fishermen lack modern skills of fishing
➢ lack of capital to buy fishing equipment
Government efforts to promote fishing
➢ Building of a fishing training school in sinazongwe
➢ Building of ice plants in mpulungu and kashikishi
➢ Discourage people from doing over fishing
➢ Establishment of a net and boat making factory in Kafue
➢ Improvement of roads
➢ Introduction of fish bans to allow fish to breed
➢ Provision of loans for fish farming(keeping of fish)
The fisheries department
➢ It has its headquarters in Chilanga, Lusaka.
➢ It makes regulations to control and improve fishing industry.
111 | P a g e

➢ It enforces fishing regulations and provides facilities to train local people and improve
their fishing methods.
➢ Also organizes fish farming programmes for fishermen.
➢ It teaches the people the importance of fish conservation.
TOPIC SEVEN: TOURISM IN ZAMBIA
Tourism is the movement of people from one place to another for leisure education.
A tourist is a person who travels to another place for leisure and recreation education within their
own country
Two types of tourists
• Domestic tourists are those persons visiting tourist attractions within their own country.
• International tourists, are those who travel to visit attractions in other countries
Importance of tourism
• Brings foreign exchange to the country
• Conservation means any wise use of vegetation and animals
• It encourages conservation of wild life
• It helps people to maintain culture and historical sites
• It improves other areas of the economy like airports, hotels and transport
• It promotes cottage industry/ home based industries
• Provides employment to the people of Zambia
• Provides market for farm products
• Wild life means any wild animal and any kind of natural vegetation.
Different types tourism
Eco –tourism: Eco – tourism is aimed protecting the natural environment and at the same
time enabling local people to share in and benefit from the tourism opportunities for
attract eco – tourists who specifically want to visit places where the environment is
protected.
Nature tourism: people from all over the world are fascinated by Africa‟s wildlife
.birdwatchers travel from all over the world to observe the rich birdlife of Zambia.
112 | P a g e

Adventure tourism: these tourists look for opportunities to take part in adventure
activities such as bungee jumping from bridges and white water river rafting.
Cultural and historical tourism: many tourists also enjoy finding out more about
Zambian cultures of the countries that they visit .tourists visiting Zambia are interested in
traditional ceremonies and historical sites.
In addition to the different tourist attractions, Zambia offers tourists a warm, sunny climate and
friendly people who make tourists feel welcome. The country is seen as a peaceful and stable
place to visit.
Tourist attractions found in Zambia
National parks and game reserves
• National parks and game reserves are protected areas set aside for the preservation of
Zambia„s natural environment and wildlife.
• They include Kafue national park, south and north Luangwa national parks, liuwa national
park, lower Zambezi national park, sumbu game reserve and luvushimanda game reserve.
Differences between game management and Game Park are:
• Game management area has people living in as well as people
• Game park is a place reserved only for animals
• A game management has few animals as compared to a game park
• A game management has a small area while a game park has a big area
• In a game management hunting is allowed while in a game park it is not allowed
Historical sites
• Historical sites include kalambo falls, n‟gombe illede and the nachikufu rock paintings.
• Some tourits are also insterested in historical sites related to the colonial era.
• For example, the town of Livingstone is named after the British explorer and missionary, Dr
David Livingstone.
Scenic beauty
These include:
1. Waterfalls such as the Victoria Falls, chishimba falls and musonda falls.
2. Lakes beaches along Lake Kariba, bangweulu, mweru and Tanganyika.
3. Mountain scenery, such as the muchinga escarpment and the mafinga and Makutu
Mountains
113 | P a g e

Museums
• Museums such as the Livingstone museum the motomoto museum and the railways museums
offer tourists an opportunity to find out more about the history and culture of Zambia.
Traditional ceremonies
• They include the lozi kuomboka ceremony, which attracts many tourists.
• Other traditional ceremonies of interest to tourists, other traditional ceremonies of interest to
tourists include mutomboko, n‟cwala, kusefya pa ngw‟ena and likumbi lya mize.
Sports
• Sports such as angling and golf attract many tourists.
• Adventure tourists especially come to Zambia for bungi jumping off Victoria falls bridge
and to do white water rafting on the rapids of the Zambezi and other rivers.
• Water sports such as sailing and watersking are avaliable to tourists on Lake Kariba.
Advantages of tourism
Foreign exchange earnings:
• Tourists spend money on travel, accomodation and entertainment.
• Taxes from also increase government income.
Employment:
• People are employed in hotels and as tourist guides.
• Others find jobs as taxi drivers, coach drivers, airline staff, travel agents and sales staff
in shops in tourist centers.
• Tourism also creates employment opportunities in other services industries, such as
restaurants, hotels, motels and lodges, as well as fashion shops.
Infrastructural development:
• Tourism brings in foreign exchange taxes that help the government to pay for improving,
such as roads and bridges.
• The development of tourism areas also helps to improve the general infrastructure, such
as roads in many parts of the country.
Cultural exchange:
• Tourism helps to increase international understanding and relationships as tourists
interact with people in Zambia.
• It also it helps with preservation and conservation of our cultural heritage of our cultural
114 | P a g e

heritage, as tourists are interested in learning more about out traditions.
• Traditional crafts, such as woodcarving, benefits from also sales to tourists who want
souvenirs to remember their trip.
Disadvantages of tourism
• Prostitution: tourist may encourage more women to engage in prostitution.
• Diseases: tourist interacting with prostitutes contributes to the spread of diseases such as
aids and other sexually transmitted diseases.
• Trafficking in trophies: some tourists come to Zambia to hunt wild animals. They may
also engage in buying trophies of endangered animals that have been pouched and killed
illegally .this encourages the pouching and killing of endangered wildlife.
• Environment damage: if building of hotels and lodges for tourist are not planned in an
eco-friendly way, they cause serious environment damage in protected natural areas.
Ways of addressing some of the negative impacts of tourism.
• Encouraging eco-tourism.
• Education to create awareness among tourists of the need to protect Zambia‟s natural and
culture heritage.
• Employing more people in the protection and conservation of tourist attraction.
Importance of conserving tourism resources
• Cultural heritage: many of the tourist attractions are part of our cultural heritage which
must preserved for future generation to enjoy.
• Recreation: both local and international tourists enjoy relaxing in natural environment
that are unspoiled, clean and well cared for.
• Sustainable development: this means that development of tourism attraction must be done
in a way that will protect the natural environment so that it can continue to sustain
healthy tourism industry for many years to come .
Dangers to wild life
• Many animals are being killed by poachers
• Overstocking.(keeping of many animals on a small piece of land)
• Deforestation which means an necessary cutting down of trees
• Droughts
• Late bush burning which destroys trees or vegetation
115 | P a g e

Solutions to these dangers
• Stiff punishments must be given to poachers
• Game cropping must be done. This means selective killing of old animals which
have become too many
• Afforestation which means planting of trees where the natural vegetation has been
cleared
• Early burning must be encouraged
Problems faced by tourism industry
• Bad roads which goes to some tourist attractions especially in the rain season
• Un favorable or bad climate e.g. high temperatures
• Tourism industry is seasonal. It is active in the dry season
• Adoption foreign cultures from western countries like USA and Britain
• Very few tourist infrastructure like lodges
• Floods and droughts
Government efforts to boost or promote tourism
• The GOVT has formed the Zambia National Tourist Board to control tourism in Zambia
• Encourage people to invest in tourism
• Encourage people to conserve or protect tourism
• Employment of game guards to protect wild animals
• Introducing stiff punishments to poachers
• Banning of selling of ivory
• Improvement of community facilities of people living in Game management areas
• Catering of foreign foods
Revision questions
1. State the importance of tourism.
2. What are the challenges facing the tourism industry.
3. Suggest the possible solutions to the problems facing the tourism industry.
TOPIC ONE: DEVELOPMENT IN ZAMBIA
Mining in Zambia
116 | P a g e

• Mining is the process of extracting minerals such as coal and copper
• Examples of minerals mined in Zambia are copper, zinc and lead, coal and manganese
History of mining in Zambia
• The mining industry in Zambia started in 1899, when an expedition led by George Grey
discovered the first copper deposits at Kansanshi
• The first mining activities started at Bwana Mkubwa in Ndola in 1909.
Major minerals mined in Zambia
COPPER
Zambia is the largest producer of copper in Africa and seventh in the World.
• It is used for making electrc wires
• It is used for making water pipes
• Used also for making car radiators
• It is used for making bullets ornamental things
COBALT
• It is obtained as a by-product of a number of minerals
• It used to make cutting tools and magnets
• Cobalt has many industrial uses, especially in dykes
• Cobalt produces a bright blue colour that is used in glass and ceramics
COAL
• Coal is used to generate heat and electricity
LEAD AND ZINC
• The mine was found in Kabwe but it has been closed
At first mining was done using open cast mining method and the later it was done using
underground mining method.
The mine was closed in 1994 due to depletion of the ores
• Lead is used for making plates of electric storage batteries
• Lead is used as protective shield against radiation
• Lead is used in covering cables in white lead acid for paint, bullets and for roofing
materials
• Lead is used as an alloy
• Zinc is soft, white metal which resists fats and is malleable
117 | P a g e

• Zinc is used in alloys of brass
USES OF MANGANESE
• It is used as an alloy and as a cleaner in extracting minerals
LIMESTONE
• Large deposits are found around Lusaka and in the southern part of Central Province
• It is a white mineral used in manufacture of cement: Limestone and clay are crushed and
mixed with water and then burnt in a large oven. A mineral called gypsum is added and
the mixture is crushed to fine powder. The powder is cement which is used in the
building industry
Precious Stones found in Zambia include: Emeralds, Amethyst, Aquamarine and Diamond.
Mining methods
Open cast mining method
• It is done where the mineral ores are found near to surface of the earth
Advantages of open pit mining
• It is cheaper because it does not require heavy and sophisticated machinery
Disadvantages
• It poses a danger to the environment. The mining may get flooded
• Humans or people are also displaced when such mines are opened
• Pollutes surface water and underground
• Causes landslides
Underground mining or shaft mining
• It is done when the minerals are found very deep underground
Disadvantages of underground mining
• It is too expensive because it uses expensive and heavy machines
Examples of underground mines
• Nkana mine in Kitwe, Konkola mine in Chililabombwe and Mufulira mine in Mufulira.
Note: Mufulira Mine in Zambia is the largest underground mine in Zambia.
Importance of mining in Zambia
• It has created employment to most Zambians
• Encourages tourism and investment
• It boosts the economy of Zambia
118 | P a g e

• It brings foreign exchange to the country. Copper/cobalt export contributes 75% of the
export earnings
• It improves the standards of living of people in a country
• It leads to improvement of infrastructure e.g roads, houses, hospitals.
MINING TOWNS
• Ndola – Bwana Mukubwa mine
• Mufulira – Mufulira plant
• Kitwe – Nkana mine
• Luanshya – Baluba mine
• Chambeshi – Chambeshi mine
• Chililabombwe – Konkola mine
• Solwezi – Lumwana mine
• Mansa – Manganese and is not in
operation
• Maamba -Maamba coal
• Chilanga –limestone
Trade and Marketing
• Copper is sometimes sold and used locally
• Sometime it is sold to Europe and Japan
2
• Copper is exported to other countries using TAZARA railway line, Great North road and
Zambia Railways
Recent development in mining sector
• The MMD government introduced the structural adjustment programme (SAP) to
privatize the mines
• Privatization of mines led to the resuscitation of some closed mines
Results of privatization of mines
• Many people have lost employment and it has brought suffering on many Zambians
• Vandalism of infrastructure and facilities has reduced the life span of most mines
• Many mines have tuned into white elephants
• Most of the miners have not received their packages
119 | P a g e

• Protect the local companies and industries by reducing taxes and support them with loans
• Scrutinizing the investors who are coming in Zambia and making sure that they followed
rules
• Passing the environment protection and pollution act which led to the formation of the
environmental council of Zambia
• Formation of the environmental council of Zambia controls the environmental pollution
Impact of mining on the environment
• Land degradation. It means that the quality of land declines.
• Displacement of people and animals where mines are opened
• Deforestation due to clearing of land before mining starts and where mine dumps are
• Loss of biodiversity. Some animal and trees species become extinct when large areas are
cleared.
• Pollution of soil and groundwater due to high concentration of toxic chemicals from
mines.
• Air and noise pollution, heavy equipment used in mining especially in open-pit mining
causes noise pollution
Effect of Pollution on health
• Sulphur dioxide in the air around mines can get into the lungs and cause respiratory
diseases.
• Lead and arsenic pollution causes infertility and miscarriages in pregnant women, skin
problems, and decreased immunity.
TOPIC TWO: MANUFACTURING AND FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES
An industry is any activity that enables man to earn a living.

Types of Industries
Primary industries
These involve the extraction and production of raw materials from the environment.
Examples of these industries are farming, mining, forestry and fishing
Secondary industries
These are industries that use machinery to change raw materials into new products by
120 | P a g e

adding value to the items made and they are divided into the following industries:
Processing industries
• They prepare primary produce before they can be used for
example maize into mealie meal.
Manufacturing industries
• It changes raw materials into new products e.g. sugar cane
into sugar.
Service or tertiary industries
It is an industry which provides services like education, banks, health, security and
transport.
Factors influencing the location of industries
There are a number of factors that affect the location of an industry: transport, raw material,
labour, power, market, government policies
An industry needs to be located near cheap transport. To get raw material to the factory
and to get manufactured goods to the customer
Raw materials are processed close to where they are found in order to cut on transport.
Perishable raw material must be processed as quickly as possible
Abundant labour includes both skilled and unskilled labour force and is needed in an
industry
Power is needed for most industries to operate properly
Government policies encourage the establishment of industries in all parts of the country
in order to ensure equitable
Market: industries need to sell the products that they produce. Nearness to market helps
reducing transport costs.
Government policies: Governments may encourage industrial development in some
areas and restrict it in others. Multi-facility Economic Zones (MFEZs) are special
industrial zones. They are one of the government strategies aimed at achieving economic
development by attracting domestic and foreign investment.
Types of manufacturing industries
• Steel making and processing of other metals(such as the smelting and refining of copper)
• Textile industries that manufacture materials and clothes
• Leather industries, for example making shoes
121 | P a g e

• Furniture making, and the making of other wood and paper products
• Brick/building block making for the building industries
• Chemical industries, including making plastic and rubber products.
Types of food processing industries
Food processing is how ingredients are changed into a form of food that can be eaten by humans
or animals. It includes industries such as the following:
• Canning of fruit, vegetables, fish and meat e.g. Freshpikt in Lusaka produces canned fruits and
vegetables
• Milling of maize and grain for flour and maize porridge
• Confectionery that make sweets and cakes
• Beverage industries that make cool drinks
e.g. Lynx Zambia Ltd in Ndola produces fruit juices, squashes, cordials
• Sugar refineries that turn sugar cane into sugar
• Meat and fish packing industries for fresh frozen products. e.g. Capital fisheries in Lusaka Packages
fresh, frozen and dried fish
Manufacturing centers of Zambia
Most of the industries in these are located in these areas, Copper belt and Lusaka due to:
Copper belt
• Good network of transport by road or rail
• Cheap and plenty hydroelectric power from Kariba and Kafue gorges
• Cheap and plenty of labour
• Ready market provided by many people who are in copper belt
Lusaka
• Good network of transport
• Its centrally located
• Nearer to areas of raw materials
• It has access to hydroelectric power
• Large population improves the marketing of goods and even provides cheap labour
Challenges faced manufacturing and processing industries
Secondary industries in Zambia face a number of challenges:
• High energy costs especially to electricity whose rates increases frequently
122 | P a g e

• Long routes to sea make the transportation of goods expensive
• Many industries depend on imported raw materials
• Stiff competition from cheap imported products.
• Frequent depreciation of the currency.
• Cost of raw materials: raw materials are expensive.
• Technology: manufacturing requires more advanced technology to keep up with international
competition, adding to production costs.
• Storage: costs of storage and suitable storage facilities, especially for perishable goods,
affect these types of industries.
TOPIC THREE: POWER AND ENERGY
• Energy makes things work.

• We need energy for almost everything we do each day. We need energy for lighting, for
moving our vehicles, for cooking and heating, and for running machinery and equipment
in the kitchen, office, industries and mines.
Importance of Power and Energy
• It has stimulated both small and heavy industries
• It has stimulated commercial agricultural activities
• It has created employment
• It has stimulated demand for electrical appliances
• ZESCO exports power to neighbouring countries and earns foreign exchange
Sources of Power and Energy
There are a number of different sources of energy as shown below in the pie chart:
Pie Chart showing sources of energy
• The majority of people (61%) live in rural areas in Zambia, and their main source of energy is
wood.
• Charcoal and electricity are the main sources in urban areas, while 75% use wood fuel.
• All energy sources can be divided into one of two groups.
CHAPTER TWELVE
123 | P a g e

PERCENTAGES,
Electricity---------------12%,
Petroleum---------------8%
Coal----------------------2%
Wood------------------- 78%
KINDS OF ENERGY
Non-renewable energy source.
Renewable source.
Non- renewable source of power and energy
• Non-renewable energy comes from source that will run out or cannot be replaced for
thousands or even millions of years. This includes FOSSIL FUELS (which are coal,
crude oil and natural gas) and uranium.
• Most fossil fuels are burned to create energy and electricity. More electricity is generated
from coal than from any other fossil fuel.
• CRUDE OIL is a liquid fossil fuel. It is re fined and used in car, aeroplanes and
motorbikes.
• NATURAL GAS can be piped into homes and for gas ovens and stoves.
• URANIUM is a non-renewable resource. It is a heavy metal that occurs in rocks. Nuclear
energy is created by splitting uranium atoms. The energy is then used to generate
electricity.
Coal
• The mined coal is used to generate thermal electricity power at a number of thermal
power plants in the country.
Crude oil and natural gas
• Zambia has none of its own natural gas or oil reserve.
• Crude oil or petroleum is imported from the Middle Eastern countries and mainly used in
the transport industry in Zambia, the agricultural industry, as well as for the generation of
electricity.
• Besides takers, an oil pipeline from Dar es Salaam is used to transport petroleum to
Ndola.
• There it is refined by the Zambia National Oil company (ZNOC) into petrol, liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), diesel, aviation fuel (for aeroplanes) and kerosene for the Zambian
124 | P a g e

market . There are plans to import oil from Angola.
• In, Zambia the main companies that market petroleum products are: Puma, Total,
Petroda, Mobile Engen, Mount Meru and Oddys.
Disadvantages of using fossil fuels as energy sources
• Mining crude oil, uranium core damages the environment and also may be dangerous to
the health of workers.
• Fossil fuels are non-renewable energy sources. Their supply is limited and they will
eventually run out.
• Mining and processing fossil fuels produces harmful waste products, and releases large
amounts of pollutants into the air and water system.
• When fossil fuels are burnt, they give off carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas which is the
main cause of global warming.
• They also emit sulphur dioxide, which combines with moisture in the air to form acid
rain. Acid rain destroys mountains and buildings. It also affects the soil and the crops that
grow in it.
• The mines may scar the landscape, particularly if they are open pit mines. Mine dumps
destroy the landscape and may give off poisonous gases.
• Burning coal at thermal power stations produces large amounts of pollution, as well as
large amounts of solid waste.
• Nuclear power stations could lead to major nuclear disasters if damaged.
Renewable sources of energy and power.
• Renewable energy comes from natural resources that can be replenished, unlike fossil
fuels which take millions of years to form.
• This includes sunlight, winds, tide, geothermal heat, water and various forms biomass.
• Biomass can include biological materials that come from living, or recently living
organisms, such as wood, paste and alcohol fuels.
Wood fuel
• Most rural communities in Zambia depend on wood fuel for cooking and heating.
Household energy supply in urban areas is mainly based on charcoal.
• Most of the charcoal produced in Zambia is for domestic energy use, especially for
cooking. The high demand for wood fuel has resulted in deforestation of many Zambia‟s
125 | P a g e

forest ecosystems.
• Charcoal is commonly used in urban areas than wood, as it is easier to transport and
produces less smoke and sulphur. Most charcoal produced in rural regions and used in
urban areas.
Hydroelectricity
• Hydroelectricity is generated by water. Zambia is blessed with plenty of water recourses,
which make up 40% of all the fresh water in the southern Africa region.
• Hydroelectric power (HEP) is the second most important energy source in Zambia (after
wood fuel). About 10% of the natural energy supply comes from hydroelectricity.
• More than 99% of Zambia‟s electricity comes from hydroelectricity.
• Zambia exports power to Zimbabwe, DRC, South Africa Botswana and Namibia and
there are plans to export to Tanzania, Mozambique, and Malawi.
Production of hydro electricity
• Dam or reservoir stores water
• Water flows in steep slope pen stock
• Fast running water turns turbines
• The turbine turns the generation
• The generator produces electricity which goes in a transformer
• Electricity produced reaches homes
Diagram: H.E.P Production

Advantages of hydro electricity
126 | P a g e

• It is a renewable resource
• It is clean and does not cause pollution
• It is easily transported through cables
• It has a broad range of uses in modern households and agriculture
• It is cheaper as compared to thermal
• Ease to use, it is a matter of a flick
Disadvantages of hydro electricity
• High cost of building a power station
• It is affected by drought
• It cannot be stirred like petroleum
• Leads to re allocation of people when constructing
There are number of hydroelectric power stations in the country were hydroelectricity is
generated. This includes: Kariba north bank power station, Kafue gorge power station, Victoria
Falls power station, Lunzua in Mbala, Lusiwasi in Serenje, Chishimba in Kasams, Musonda in
Mansa power station. And Shuangandu in Chinsali power station
Government’s effort to increase HEP production
• The itezhi-tezhi hydro power plant project is expected to be completed in February 2015
and the Kafue gorge lower hydro project will be completed in 2017.
• Another new project is the construction of Kabompo gouge project. These new
developments will ensure a more constant power supply and make Zambia as regional
supply of electricity.
Solar power
• Solar power is a cheap and clean source of renewable energy.
• Solar energy comes from sunlight. Humans have used the sun for thousands of years for
heating, removing salt from sea water, and cooking food.
• Nowadays the sun can be used to create electricity. This can be done in two ways:
I. Directly by using photovoltaic (PV). PV converts light renege into electricity by
photoelectric effect. PV cells can be used to power portable devices such as
calculators. Large number of PV cells are put together to create solar panels.
II. Indirectly, by using concentrated solar power (CSO). Concentrated solar power
systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of
127 | P a g e

sunlight into small beams.
• Zambia is a very sunny country so solar power has a great potential. Currently, however,
solar power is rarely used in Zambia.
• A number of companies have entered the Zambian market to supply and install solar
operated equipment‟s. These include Muhanya solar limited, Suntech, Davis and
Shirtliff and sun beam. Most of them are based in Lusaka.
Wind
• Farmers use wind power to pump water from underground into farm bams.
• Wind mills are the simplest form of wind energy: the wind turns the blade of the wind
mill which then drives a mechanical pump. This pump pumps water from underground
boreholes
• Wind can be used to generate electricity. Wind turbines are like giant windmills. They
convert wind energy to electricity for distribution. The wind makes the rotors rotate,
which drives generators produce electrical energy.
• This electricity can be transmitted via a power grid. Using wind to generate Power is not
widely used in Zambia. Some farms use wind power to pump water, but there are no
wind turbines is Zambia.
Geothermal power.
• Geothermal power uses energy stored within the earth.
• Deep within the earth temperatures may reach over 5000 degrees salacious. This heat is
called geothermal energy.
• Geothermal power plants use heat from deep inside the earth to generate steam to make
electricity.
• They are normally built in areas that have a lot of hot springs, geysers, or volcanic
activities, because these are places were the earth is practically hot just below the surface.
• The steam spins the turbine, which is connected to a generator to produce electricity.
Then the steam cools off in a cooling tower, condenses back to water and pumped back
into the earth for the process to start again.
Biogas.
• Biogas is a fuel produced by fermentation of organic matters.
• Biogas is any fuel that comes from decay of organic matters, such as food peelings or
128 | P a g e

manure. Basically, it means rotting plants produce gas, which is then collected.
• Biogas is composed mainly of methane, with some carbon dioxide and other trace gases
• Biogas can be produced by processing waste from livestock (such as dang and uneaten
food), food production (such as fruits and vegetable wastes) and effluents from industries
as well as municipal waste water treatment plants.
• In Zambia, this source of power production has not yet seen much production.
Companies involved the development of biofuel
1. The biofuels association of Zambia,
2. Copper belt energy cooperation (CEC)
3. Thomro investments limited
4. Black power investments set up a bio fuel refinery plant in Zambia in 2011.
TOPIC FOUR: POPULATION
Population
This is a number of people living in a particular given area at a given time
Important concepts in the study of human population
Census
• It is the official counting of ALL people in a country. This is normally done by the government
every after 10 years because it is very expensive since it covers the whole country The census
enables us to know the number of people living in an area. It gives us information about the age sex
(male or female), race/tribe, nationality, birthplace, education, occupation, marital status, number
of children, and the number of dependents in a given country.
Importance of the census
It gives information to the local and central government so that:
• For good planning in order to provide facilities like hospitals, houses and schools to
citizens
• They can provide resources e.g. agriculture materials like fertilizer and seeds
• They can know whether the population is increasing or reducing because such knowledge
is needed for future planning
• They can know unemployed so as to create jobs
Birth rate
129 | P a g e

• It is the number of babies born in every 1000 people of a population. Example; if 30
births occur, this means that 30/1000* 100 = 3%, and is considered to be high.
• Fertility rate refers to the reproductive performance of the population
Population density and Population distribution
• It is the number of people living in a square kilometer area. It is calculated by dividing
the land area by the number of people lining in the area.
e.g. Population density = Number of People in an area
Kilometers squared
Lusaka is the most densely populated area in Zambia followed by Copperbelt
Mortality rate and life expectancy
• Mortality Rate is the number of people who die per 1000 people in one year.
• Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of deaths of infants under one year old per
1000 live births
• Adult mortality rate is the probability of a 15 year-old dying before reaching age 60.
• Life expectancy or life span: This is the average number of years a person is expected to
live from birth to death.
• Life expectancy is affected by several factors such as the prevailing mortality trends and
the standard of living of the people.
Population Growth Rate (PGR)
• It is the rate or percentage at which the population increases
e.g. PGR = Birth Rate – Death Rate * 100
Factor leading to rapid population growth in Zambia:
• Early marriages.
• Lack of family planning.
• High fertility rate
• Poverty
• Improved nutrition
• Inadequate education
Population migration in Zambia
Migration is the movement of people from one is to another. This could be within the country
(internal) or between countries (international).
130 | P a g e

• Migration into a country is called Immigration
• Migration out of a country is called emigration
• Internal migration is the movement from one area to another within a country’s boarder.
Types of internal migration
There are four types of internal migration
Rural-urban migration
This is the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas. The factors that cause this
movement fall into two groups
Push factors force people out of rural areas
Pull factors attract people to urban areas.
PUSH FACTORS
• Lack of rainfall
• Witchcraft
• Hunger, poverty, drought,
• Lack of good schools and health facilities etc.
PULL FACTORS
• Good medical facilities,
• Good transport,
• Good schools
• Urban blight etc.
RESULTS OF URBANISATION
• Overcrowding in urban areas
• Poor substandard of housing
• Inadequate municipal services that characterize life for many arrivals to urban centers.
Rural-rural migration: this is the movement from one rural area to another.
Reason:
• maybe due floods or droughts or better opportunities
Urban-rural migration: this is the movement from urban area to rural. Reasons:
• older Zambian may retire to their village
• It may be safer to live in rural areas where there is less crime
• City life may be stressful and people may want a slower, less stressful life
131 | P a g e

Urban-urban migration: movement from urban to another urban area Reasons:
• This may due to the transfer of the head of the household or resettlement
Impact of HIV and AIDS on the population
Zambia has one of the world’s worst HIV and AIDS epidemics. About 14% of Zambian adults
have HIV. It is estimates that each day there are 225 new adults‟ infections and 25 new child
infections
The number of People with HIV is higher in urban areas (20%) that in rural areas (10%).
Effects of HIV and AIDS on Zambians
1. HIV and AIDS makes life expectancy to drop or go down
2. Cause more deaths or population reduction
3. HIV and AIDS weakens the economy
4. Reduces productive of workers
5. Food security is affected
Factors affecting the population distribution
• Climate: Most people have settled in areas the climate is favoured for human habitation.
Such areas receive adequate rainfall and temperatures are moderate. Areas where people
are able to grow a variety of crops.
• Relief: very few people live on hilly areas and rift valleys because these areas are mostly
composed of stone soils which are not suitable for farming.
• Availability of Water: people tend to settled where the water is readily available, for
example near dambos, rivers, valleys, mashes and lake shore areas.
• Soils: fertile soils attract people due to farming opportunities.
• Availability of resources: Most people settle in areas where there is enough resources to
exploit. E.g mine areas
• Most people tend to settle in areas where there are good health facilities.
• Most people tend to settled in areas where there are good education facilities.
• Employment: employment opportunities are an attracting factor that leads to population
increase in a given area.
• Transport and communications: Most people tend to settle in areas where there is good
transport and communications. This has led to an increase in the population along
highways (roads leading to cities) and developed areas.
132 | P a g e

Measures to address population increase
• Education of communities on the importance of family planning.
• Provision of health services to the people in order to reduce mortality rates and improve
the health status of the people.
• Promotion of sensitization of the public on the population related issues such as inter
relation between population, environment and economic resources,
• Provision of adequate social services.
• Improving agricultural production to promote food security.
• Building more schools, to carter for the population increase.
ONE (01)
Civic Education
Political Development in Zambia
Introduction to Civic Education
1. Define Civic Education

➢ Civic education is the study of our political, social and cultural and economic issues.
➢ The Political issue includes Political Organization, Constitution, Governance, whereas the Social
and Cultural Issues include Corruption, House of Chiefs, Human rights and Conflict. The
Economic issues include Budget, Money, Trade and Regional Organization.
2. Explain the importance of learning Civic Education
1. It helps to form competent, active and responsible citizens.
2. It enables citizens to be aware of their fundamental rights and freedoms.
3. It enables citizens to participate in voluntary organizations such as workers unions, women‘s
associations, community organisations, etc.
4. It helps citizens to acquire proficiency in monitoring and correcting policies and laws of their country.
5. It helps to facilitate the development of knowledge, skills and values in pupils.
6. It enables to produce knowledgeable learners who are aware, can make decisions, judge and act based
on human rights and social responsibilities.
7. It enables citizens to be analytical, innovative, creative and constructive mind which will cherish and
safeguard individual liberties and human rights.
8. It helps to produce learners who can express one‘s own ideas freely, exercise tolerance for other
people‘s views and maintain discipline and hard work for the sake of personal and national
development.
133 | P a g e

9. It enables pupils to contribute to the promotion of democratic values and sustenance of democratic
systems by making them understand, cherish and defend its equality.
10. It enables pupils to understand, cherish, promote and protect the equality between men and women,
human rights, the rule of law, representative governance etc.
11. Civic is related to people‘s duty, right and responsibilities in participating in the way their community is
organized.
12. Civic education helps you understand how to interact with the people and organization that govern your
community and the country.
13. The government as well as the organization such as political parties, offer civic education programmes,
especially to help young people prepare for their responsibility as citizens.
TWO (02)
Civic Education
Zambia‘s path to independence (1890 to 1964)
1. 1890: Before 1890 the people who lived in this country called Zambia today were ruled by the Chiefs or
Kings. The Chiefs or Kings with their people formed kingdoms such as the Bemba, Lozi, Tonga and Lunda
kingdom.
2. 1890: In this year Litunga Lewanika signed mineral loyalty treaty with the British South Africa Company
(B.S.A.co) called Lonchner concession.
3. 1895: The British South Africa Company (B.S.A.co) began to rule North Western Rhodesia which was
under Litunga Lewanika.
4. 1897: The British South Africa Company (B.S.A.co) begin to rule North Eastern Rhodesia after defeating
the Ngoni people under chief Mpezeni.
5. 1911: The British South Africa Company (B.S.A.co) joined north western Rhodesia and north eastern
Rhodesia to form a large colony called northern Rhodesia.
6. 1912: The Mwenzo Welfare Society (M.F.S) was formed by Donald Siwale to fight colonialism.
7. 1924: British took over northern Rhodesia from the British South Africa Company as it was no longer
profitable to the company. Britain agreed to rule northern Rhodesia because they wanted minerals or raw
material for their factory in Britain. Britain promised to rule northern Rhodesia as a PROTECTORATE
to mean there were supposed to favour Africans who lived in northern Rhodesia.
8. 1930: The Passfield Memorandum was signed.
9. 1935: First strike by miners on Copperbelt in Nkana, Mufulira and Roan antelope.
10. 1940: Second strike by the miners on Copperbelt in Nkana and Mufulira..
11. 1946: All welfare societies were joined together by Dauti Yamba to form the Federation of Welfare
Societies to fight colonialism.
12. 1948: The first political party was formed by Godwin Mbikusta Lewanika called Northern Rhodesia
African National Congress (NRANC) to fight colonialism.
13. 1949: The Northern Rhodesia African Mine Worker Union (NRAMWU) was formed by Lawrence
Katilungu.
134 | P a g e

14. 1951: Northern Rhodesia African National Congress (NRANC) changed its name to African National
Congress (ANC) and its new leader was Henry Mwanga Nkumbula.
15. 1953: Rhodesia and Nyansaland joined together to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
Rhodesia was made up of two countries namely Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Northern Rhodesia
(Zambia) while Nyasaland (Malawi).
16. A federation is a system of government which is centrally organized but allows individual states to control
their own internal affairs. The first federal prime minister was Sir Godfrey Huggins and the last prime
minister was Sir Roy Walensky. The capital city of the federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was
Salisbury (Harare).
17. 1958: Kenneth Kaunda broke away from the African National Congress (ANC) and formed Zambia Africa
National Congress (ZANC) which saw him get arrested.
18. 1959: The United Nation Independence Party (UNIP) was formed by Mainza Chona and after prison
Kaunda took over UNIP presidence.
19. 1960: The Mockton Commision was formed to look into the future of the federation of Rhodesia and
Nyasaland and it recommend that people did not want the federation.
20. 1961: Cha cha Campaign (civil disobedience) took place in Luapula and Norhern provinces of Zambia.
21. 1962: UNIP and ANC formed coalition government. A coalition government is a government formed by
two or more political parties.
22. 1963: the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland come to an end.
23. 1964: Zambia gets its independence.
B. THE FEATURES OF THE COLONIAL RULE IN NORTHERN RHODESIA
1. Hatch system was introduced which is the buying of goods through the window.
2. Indirect rule was introduced where people were ruled through chiefs.
3. Chitupa(Pass) was introduced were people were supposed to get a chitupa(pass) for any travelling or
movement.
4. Tea carts the Africans were only allowed to own the business of making tea.
5. Whites and Africans were not allowed to learn and sit in the same classroom in the school.
6. Whites and Africans were not allowed to live in the same compound.
7. Africans were not allowed to take part in government such as voting or standing for elections
8. Africans were forced to pay tax to colonial government
9. Africans working in mining industries on Copperbelt were not allowed to live with their wives and
children.
10. Africans were only employed to do low jobs such as clerical work, mining and farm labour.
THREE (03)
Civic Education
135 | P a g e

Symbols of national identity
1. What is meant by the symbols of national identity

1. Zambia‘s symbols of national identity are the national flag, the national anthem, coat of arms and
independence
2. Symbols of national identity help citizens to identify the heritage and culture of the country
3. Symbols of national identity give citizens a sense of belonging
4. Symbols of national identity remind citizens of the common values , ideals and duties for their own
benefit
2. Explain the economic activities that are reflected in the symbols of national identity
1. Black colour on the Zambian flag represents the people of Zambia who are described as human
resource in carrying out different economic activities
2. The green colour stands for land and natural resources. Land is one of the factors of production of goods
and services
3. The orange colour depicts the various mining activities that are carried out in the country
4. The hoe and pick are a reflection of the tools that are used in course of mining and agriculture
5. The maize symbolises Zambia‘s agriculture activities and staple food
6. The Zebra reflects Zambia‘s wildlife resources which attracts touists
7. The black and white way lines represent the victoria falls which is a source power generation and tourist
attraction.
b) Explain the values to the symbols of national identity
1) National symbols give citizens a sense of pride and patriotism
2) They help inculcate the values and ideologies of a country into its citizens
3) They give people something to identify themselves with
4) National symbols such as the eagle and orange colour shows the high value we place on certain
things
5) 5certain national symbols give a nation a link to its past. A good example of this is red colour
on the flag which reminds us of the people who shed blood during the struggle for
independence.
Civic Education
Symbols of national identity
1. National Flag
2. Coat of Arms
3. National Anthem 4. Independence Day
b) Explain the values to the symbols of national identity
136 | P a g e

1. Describe the symbols of national identity
There are four symbols of national identity namely National Flag, Nation Anthem, Independence Day and
Coat Of Arms. a. NATIONAL FLAG
It is a sign of independence. It flies in all government institution such as schools, hospitals, colleges, universities
and government offices.
1. The Colours of the National Flag

There are four colours on the national flag and the eagle.
i. Black: Represents the people of Zambia. ii. Orange:

Represents the mineral wealth. iii. Green: Represents the
land and natural recourses.
iv. Red: Represents the blood that was shade during the struggle for independence.
v. Eagle: Represents our ability to solve our problems. Its name is Fish Eagle
2. How do we show respect to the national flag?
i. By saluting the national flag ii. By flying it high government
institutions such as schools, hospitals iii. By including it in the national
anthem.
iv. By flying it on all ministerial and presidential motor vehicles.
b. THE COAT OF ARMS

It is a sign of equality between men and women in Zambia
1. Features of The Coat Of Arms

The following are the features of the coat of arms.
i. The man and woman: Represents the importance of family life in Zambia.
ii. The black and white wavy lines: represents the Victoria fall on the Zambezi river. iii. The hoe
and pick: Represents the hard work of the Zambian people in mining and agriculture.
iv. The maize cob, mine shaft head and zebra: represents fertile land, minerals and wildlife in
Zambia
v. The national motto ‗one Zambia one nation’: represents unity among all ethnic groups of
people in Zambia.
vi. The eagle: Represents the ability to solve our problems.
c. THE NATIONAL ANTHEM
It is a sign of independence. It is sung in public meetings such as sports and school assemblies. It is a sung
either at the beginning or at the end of the public meetings. The tunes for our national anthem is copied from
South Africa song called Nkosikelele Africa which means God Bless Africa. It was written by Enock
Sontonga in 1897.
i. How Do We Show Respect to the National Anthem.
i. By standing still when singing the nation anthem.
ii. By singing the national anthem on important occasions (meeting). iii. By stopping
whatever activity someone is doing once hearing the national anthem being sung.
137 | P a g e

D. INDEPENDENCE DAY
Zambia got its independence on 24th October, 1964. Therefore every 24th October of every year Zambia
celebrate its independence.
1. How do we show respect to the independence day?.

i. By celebrating it on every 24th October.
ii. By declaring 24th October as a public holiday iii. By coming up with songs and
poems for Independence Day celebration.
iv. By coming up with drama activities and knitting different attires for Independence Day.
138 | P a g e

FOUR (04)
GOVERNANCE
INTRODUCATION
The concept of governance has been used for many years globally .in
Zambia just like else where in the word people have always governed
themselves. The term governance is used to refer to the way people way a
group of people or society manages its way of life . It includes the
structures and processes that are made ensure accountability,
transparency, rule of law, stability, responsiveness, inclusiveness and
participation for all. Governance is the idea that is lived. As its is part of
our everyday life based on the norms and values of the a given society .
SYSTEMS OF GOVERNANCE
Governance is experienced at family, community and national level. Authority is practiced governance
through a clear set up system. governance involves the system by which an organisation is controlled,
operates and the way by which it and its people are held accountable for their decisions.
FAMILY GOVERNANCE
Family governance is a smallest unit of systems of governance. family governance is a way in which
members take care of one another .it refers to the rules that enable the family to make decisions and
manage the affairs of the family. this includes the family shares norms and a common purpose over
generation
COMMUNITY GOVERNANCE
139
Community governance involves balancing the interest of the government leaders , government
employees , taxpayers , consumers and citizens .its creates an opportunity for the community members to
participate in the decision making in their communities .participation also helps to build an informed and
responsible citizenry with a sense of ownership of government development and projects .one of the
purpose of community governance is to empower the less privileged and bridge the democratic challenges
in addressing social justice and equity .
GOVERNANCE AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL
Governance is simply the running and management of public affairs for the benefits of the people.at the
national level the government manages the affairs of the state. in this sense governance is referred to how
decisions are implemented when running public affairs. in participatory governance, citizens are given a
chance to elect their representatives and to take part in decision making. in this way democracy is
promoted.
TYPES OF GOVERNANCE
It is divided into two and these are democracy and dictatorship
• Democracy is when people can elect their own leaders
• Dictatorship is when people in a country do not have a say in government or how the country is run.
Democracy
• Democracy means rule by the people.
• In a democracy, people elect their leaders
• Election should be free and fair
Forms of democracy
Direct democracy
140
• It is where people directly take part in making decisions on matters that affect them
. • For example, in smaller communities such as villages people can express their views directly on what
they want to see happening.
Representative democracy
• It is also called parliamentary democracy
• It is used when it is not possible or practical for everyone to take part directly in making decisions
• For example, decisions on day by day about how the country should be run
Comparing different types of governance
REPUBLIC
One person as the head of the government- usually the president. This person is not a monarch (king or
queen)
• May or may not be democratic. In a democratic republic, the people choose their president through
elections. However, in some countries, the government may appoint a president without election
• In most countries, a president can only stay in power for a specific term of office; there may also be a
maximum number of terms. In Zambia, the constitution only allows a president to serve for two five- year
term.
• In some undemocratic republics, leaders may stay in office for a long time, some times without ever
being elected or re-elected. In some cases, there may be elections, but these may be conducted in corrupt
ways, or voters do not have a free choice of who to vote for.
Monarchy
• Ruled by a monarch (king or queen) who inherits the position.
• Monarch holds this position for life, until passing it on to a relative, usually a son or daughter
141
. • Some are absolute monarchies: kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the sultanate of Oman and the kingdom of
Swaziland.
Parliamentary monarchy
• Some state has a monarch as a symbolic head of state, even through the country is run as a democracy.
The monarch does not have power to make any policies.
• Examples: The United Kingdom, Jordan, Kuwait and the kingdom of Netherlands
Aristocracy
• Run by aristocrats (people who are wealth and educated, with social privileges).
• Many past monarchies were also aristocracies, as the people with the most money and social power
occupied positions of power.
• Today, the term suggests that the wealthy control the politics of a republic
Totalitarianism or autocracy
• RUN by one person who holds absolute control over all aspects of people in the country.
• Examples: Italy and Germany in the 1930 and 1940s, and North Korea.
• Sometimes an autocratic leader starts off as a democratically elected leader, but then later becomes a
dictator. In the1970s and 1980s, many African countries had autocratic leaders.
Military dictorship
• Government run by the army, who often violently overthrows a democratically elected government in a
military coup d, teat
142
. • Military governments usually suspend the constitution of the country and ban political parties, so that
they can have total control.
Communism
• Life or no private ownership, all the country’s land and resources belong to the state, so the government
controls the economy.
• Aim is for all citizens of a country to share equally its resources. However, the rulers often exploit or
misuse people who have less power.
• Communist governments are usually a form of totalitarianism. They allow only approved candidates to
stand for elected.
Oligarch
• Only a few wealth people or a group with special privilege hold power.
• A republic may be an oligarchy if just a few people have the right to vote
Good Governance
• Good governance means a government which is in authority is legitimate, competent accountable and
respects human rights and the rule of law.
• These elements add up to what many people expect from those who rule them.
• Without social, economic and political good governance, progress is difficult to achieve and impossible
to guarantee. Good governance should be practised at family, school, community and national level.
Importance of Good Governance
• Good governance is important because it enables citizens to enjoy full human rights and freedoms.
• It makes governments accountable to the people and makes government operations accountable to the
people and makes government operations transparent.
143
• Citizens have the right to know what their government does for them or how the leadership intends to
solve their problems.
• Good governance enables citizens to fully participate in electing leaders of their own choice.
• Citizens can vote out leaders who fail to perform their duties properly. In good governance, the rule of
law is observed and the judiciary is independent.
• Every person is accorded the right to contribute to the making and amendment of the constitution.
• All citizens have equal rights before the law.
Characteristics of Good Governance
1. Citizen participation
• Good governance allows citizen participation.
• All people take an active part in the affairs of their community and country.
• They elect their leaders have the right to stand for public office and mobilise others for social action.
• For example, citizens can demonstrate against what they do not agree with.
• Leaders are held accountable for their actions.
2. Respect for Human Rights
• All forms of human rights are recognised, protected and promoted.
• Some of these rights are the right to vote and be voted into power, the right to security, the freedom of
assembly and association, and freedom of conscience and expression.
3. Separation of Powers
• This is the principle that states that the three organs of government, namely, the Legislature, the
Executive and the Judiciary must work independently.
144
• The three organs must never interfere with one another in their operations.
• At the same time, they should check one another to ensure that they operate within the law.
• This is known as checks and balances. Separation of powers promotes democratic governance because
power is not concentrated in the hands of one person.
• Therefore, genuine separation of powers can only exist where no one individual belongs to more than
one of the three organs of government.
• The Legislature makes laws and approves government policies.
• The Executive carries out the laws passed by the Legislature and the Judiciary interprets and enforces
laws made by the legislature to ensure that there is no violation of the constitution.
• Separation of powers is a constitutional mechanism that allows each organ of government to share
powers with the other branches.
• This helps to check the operations of the other organs to ensure that they operate within the constitution
of a country.
• In this way, power will be balanced among the organs of a government. For example, in Zambia, the
Legislature can impeach the president if he or she violates the Constitution of Zambia
4. Independence of the Judiciary
• The judiciary is vested with the responsibility of interpreting and enforcing the laws.
• The chief justice and judges should be free from interference by the executive and the legislature
• . Once appointed, should not be easily dismissed. Political Tolerance
• People with different political opinions must be able to freely express themselves and their opinions
should be respected.
• One should not be forced to accept another person’s opinion. Political violence against people who
support different political parties or candidates should not be tolerated.
145
5. Accountability and Transparency
• Accountability means that leaders should be answerable to the people who elected them into office.
• Transparency requires that public resources must be used for government and community programmes
and activities in consultation with the people.
• Any person who misuses public funds should be taken to court and if proved guilty be punished.
• In addition, they should not be allowed to stand for public office. For instance, the Constitution of
Zambia forbids any person to stand for political office if he or she has been convicted of a criminal
offence within a period of five years before the election’s nomination day.
6. Regular, Free and Fair Elections
• Elections must be held at agreed intervals.
• For example, in Zambia, General and Local Government Elections are held every five (5) years.
• Every citizen who has reached the voting age should register and vote.
• This is known as universal suffrage or (franchise) or the right to vote
• Voting should be by secret ballot.
• Political parties must have the freedom to inform the people about the policies and programmes in their
manifesto.
• This affords the electorates a chance to vote for candidates of their choice based on what the candidate’s
policies are.
7. The Rule of Law
• The rule of law means that the government or those in power rule a country in accordance with the
constitution and the other laws of the country
. • All the people in the country are subject to the same laws and should be held accountable if they break
them.
• There should be no discriminatory application of the laws

146
. • Every one is equal before the law and no person is above the law.
• The rule of law makes government leaders accountable to the people they lead.
• Their operations should be authorised by the constitution of a country.
• The law also provides for separation of powers and checks and balances. The rule of law also requires an
independent, courageous and corrupt free Judiciary.
• Without the rule of law there will be anarchy in society.
• The rule of law can only be legitimate if credible laws are put in place.
• People must have confidence in the laws.
• It is extremely important to promote popular participation and consensus in the lawmaking process.
• All sections of society should be represented in the Legislature.
Bad Governance
• Bad governance is governance by a government which is illegitimate, incompetent, and unacceptable

and does not respect human rights and the rule of law.
• It is governance by a government which rules against the wishes of the majority. Dictatorship is a form
of bad governance.
• However, bad governance can also be practised by a democratically elected government.
Characteristics of Bad Governance
1. Restriction of political activities
• The government or the party in power restricts the activities of the opposition parties. People are forced
to vote for certain candidates whenever elections are held.
• Therefore, people’s choices are not real, due to threats.
• Opposition parties are not allowed to exist.

147
2. Lack of Separation of Powers
• This is when political power is concentrated in the hands of one person or a few people.
• These interfere with the organs of government, for instance, the Executive may interfere with the
operations of the Judiciary and the Legislature.
3. Lack of Press Freedom
• The press is controlled by government and often reports favourably on government policies even when
the said policies are not good
. • Opposing or dissenting views are not allowed in government owned media.
4.Violation of Human Rights
• There is no respect for human rights.
• People who oppose government can be tortured and detained without trial or can be killed.
5.Judiciary not Independent
• The Judiciary is not independent of the Executive and the Legislature.
• There is little respect for the rule of law and there is no fair trial.
• Court decisions are not always respected. • Leaders can interfere with court proceedings without being
punished by the law.
6. Irregular and Unfair Elections
• Elections are not held regularly. When held, they are not free and fair. There is vote rigging.
7. Lack of Citizen Participation
• The government decides for the people.
• People become servants instead of masters of the government.
• The Government claims to know what is good for the people.
148
• The people are rarely consulted and their concerns are often ignored
Institutions that Promote Good Governance in Zambia
(a) The Human Rights Commission (HRC)

• The government established the Human Rights Commission (HRC) in 1996 specifically to focus on
the protection and promotion of human rights
. • The HRC has since its inception enhanced its accessibility through a decentralisation programme
which has seen the establishment of some provincial offices; partnership and collaboration with
various stakeholders; establishment of prohibited immigrant’s fund; and a complaints database.
• The complaints handled by HRC include employment and labour related cases, torture, and child
abuse.
• The HRC also undertakes a number of prison visits. It is worth noting that the HRC faces a number
of challenges which range from inadequate funding and logistics to understaffing.
(b) The Police Public Complaints Authority (PPCA)
• In 1999, the government established the Police Public Complaints Authority (PPCA) which
commenced its operations in 2002. •
The PPAC addresses public complaints against police misconduct in order to secure individual
fundamental human rights and freedoms and achieve professionalism in the Zambia Police Service.
• Zambia has submitted her state party reports to various treaty bodies as provided for in various
international and regional human rights instruments ratified or acceded to by the state.
(c) The National Assembly of Zambia
• In trying to promote good governance, through its functions the National Assembly enhances
transparency and accountability.
• The legislature has three main functions namely, to make laws, to vote money for public
expenditure, and to oversee government administration and subject its activities to scrutiny.
• Other functions are also undertaken such as ratification of certain presidential appointments, and
representation of the electorate.
149
• Under the Parliamentary Reform Project (PRP), the National Assembly has undertaken to reform its
operations in five key areas namely, the legislative process, member- constituency relations,
administration of the National assembly, support services to Parliament and the Committee system.
• The PRP activities included; the development and implementation of a strategic plan; review of the
standing orders
(d) The Office of the Vice President Parliamentary Business Division (OVP-PBD)
• This is a governance institution which coordinates the executive side of Government business in
Parliament.
• The institution concentrates on enhancing transparency, accountability and collective responsibility
of the Cabinet in the discharge of parliamentary business, particularly the oversight function of
parliament over Government Administration.
• The task of co-ordinating parliamentary duties was in 1994, delinked from Cabinet Office to the
Office of the Vice-President, where the Vice-President became the Leader of Government Business in
the National Assembly.
(e) The Anti-Corruption Commission (ACC)
• The Anti-Corruption Commission was established in 1980.
• The ACC has three main functions namely, to prevent corruption; to investigate and prosecute
offenders; educate the public about corrupt practices and foster public support in the fight against the
scourge.
• The ACC consists of five part-time commissioners who are answerable to Parliament and under
them is the Director-General who heads the directorate.
• The ACC has been strengthened by decentralising its operations and establishing offices in all
provincial centres of the country.
• The ACC strategic plan and organisational structure were reviewed in 2003 and new ones
developed.
• Furthermore, in 2003 the Government conducted a National Governance Baseline Survey whose
aim was to measure perceptions of corruption and public service delivery with a view to developing a
comprehensive strategy to combat corruption and enhance public delivery.
• The survey provided empirical data on corruption in Zambia and is assisting the ACC develop
appropriate corruption prevention mechanisms and interventions.
(f) Amnesty international
150
• They lobby and advocate for abuse of human rights g) Local and national civil society organisation
• They represent interest and the rights of different groups of people
• Examples, Zambia National Farmers Union (ZFNU), Women for Change (WC
151
152
FIVE (05)
Civic Education
System of Governance
1. Democracy
• This system of governance takes its name from Greek words ―demos‖ meaning people and
―kratos‖ meaning power therefore, democracy means ―power to the people‖. It is also a rule by
the people for the people.
• In a democracy, people elect their leaders

• Election should be free and fair
a. Forms of democracy
i. Direct democracy:
• It is a form of democracy where people directly take part in making decisions on matters that affect
them.
• For example, in smaller communities such as villages people can express their views directly on
what they want to see happening
ii. Representative democracy
• It is also called parliamentary democracy or indirect democracy

• This form of democracy where people are indirectly involved in the affairs of their community and
only participate through their representatives such as the councilors, mayors, members of
parliament or the president of the country.
• It is used when it is not possible or practical for everyone to take part directly in making decisions
• For example, decisions on day by day about how the country should be run.
iii. Examples of Democracies governments
a. Limited monarchy (Parliament monarchy)
This is rule by the King or Queen with limited powers in the country.
Parliamentary monarchy
• Some state has a monarch as a symbolic head of state, even though the country is run as a democracy. The
monarch does not have power to make any policies.
A good example is the United Kingdom, Jordan, Kuwait and the kingdom of Netherlands where the Queen or King
is head of state and the prime minister is head of government. b. Republic
This is a rule by the elected president and his or her councillors, mayors and members of parliament over a given
period of time in the country. For example, Zambia and USA.
153
System of Governance
1. Dictatorship
This is a rule by force, order or command by one person or a group of people in the country.
This is when people in a country do not have a say in government or how the country is run.
2. Examples of dictatorship governments

i. Oligarchy
This is a rule by force, order or command by a group of people in the country. This group could be a tribe, race or
rich people.
Only a few wealth people or a group with special privilege hold power. A republic may
be an oligarchy if just a few people have the right to vote.
ii. Aristocracy
Run by aristocrats (people who are wealth and educated, with social privileges)
Many past monarchies were also aristocracies, as the people with the most money and social power occupied
positions of power.
Today, the term suggests that the wealthy control the politics of a republic.
iii. Autocracy (Totalitarianism)

This is a rule by force, order or command by one person or a group of people in the country who were once elected
into office by the people or overthrow elected governments through ―coup d‘état‖ but later refused to leave office
when the term of office ended.
RUN by one person who holds absolute control over all aspects of people in the country.
Examples: Italy and Germany in the 1930 and 1940s, and North Korea.
Sometimes an autocratic leader starts off as a democratically elected leader, but then later becomes a dictator. In
the1970s and 1980s, many African countries had autocratic leaders.
iv. Unlimited Monarchy (Absolute monarchy)
154
This is rule by the King or Queen with unlimited powers in the country. A good example is Swaziland (Eswatine)
where the King is both head of state and government. v. Military dictatorship
Government run by the army, who often violently overthrows a democratically elected government in a military
coup d, teat.
Military governments usually suspend the constitution of the country and ban political parties, so that they can have
total control. vi. Communism
Life or no private ownership, all the country‘s land and resources belong to the state, so the government controls the
economy.
Aim is for all citizens of a country to share equally its resources. However, the rulers often exploit or misuse people
who have less power.
Communist governments are usually a form of totalitarianism. They allow only approved candidates to stand for
elected.
3. Name the institutions that promote- good governance in Zambia.

There are different organizations formed by various groups in the country aiming at promoting good governance.
i. The Anti-Corruption Commission (ACC). ii.

The Human Rights Commission (HRC).
iii. Foundation of democratic process (FODEP).
iv. The Auditor General‘s Office v. The parliament
SIX(6)
CONSTITUTION
a) What is a constitution?
It is a set of fundamental rules and laws by which a nation, state, society or other organized group is governed.
b) Name the types of constitution There are two types of the constitution namely:
i. Written Constitution
This is a type of constitution where rules and laws are written down in a form of a book with several pages.
A written constitution can either be flexible (easy to change) or rigid (difficult to change). Example of countries
with written constitution are Zambia, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Malawi, south Africa and USA .
ii. Un Written Constitution
This type of constitution where people are ruled based on tradition, customs and beliefs. The traditions, customs
and beliefs might not be written anywhere but there are known by the people themselves.
Example of countries with unwritten constitution include Swaziland, Morocco, Saudi, Arabia ,Lesotho, and
Britain . All these countries are ruled by either kings or queens.
c) What are the characteristics of a good constitution?

i. LANGUAGE
A good constitution should be understood by all, this means that it should be simple for an ordinary person to
understand.
155
ii. UPHOLD MORAL VALUES
A good constitution should command respect from all the people meaning that it should be supreme over every
institution and everyone in the country. iii. COMPREHESIVE
A good constitution is one that involves all the people in the making and generally acceptable by the majority.
iv. DURABLE
A good constitution should stand a taste of time in that it should be one that cannot be easily changed to suite those
in power.
v. CLEAR
A good constitution should clearly state what is prohibited and not. vi. BRIEF
A good constitution should be stable and only contain important provisions because a detailed constitution will lead
to so many disputes. vii. HUMAN RIGHTS
A good constitution should contain the fundamental human rights and freedom of people.
d) Why is the constitution important?

a. It guides people on what to do and not.
b. It limits the powers of government.
c. It protects human rights .
d. It describes the law making procedures in parliament.
e. It distributes power among the three organs of government namely: the Executive, legislature and
judiciary.
f. It establishes the government structure.
g. It makes sure that the government looks after the affairs of its people.
156
SEVEN(7)
CITIZENSHIP
1. Citizen; it is a member of a national community who enjoys certain rights and privileges that cannot be enjoyed
by a foreigner.
2. Citizenship; a full membership of a given country or the relationship that exists between an individual and the
state.
3. Dual citizenship; this is when a person has citizenship for two different countries
2. Explain the qualification for Zambian citizenship
1. He or she must be born in Zambia.
2. If he or she mother or father was born in Zambia.
3. If he or she is married to a Zambian man or woman.
4. If he or she has lived in Zambia for more than 10 years.
5. A child who is not a citizen but is adopted by a citizen automatically becomes a citizen of a country.
3. Explain the disqualifications for Zambian citizenship
1. If he or she acquires the citizenship of another country secretly.
2. If he or she requests for citizenship of another country.
3. If he or she has conducted himself or herself in such a way that threatens the security of a country.
4. If he or she commits a serious offence like crime
1. Advantages of Zambian citizenship

a. He or she enjoys rights or benefits that a foreigner cannot.
b. He or she enjoys the feeling of love and pride. For his or her country which is known a patriotism.
c. He or she has the right to vote, which is known as franchise
d. He or she has an advantage over employment as compared to a foreigner.
2. Documents used in registration of Zambian citizenship
a. Birth certificate
b. Green national registration card
c. Driver‘s license
d.
Passport book
3. Qualities of a good citizen
1.He or she must be a trusted citizen.
2. He or she must be honest citizen.
3. He or she must have a good character.
4. He or she must respect human rights.
5. He or she must be a loyal citizen.
6. He or she must obey the law.
7. He or she must help other citizens.
157
8. He or she must report crime.
9.He or she must keep the environment clean.
10.He or she must be patriotic.
11. He or she must be working for national unity and living in harmony with others.
4. What Are The Rights Of A Citizen?

What Is A Right?
It is a lawful claim or benefit a citizen gets from his/her community.
1. Right to life
2. Protect from torture: torture means to hurt someone badly.
3. Right to liberty (freedom).
4. Right to free and fair trial. Right of habeas corpus is where a person who is detained in police cells
asks to be taken to court so that the court can prove if he/she is guilty or innocent.
5. Protection from forced labour.
6. Freedom of expression.
7. Freedom of conscience (religion)
8. Freedom of movement.
9. Freedom of association and assembly.
10. Protection against any form of discrimination.
11. Right to property.
4. Duties of a citizen
A duty is what a citizen must do or ought to do the country. The following are duties of a citizen; a. Paying tax
b. Caring for public property
c. Reporting any crime to the police
d. Obeying the law
e. Defending the country
f. Keeping the environment clean and safe
g. Helping in making democracy work (voting)
h. Upholding the constitution
i. Co-operating with law enforcement agencies
j. Contributing to the welfare and advancement of the community where they live
k. Being patriotic and loyal to the country
5. Responsibilities of a citizen
A responsibility is what he or she is supposed to do for his or her personal, family and community.
> Personal responsibilities
158
i. By keeping oneself clean all the time ii. By going to school iii.
By living a health life iv. By behaving well e.g no fighting,
stealing or insulting v. By protecting yourself from any danger
> Family responsibilities
i. By doing the work given
ii. By taking care of the family e.g cooking, looking after children iii. By disciplining the young
ones iv. By educating the children
v. By making sure that the family live a health life vi. By
providing food for the family
Community or country responsibility

i. By participating in any community programs ii. By
taking part in choosing leaders iii. By defending the
constitution of the country iv. By fighting corruption
v. By working hard to develop the country
159
EIGHT (8)
POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS
a. Political party; is a group of people who come together to promote their political agenda.
It is also a voluntary association of people who share common beliefs and values whose main aim is to form the
government of the country.
b. Party manifesto; it is a document that contains the political party‘s ideas, plans, beliefs and programs of
the country once they are voted into power.
c. Party conference or convention; these are meetings held to discuss party matters. These meetings are held
at district, provincial and national levels.
7. Structures of a political party
In order for any political party to perform its roles and functions, it has the following party structure;
>National Executive Committee (NEC) or Central Committee
It is the highest organ of the party and lead by the party president.
> Provincial Committee
It is the second highest organ of the party and it is lead by the provincial chair person.
> District Committee/Constituency Committee
It is the third largest organ of the party and it is lead by the district chair person or constituency chair person.
> Section and Branches
It is the fourth and lowest organ of the party. It is headed by the section or branch chair person.
8. Functions (importance) of a Political Party

1) To educate the public on national issues
2) To nominate candidates for elections
3) To mobilise and educate people on elections
4) To unity members of society
5) To form government when they win elections
6) To promote social, pollical and economic development in the country
7) To act as a link between the government and the general public
8) To make government aware of ordinary citizens opinions and wishes
9) To develop policies and programs that reflect the wishes of their members
10)To monitor government actions to ensure rule of law
11)To provide checks and balances through constructive criticism
12)To monitor elections activities to ensure free and fair elections
13)To enforce separations of power through representation in parliament
1. Three political party system
160
A political party system is the classification of a country either a one-party system, two party system or multi-party
system.
a. One party system

This is where one political party is allowed to exist in the country by the constitution e.g Zambia in the second
republic.
>Advantages of one-party system
i. There is no time wasted on political campaigns as there is only one political party ii. Avoids inter-party violence
iii. It is easier to formulate long term national planning as they will be no fear of being voted out soon vi. It is easier
for the government to make decisions as there is no opposition v. It promotes national unity as all they will belong
to one party
>Disadvantages of one-party system
i. It promotes dictatorship as all opposition political parties are banned ii. There is
no respect for human rights iii. There is no tolerance to divergent views iv. There
is no separation of powers
v. The party leader cannot be challenged during an election vi. There
is oppression of any political party leaders vii. The press (media) is
controlled by the government viii. The pressure groups are not
allowed to operate freely xi. People are only given one set of
programs
b. Two-party system
This is where two political parties are allowed to compete against each other during elections by the constitution e.g
USA, the Democratic party versus Republican party and in Britain, the
Conservative party versus Labour party
c. Multi-party system
This is where many political parties are allowed to compete for power in the country by the constitution e.g Zambia
in the third republic.
>Advantages of two-party and multi-party system i. There
is wider freedom of political choice ii. There is political
tolerance iii. There is existence of civil societies vi. There is
respect of human rights
v. there is regular, free and fair elections vi. there
is respect of the rule of law
Disadvantages of two-party and multi-party system

i. Promotes disunity through tribal politics ii. Promotes inter-conflicts
between leaders of each political party iii. It is costly to manage elections iv.
It wastes a lot of time in running elections
v. There is lack of continuity as each one that comes in power has its own ideas
161
Nine(9)
ELECTIONS
An election is a process through which citizens choose their leaders or representatives by a way of voting
elections provide the citizens with a formal opportunity of choosing leaders or representatives for a given
office or position. Elections are, therefore, an important aspect of good governance. In Zambia, elections
are held to elect leaders at different levels of governance.
Types of elections
In Zambia, there are three (3) different types of elections that are held to enable citizens to choose leaders
or representatives of their own choice through voting.
These elections include:
i) Presidential election
ii) National assembly election
iii) Local government election
i) Presidential elections
In this type of election, citizens choose the president together with the Vice – president. During the
elections in Zambia, the presidential candidate appoints the presidential running mate who becomes the
Vice – president of the republic of Zambia when they emerge victorious in that particular election. In
simple terms, it means that a vote for the president is also a vote for the vice president.
A presidential running mate is, therefore, a person appointed by a presidential candidate to be voted in
as vice presidential when the candidate wins an election. The presidential running mate takes office as
vice president on the same day as the president. In the event that the sitting president is incapacitated or
dies, the vice president takes over immediately without going for a ‘presidential elections’.
• Note that an independent candidate can contest for any elective position such as president, Member
of Parliament, and mayoral/council chairperson and councilor.
162
ii) National assembly election
In this type of election, citizens choose their representatives or member of the national assembly. The
representatives chosen during this election are commonly referred to as Member of Parliament (MP). A
member of parliament represents citizens of a constituency in the national assembly.
Activity
In groups: a) discuss the difference between parliament and national assembly.
b) What is the role of an MP in the national assembly?
iii) Local government election
In this election, citizens choose the mayor /council chairperson and councilors. A mayor represents
citizens in a city or municipal council chairperson is a representative of district/town council. A
Councillor represents citizens at the ward level.
These elected leaders or representative lobby for development activities such as the construction or
expansion of schools, the construction of good roads, clinics drainages, school desks, etc.
Activity
In groups, briefly explain the difference between a council chairperson and a Mayer.
a) Differentiate between a municipal council and a town council.

b) Give atleast three (3) examples of each.
Forms of Elections
In Zambia, we have two (2) forms of elections namely; General Election and By –Election.
1. General Elections
A general election is held to elect the; president, Member of Parliament (MP), mayors/council
chairpersons, and councilors at the same time.
• This form of election is conducted country- wide

• A general election is held every five(5)years after the last general election, on the second Thursday
of August.
163
2. By –Election
By –elections are conducted when there is a vacancy in the office of a Member of Parliament, mayor
/council chairperson, and councilors due to resignation, death, imprisonment for longer than 6
months, impeachment, or nullification.
Electoral process
The electoral process refers to the procedures and regulations for holding an election .The
Electoral process refers to the procedures and regulations for holding an election. The electoral process
involves some activities that are done to facilitate free and fair elections. The following are the activities
that constitute the electoral process:
1) Delimitation
Delimitation is the process of drawing electoral boundaries for election, in particular for voter registration
an voting purposes. During delimitation in Zambia, boundaries are set for constituencies, wards and
polling districts. This is important because it helps voters to know where they will vote from. This is done
every ten (10) years.
2) Voter registration
This is one of the major functions of the electoral commission of Zambia. Voter registration is the process
where eligible Zambians apply to be registered as voters. In Zambia, for one to be registered as a voter, he
or she should be:
- 18 years and above

- Must be a Zambian citizen, in possession of a green national registration card (NRC).
3) Nominations
The nomination process involves people who may wish to stand as candidates in the election by making
their submissions to the returning officer. A returning officer is a person responsible for the election
process in an area. The nomination date, time, and place where this would take place, is communicated
through media by the electoral commission of Zambia.
164
The electoral commission scrutinizes all the candidate to find out if they are eligible to contest for
election.
4) Election campaign
Campaigning is an attempt by political parties or candidates to influence the voters to vote for them.
Election campaigns start after the closure of the nomination of candidates. The parties or candidates
publish campaign materials, conduct political rallies, door to door campaigns or advertise themselves in
the media. In a democratic government, all parties and candidates are free to campaign without any
interference from anyone.
5) Polling day
Polling day is the day on which the election takes place. On this particular day, the registered voters go to
vote at the polling stations where they registered as voters. Their names are checked against the register
before going to the booth, where they indicate their preferred candidates by marking the ballot paper with
an X. the booth helps voters to vote freely without others seeing who they are voting for. This is referred
to as a secret ballot. The papers are then placed in sealed ballot boxes that are only opened during
counting.
165
166
6) Counting of votes
Counting of votes is a process of allocating and adding up the votes cast for each candidate in an election.
This process is done immediately after the close of the polling station.
167
7) Announcement and declaration of results
After the counting is completed, the results of the election are announced by the presiding officer at a
polling station. All the results from each polling station in a constituency are totaled up at the totaling
center.
When all the polling stations results have been added, the returning officer declares the winners of the
national assembly, mayor/ chairperson, and Councillor Elections. The presidential results are also
announced but not declared. The results are the transmitted electronically to the national results centre in
Lusaka.
Presidential results from all the constituencies are received and displayed at the national results centre.
Then, the commission chairperson, who is the presidential election returning officer, declares the winner
who receives more than 50% of the valid votes cast during an elections as president-elect. This is done in
the presence of accredited political parties or candidates agents, media, election monitors, and observers.
8) Dispute resolution
A dispute is a misunderstanding between two parties. Therefore dispute resolution may be define as a
peaceful way of resolving a conflict. The commission resolves minor disputes that may arise during the
election process.
Summary of the electoral process in Zambia

Delimitation
Voter Registration
Inspection of the Provisional Register of Voters
Candidate Nomination
168
Election Campaign
Voting and Counting
Announcement of Results
Verification of the Ballot Paper

Accounts
Dispute Resolution
The role of electoral commission of Zambia
The electoral commission of Zambia (ECZ) is an independent body that is mandated by the constitution to
manage elections in Zambia.
The ECZ consists of a chairperson, vice-chairperson, and three (3) other members appointed by the
president subject to ratification by the national assembly.
Functions of the electoral commission of Zambia are to:
1. Conduct and manage elections

2. Regulate the conduct of voters and candidates
3. Accredit observers and election agents
4. Delimit Electoral boundaries
5. Implement the electoral process
6. Provide voter education
169
7. Make regulations providing for the registration of voters and for the manner of conducting
elections.
8. Disqualify any candidate or political party that does not follow the electoral code of conduct
Electoral malpractices
Electoral malpractices are illegal practices that the political parties, candidates, or the electorates do,
which have the potential of disrupting the smooth conduct of elections in country.
Electoral malpractices are bad for a country’s democracy because they disturb the prevailing peace in the
country.
Examples of electoral malpractices
The following are some of the common forms of electoral malpractices:
1. Election rigging- this refers to the manipulation of electoral system so that the system favours a
certain political party or candidate.
2. Political leaders misuse the power given to them by the electorates to pass criminal or unfair laws
to prevent others from contesting in an election.
3. Tampering with election process
170
4. Selling or giving away a voter’s card
5. Fake ballot papers and manipulation of votes.
6. Forging of figures of the votes cast.
7. Underage voting
8. Thuggery and intimidation of political parties and candidates.
9. Financial and other materials inducement and other forms of corrupt activities.
10. Voters attempting to vote twice.
Consequences of electoral malpractices
Electoral malpractices have consequences on the people and the country at large if not controlled.
The following are some of the consequences of electoral malpractice.
1. Wrong people are elected into power.

2. May result in political violence.
3. People lose confidence and trust in government and democracy.
4. Leads to voter apathy
5. Loss of lives and property
6. May result in a military takeover
Privation of electoral malpractices
The following are some of that measures that can be taken to prevent electoral malpractice:
i. Enhance civic and voter education activities.

ii. Ensure that there is full independence of the electoral management body (EMB)
iii. Ensure that the election riggers are seriously punished
iv. Promotion of secret ballot system
171
Ten (10)
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
a) What is to govern?
It is to rule
b) What is Government?
It is a rule by a group of people on behalf of others in a country
c) What is a Central Government?

It is a group of people chosen to run the affairs of the country on behalf of its
2. Explain the functions of Central Government

i. To defend the country-It is the duty of the government to defend the country from both external (outside)
and internal (inside) enemies such as a traitor who is an internal enemy that betrays or sells his/her
own country and a spy who is an external enemy that gets secret information about another country.
ii. To provide public services-The government provides services like education, hospitals, transport,
communication, housing, electricity, clean safe water to its people.
iii. To make executive and enforce law-The government makes laws through the legislature, executives
and enforces laws through the judiciary so as to maintain peace and order in the country.
iv. To develop the country-The government develops the country by making plans on how the country
will grow such as are called economic policies. These economic policies are made by experts at the
Ministry of Finance
v. To establish international relations with other countries-It‘s the duty of the government to
establish international relations with other countries through diplomats such as Ambassadors and High
commissioners.
vi. To raise money-It‘s the duty of the government to raise money in order to finance the provision of
services in the country such as health, education from tax collections, grants and loans.
THE EXECUTIVE
3. Sate the composition and functions of organs of Government (Executive)

i. The Executive-This is the arm or organ of government that carry out decisions. It is made up of the
president, vice president, cabinet ministers, provincial ministers and civil servants (government
workers).
172
President
Vice president
Cabinet ministers
Provincial ministers
Civil servants
ii. Name the functions of the executive

i. To carry out decisions on behalf of the country
ii. To provide social services such as education and health
iii. To raise money iv. To enforce laws in the country
v. To establish international relations
vi. To spearhead development in the country
iii. Name the functions/powers of the president
i. He/she is the head of state ii. He/she
is the head of government
iii. He/she is the commander in chief of the armed forces iv.
He/she gives instructions to government
v. He/she appoints commander of the security forces vi.
He/she can nominate eight (8) members of parliament vii.
He/she can declare the state of emergency viii. He/she can
dissolve parliament ix. He/she open and closes parliament
x. He/she awards those who have served the country well
xi. He/she can exercise the prerogative mercy to mean the president can pardon or reduce the
sentence of prisoners
xii. He/she appoints and dismisses senior government officials such as ministers, chief justice,
solicitor general, attorney general and permanent secretaries.
iv. Name the types of ministers in Zambia There are two
types of ministers in Zambia namely:
1. Cabinet ministers-These are ministers in charge of various ministries in government
such as ministry of education.
2. Provincial ministers-These are ministers in charge of provinces of Zambia such as
minister of Lusaka province.
173
v. Name the types of civil servants
1. The Secretary to the cabinet-This is the senior most civil servants in charge of all civil servants in
Zambia.
2. Permanent Secretary-This is the senior most civil servant in charge of the ministry. For example
ministry of education
3. Provincial permanent Secretary-This is the senior most civil servant in charge of a province.
4. Civil servants-These are government workers working under various ministries and department such as
teachers, nurses, policemen, doctors and accountants.
THE LEGISLATURE
1. Sate the composition and functions of organs of Government (Legislature)
This is the organ or arm of governments that make, change and abolish laws. The word Legislature comes from the
word legislate which means to make laws. It is made up of the speaker, deputy speakers, vice president, elected and
nominated members of parliament.
The speaker
Deputy speakers
The vice president
156 Elected MPs
8 Nominated MPs
i. Name the Functions of the Legislature

a. To make laws of the country
b. To make change on the laws of the country
c. To abolish the laws of the country
d. To ratify presidential appointments such as the Chief Justice, DPP and Judges.
e. To approve the country‘s national budget
f. To audit the money given to different projects in the national budget
g. To represent demands of people from various constituencies
ii. Name the powers of the legislature
a. Can override presidential veto
b. Can impeach (remove) the president
174
c. Can reject presidential appointments eg Chief justice
d. Can refuse to ratify treaties such as those on Gay marriages
e. Can conduct investigation on presidential action
f. Can reject or passes the budget
g. Can impose taxes on certain areas in the country
h. Can authorize certain expenditures in the country
iii. What is the difference between Legislature Parliament and National Assembly?
a. PARLIAMENT
It is called Parliament when the president of the country is present in the national assembly.
b. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
It is called National assembly when the president of the country is not present in the national assembly.
iv. List down the staff of national assembly

1. The speaker of the national assembly
(a) He/she is the chairperson of national assembly
(b) He/she is elected by the MPs from outside parliament among the members of public
(c) He/she chairs the sitting of the national assembly
(d) He/she makes sure that standing orders are followed in parliament. Standing orders are rules and
customs followed in the national assembly
(e) He/she does not vote for or against any motion in parliament except if there is a tie on the votes by
MPs. The voting by the speaker to break a tie is known as casting vote.
(f) Mace is a symbol of speaker‘s power of authority.
2. The deputy speaker of national assembly
(a) There are two deputy speakers of national assembly one elected from outside parliament and one
elected from among members of parliament
(b) He/she chairs the sitting of national assembly when the speaker is not there.
(c) He/she is free to vote for or against the motion in parliament as long as he/she is an MP as well.
3. The vice President
(a) he/she is the leader of the house in parliament
(b) He/she answers questions from MPs during Question Time
(c) He/she is elected as a running mate to mean if the president wins he/she has automatically been
elected as vice president during general elections
4. The clerk of national assembly
(a) He/she is the Chief Administrative Officer of the national assembly
(b) He/she takes down or records the minutes of the daily debates in parliament in a book called
National Assembly Debate Book (NADB)
175
5. The sergeant at arms
(a) He/she is the security officer of the national assembly
(b) he/she assists the speaker to maintain order in parliament
(c) He/she sends an MP who behaves contrary to parliament code of conduct when ordered by the
speaker to maintain order or when instructed by the speaker.
(d) He/she carries the Mace
v. Describe the sitting arrangement in the National assembly or parliament
1. All ministers in parliament sit in front and are called front benchers
2. All ordinary MPs sit at the back and are called back benchers
3. All invited members of the public who come to listen to debates by MPs in parliament sit in public
gallery
vi. Discuss the opening and closing of parliament
1. Parliament is opened each New Year by the president of the country
2. The sessions are meetings held in parliament to discuss several issues affecting the country.
3. The president closes parliament at the end of the year or session.
vii. Discuss the dissolution of parliament
1. Dissolution of parliament is the end of legal powers of parliament of making laws before the end of
the term of office which is five (5) years.
2. The president can dissolve parliament if the MPs do not co-operate with the president on a number
of national issues.
3. Parliament can dissolve itself if more than half of the MPs (two third majorities) in parliament
agree to dissolve it.
1. Definition of terms used in law making in Parliament

(a) Statute or act of parliament-This is a law made by parliament (b) A
Bill-It is a proposed or suggested law.
(c) A Public Bill -It is a bill suggested by or proposed by ministers
(d) A private Bill (Private Member’s Bill)-It is a bill suggested or proposed by an ordinary MP.
2 .Name the stages a bill passes in parliament before it becomes a law
(a) FIRST READING
This is the first stage at which the bill is introduced in parliament by the minister or an ordinary MP. Thereafter, the
MPs are given enough time to study the bill before it is debated.
176
(b) SECOND READING
This is the second stage at which the ministers or an ordinary MP who suggested or proposed the bill explains it in
details there after the MPs debate and vote for or against it. If the bill gets the majority vote it will be passed to the
next stage and if it fails to get the majority votes it will be dismissed.
(c) COMMITTEE STAGE
This is the third stage under which the MPs in parliament are divided into small groups or committees to look at the
bill and make changes.
(d) REPORT STAGE AND FOURTH READING

This is the fourth stage under which the MPs vote for or against the changes made in the third stage. Then the bill
will be passed to the president to assent (sign) (e) Bill goes to the president
This is the final stage under which the president assent (sign) or vetoes (refuse) to sign the bill. If the president
assent (sign) the bill; it will become a law and this is called an act of parliament (statute) and the law will be
published (Gazetted) in Government gazette which is a book containing different types of laws. If the president
refuse/rejects the bill it will be sent back to parliament to be debated again and this is called vetoed.
THE JUDICIARY
1. State the composition and functions of organs of Government (judiciary)

This is the arm or organ of government that enforces laws. The word Judiciary comes from a word judicature
which means judge.
i. Name the functions of the judiciary

1. It interprets the laws of Zambia
2. It is charged with the sole responsibility of ensuring that laws made by parliament are obeyed by citizens.
3. It reviews the laws of Zambia
4. It provides and promotes justice
5. It settles disputes in society between two or more people and corporate bodies
6. It promotes human rights
7. It is a legal advisory body to the government ii. Name the types of laws found in Zambia
1. International Law
These are laws which guide countries on how to behave towards each other.
2. Constitutional laws
These are laws which guide the government of a country
3. Civil laws
These are laws which guide the behavior of people towards each other in society
4. Criminal laws
These are laws which protect the interest of society and the state
177
5. Customary laws
These are traditional customs and rules of different tribes in Zambia
6. Natural laws
These are laws which are unwritten but are dictated by nature. In other words these are Natural
Justice Laws
7. Administrative laws
These are laws that are concerned with the administration of the country
8. Business/Company laws
These are laws relating to business and property and the operation of companies in the country.
9. Law of tort
These are laws that are concerned with trespassing on someone‘s property
10. Law contract

These are laws that are concerned with any form of contracts either written or verbally between two or more people
and corporate bodies.
iii. Name the types of cases

There are two types of court cases
1. Civil cases
These are cases which involves disputes between two or more people. Examples of civil cases include divorce,
debt, adultery, insults and pregnancy. If found guilty the punishment is usually a fine or damage
A fine is the money paid for having committed a criminal offence whereas damage is the money paid to a person as
a form of compensation.
2. Criminal cases
These are offences against the government and the society. Examples of criminal cases include theft, murder,
bribery, rape, perjury, careless driving, treason, spying and assault. The punishment for such cases is imprisonment.
iv. Why do we need laws in Zambia?
1. for protection – to protect the person against any harm by other people
2. for guidance – to guide the people on what to do and not in the country
3. for justice – to prove a person guilty or innocent when suspected of having committed a crime.
4. for human rights promotion and protection – to promote the rights of individuals in the country
5. for development – to promote all forms of development in the country as they will be peace due to
existence of laws.
1. Describe the types of courts in Zambia
The courts in Zambia have different Jurisdictions (Power) which allows each court to hear certain type of
cases only.
1. Supreme court
➢ It is the highest and final court of appeal in Zambia
178
➢ It is also known as the court of appeal or court of last resort
➢ It is headed by the Chief justice who is also the head of judiciary
➢ Its decisions are final and cannot be subjected to question or challenge
➢ It has an odd number of judges who hear every case so as to make sure there is no
tie when making decisions e.g. 3, 5 and 7 judges
➢ All its judges are appointed by the president and ratified by parliament
2. Constitution court
➢ It is the highest and final court of constitution and election appeal in
Zambia
➢ It is also known as the court of appeal or court of last resort
➢ It is headed by the Constitution Court President
➢ Its decisions are final and cannot be subjected to question or challenge
➢ It has an odd number of judges who hear every case so as to make sure there is no
tie when making decisions e.g. 3, 5 and 7 judges
➢ All its judges are appointed by the president and ratified by parliament
3. Court of Appeal
➢ It is the second largest court in Zambia
➢ It sit in all provincial headquarters in Zambia
➢ It hears most serious criminal cases appeals such as murder, man
slaughter, treason from except constitutional matters
➢ Appeals are heard by 1 or 3 judges

➢ Its judges appointed by the president ratified by parliament
4. High court
➢ It is the third largest court in Zambia
➢ It is found in all provincial headquarters in Zambia
➢ It supervises magistrate courts
➢ It hears most serious criminal cases such as murder, man slaughter, treason and
election petitions
➢ It is made up of 24 judges appointed by the president ratified by parliament
➢ It has a high court commissioner who is the administrator of justice
➢ It has a high court registrar who is responsible for record keeping and
correspondences and day to day administration
5. Magistrate court
➢ It is the fourth highest court in Zambia
➢ It hears most serious cases that cannot be handled by local court
➢ The person who hears cases in magistrate court is called magistrate
➢ It can only sentence a person to jail for not more than 5 years
6. Small claims Court
➢ It is the second lowest court in Zambia
179
➢ It hears small (minor) claim cases below K20,000
➢ The person who hears cases in Small Claims Court is Commissioner
7. Local court
➢ It is the lowest court in Zambia
➢ It hears minor(small) cases
➢ The person who hears cases in local court is called Local Court Justices.
➢ It can only sentence a person to jail for not more than 12 months (1 year)
➢ It was called native authorities or ordinance court during colonial days.
NB: the local court, Small Claim Court and Magistrate Court are all together called the Subordinate court
180
1. Describe the judicial terms and important judicial officers in judiciary
1. Police bond
181
It is a written promise not to run away made by a detained person so that he/she is released from police cells or
custody pending further investigation and trial of the case. However, he/she must present sureties to police so that
in case the detained person runs away the police will hold on the sureties until he/she surrenders himself/herself to
police. The surety can be money or a person eg father, mother, brother, sisters or a friend working in government.
2. Bail
It is a sum of money paid by the accused person to the court so that he/she is allowed to go home pending an appeal
on his/her case. Also the rule of sureties is applicable under bail.
3. Habeas Corpus
It is a written document prepared by the high court to allow the accused person taken to court if he/she is detained
for a long period of time of more than 14 days without trial.
4. Complainant/plaintiff/Claimant
This is the person who takes the case to court either civil or criminal case.
5. Defendant/defender
This is the person who is accused of having done something wrong either civil or criminal case.
6. Prosecutor
This is the person who tells the courts what crime the accused has committed and what law they have broken.
7. Mitigation
This is when the accused person asks the court to be lenient in giving punishment after his /she been found guilty.
8. Dock
This is the box in which the accused and witness stand in court when giving evidence or information.
9. Docket
It is a document opened to file the complaint or evidence at police station
10. Call out

This is the notice sent to someone to report before to the police station.
11. Court summon

This is a notice sent to someone to report before the courts of laws.
12. Legal aid

This is an assistance that the accused gets from a government lawyer without paying.
13. Witness
The is a person who gives evidence in court of law about that he/she personally saw or heard.
14. Evidence
It is the proof provided by the accused
15. Adjourn
182
It is when a court case is postponed to later date
16. Perjury
This is a crime committed when one gives false evidence before the court.
17. Contempt of court

It is when a person is charged for commenting on matters before courts or disobeying court orders.
18. Verdict
This is passing of a judgment either guilty or innocent
19. Dismissed/Acquitted
This is means the accused has been found with no case to answer. Therefore is free to go home
20. Nolle Prosequi

This is when the Complainant drops the case before the Court of Law against the Defendant due to insufficient
evidence
21. Convict
This is a person who has been found guilty and jailed
22. Rights of appeal

This is the freedom of appeal to the higher courts of law if not satisfied with the judgment in the smaller courts.
23. Suspended sentence

This is when a person serves his/her jail sentence outside prison but should not commit any other crime within a
given period.
24. Sentence
This is the punishment which the court gives to a person if he/she found guilty.
25. Warrant
This is a written notice issued by the courts to allow the police arrest someone.
2. . Important officers in the judicial system of Zambia 1.

Attorney General
➢ He/she is the chief legal advisor to government
➢ He/she is the ex-official member of the cabinet
➢ He/she attends cabinet meetings to advice government
➢ He/she represent the government in court
➢ He/she draft and sign all government bills presented to parliament
2. Solicitor General
➢ He/she is the senior government lawyer
➢ He/she performs the functions of the attorney general in his/her absence.
3. Director of Public Prosecution (DPP)
183
➢ He/she in charge of criminal proceedings
➢ He/she can start the case before courts of law
➢ He/she can end the case before courts of law through a Nolle Prosequi
4. Investigator General
➢ He/she is an official who chairs the commission of investigations
➢ The commission investigate all cases of mal practice
➢ The investigator general is also known as ombudsman
184
Eleven(11)
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
1. Explain the following terms Council, Councillor and Local government

1. Who is Councillor?
Is a person who is elected by the local community to represent them? He/she represent the ward and the term of
office of a councilor is 5years.
2. What is a council?
It is a group of councilors tasked to represent the needs of local community. All council in Zambia falls under the
ministry of local government and housing.
3. What is local government?

It is a group of councils tasked to take care of the needs of the people.
Councilor Councils Local Government
4. Brief history of local government in Zambia.

Local government started in 1927 with two types authorities namely;
a. The native Authority

These form rural local government and they were agents of central government in administering local African and
were run by chiefs.
b. The urban local Authority

These were run by the department of local government central African housing under the ministry of lands and
local government.
5. The five types of urban local authorities.

a) City
b) Municipal
c) Municipal board
d) Township Management
e) District Commission of local Authority
. b) Municipal
These had the powers to appoint a Mayor and choose a long serving member of council as the Alderman.
c) Municipal boards.
These had powers to appoint chairman.
6. Local Government 1964-1980

In 1964 –Rural and urban local authorities came under the ministry of local government. Also in 1964 Native
Authority was abolished and local Authority moved to local Government and housing from the ministry of housing
and social Development.
1. Four types of council established 1964-1980
185
1. City
2. Municipal
3. Township
4. Rural council.
1. City and Municipal Council
These were used headed by a Mayor and town clerks were appointed as chief Administrative officers.
2. Township and Rural Councils. These were headed by elected civic as chairman and council secretaries as
Administrators.
7. LOCAL GOVERNMENT 1980-TO DATE
In 1980 a Decentralization was passed which gave powers to UNIP to run councils. 1. Types of
councils established 1980-to date
i. CITY COUNCILS
These are biggest council in Zambia found in big cities such as Lusaka, Ndola, Kitwe, Livingstone and now
Chipata. It is headed by a Mayor.
ii. MUNICIPAL COUNCILS.

These are councils found in big towns such as Chingola, Luansya, Kasma,Mufilira, are headed by a Mayor. iii.
DISTRICT COUNCILS
These are councils found in small town such as Kabwe,Mazabuka,Kalomo , Mpika and Monze .And there are
headed by council chairman.
iv. MAYOR AND COUNCIL CHAIR PERSON.

These are elected during General elections. The term of office for mayor and council chairperson is 5 years.
v. ALDERMAN
It‘s a council which has served the council for at least 10 years.
vi. BY-LAWS
These are laws made by the council to regulate council areas in accordance with the constitution .Anyone who
breaks the council by laws will be imprisoned for 6moths or fired.
186
A. SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE COUNCIL
1) collection of disposal (cabbage)
2) Provisioning of housing
3) Maintenance of sites such as graves , yards residential areas 4) Housing of motorcars, and trading
licenses.
5) Provision of street lighting
6) provision of public libraries
7) Control of epidemics such as as cholera, typhoid e.t.c.
8) Provide clean and safe water
9) Provide plots for development
10)Maintaining streets and roads
11)Controlling livestock movement
12)Constructing and maintaining markets
13)Town planning
14)Sewage disposal
15)Providing recreation facilities such as swimming pools and parks
16)Providing public health facilities
17)Providing education facilities such as schools
18)Collecting levies 19) Making by laws
B. SOURCES OF REVENUE FOR THE COUNCIL

1) Grants from the central government.
2) Borrowing from financial institutions such as Bank.
3) Collecting rents, rates from public.
4) Running business such as taverns.
5) Collecting personal levy.
C. RENT AND RATES
a. Rent-is money paid by people who live in council houses or someone‘s house
b. Rate- is money paid by people to the council for having built on council‘s land or areas e.g a house,
school bar.
c. Personal levy; is the money (text) employers deduct from the workers (employees) salaries once or
twice in a year to pay the nearest council office.
D. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOCAL AND CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
1) The central government creates local government.
187
2) The central government gives guides lines to local government
3) The central government approves plans or budgets for the local government.
4) The central government provides instructions concerning health matters to the local governments
5) The central government through the ministry of local government can dissolve nonperforming
council
6) Central government gives grant to local government
E. Identify roles of traditional rulers in governance
A Traditional Ruler is a Headman, Chief, King or Queen presiding over a Village, Chiefdom or Kingdom whose
authority to rule is driven from traditions and customs.
1) providing leadership in the community

2) Serve as custodian of traditional values and land.
3) However they are not allowed to join or participate in partisan politics.
188
Twelve(12)
HOUSE OF CHIEFS
A. Explain the term House of Chiefs

1) During the pre-colonial period, all areas were ruled by chiefs, there was no central government.
2) Chiefs did not deal with matters concerning every subjects i.e. concerning land distribution, chiefs allocated
land to sub-chiefs who in turn allocated shares to village headmen.
3) The village headmen allotted land to heads of sub-sections or heads of families who distributed land to their
dependents.
4) Chiefs were often used as instruments of indirect rule by the colonial administration.
5) After independence most of the functions of the chiefs were taken over by the central government.
However, the government still recognizes the importance of chiefs in governance of the government.
6) In 1965, the government instituted the House of Chiefs.
B. State the composition of the House of Chiefs
1) It is made up of 50 chiefs; five elected by the chiefs from each of the ten provinces.
2) The chairperson and the vice chairperson are elected from amongst the members.
3) The elected members hold office for a period of three years and may be re-elected for further period of
three years.
4) They can also resign upon giving one month notice in writing to the chairman.
5) Clark of the house- he/she is the Chief Administrative Officer of House of Chiefs
Southern Western Eastern Copperbelt Lusaka Luapula N.Western Muchinga Central Northern
C. State the conditions which can make the house of chief’s position vacant
1) If a member dies
2) If a member stops being a chief in his area
3) If a member becomes a candidate to any election or accepts an appointment to any office in a political party
4) If a member is declared or becomes of unsound mind under any law in Zambia.
5) Explain the role of the House of Chiefs To consider and discuss any bill dealing with custom or tradition
before it is introduced into the National Assembly
6) To discuss and decide on matters that relate to customary laws and practices
7) To discuss any other matter referred to it by the president
8) To submit resolutions on any bill or other matter referred to it to the president so that he can submit such
resolutions to the National Assembly
9) Advising government on traditional issues
189
10)Uniting their people and lead them to peace and development
11)Promote culture values and the local heritage
12)They can use their social roles to bring solutions to conflicts arising from culture and traditional
misunderstandings.
13)To discuss and decide on matters that is related to customary laws and practices.
14)To discuss any other referred it by the president.
190
Topic one(1)
GOVERNANCE
In this unit, you will:
• Describe fundamental human rights

• Explain the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child(UNCRC)
• Identify factors that lead to human right violations
• Discuss obstacles to reporting human rights violations
• Identify institutions and organizations that promote human rights in Zambia
FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights are freedoms, privileges and entitlements every human being has by virtue of his or her
belonging to the human race. Rights for all members of the human family were expressed in1948 in the
United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).
The concept of International human rights owes its beginnings to violations by Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler.
During World War II, which took place from 1939 to 1945, the Nazis murdered millions of Jews and
hundreds of thousands of others, including Romans, commonly known as gypsies, homosexuals, solvent
prisoners of war (POWs) and the mentally ill in gas chambers, by firing squad and other methods. The
world had never faced crimes of such magnitude, and the allied forces that were victorious in World War
II set out to ensure that such a thing could ever happen again.
Soon after World War II, four allied nations began working on plans to establish a world organization
which would maintain world peace. These countries were china, the union of solvent socialist republics
(USSR), the United Kingdom and the United States. Their efforts led to the birth of the United Nations
(UN) in 1945. Two years later, the UN created the commission on human rights headed by Eleanor
Roosevelt, the widow of former US president Franklin D Roosevelt. And on December 10, 1948, the UN
adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, an event that marked the birth of the modern human
rights movement.
191
The 30 articles of the Declaration together form a comprehensive statement covering economic, social,
cultural political and civil rights. The document is both universal, as it applies to all people everywhere,
and indivisible, meaning that all rights are equally important to the full realization of one’s humanity. It is
a set of principles to which united nation members commit themselves in an effort to provide all people a
life of human dignity.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN RIGHTS
The following are the characteristics of human rights:
Human Rights are Inherent
Human rights flow from nature; they exist independently of the will of an individual or group of person’s.
They cannot be bought, given, entrusted or earned.
Human Rights are Universal
Human rights are based on human being’s dignity, irrespective of race, or sex, religion, ethnicity, political
or opinion, national or social origin. They apply to every human being in the world because human beings
are the same everywhere as human nature is the same.
Human Rights are Inalienable
192
This means that human rights cannot be taken away from any human, separated or given away.
Human Rights are Interdependent and interrelated
This means that the violation of one right affects the exercise of other rights because all rights are
interrelated.
CATEGORIES OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights have been categorized into the following:
First Generation Rights – Civil and Political Rights
The Civil and Political rights are called first generation because they were the first rights to be recognized.
They show the importance of the freedom of the individual and make it the responsibility of governments
to protect and not to interfere in the life of the individual. These rights are:
a) The right to life,

b) Right to personal liberty,
c) Freedom of opinion,
d) Freedom of association,
e) Freedom of movement.
Second Generation Rights – Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
This category has rights that are security- oriented. These are rights such as: right to food ,right to
employment ,right to education ,right adequate housing.
Third Generation rights – collective Rights
The third generation rights are those enjoyed in the community with others. These rights are not legally
binding. However, they provide a framework for the enjoyment of all the other rights. These rights
include: the right to self-determination, right to peace, right to communication, right to participation in
cultural heritage, right to natural resources etc.
Activity
Project
193
In groups, find articles on any forms of human rights violations from newspapers or magazines. Identify
the human rights violations and suggest possible solutions to curb those violations.
THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD (UNCRC)
The United Nations convention on the rights of a child is the most complete statement of children’s rights
ever produced and is the most widely ratified human right’s treaty in history. It was signed by the world’s
leaders in 1989 in recognition of the human rights of all children and young people under 18. The main
features of this is the recognition of the child’s right to childhood, education, health, fair treatment and to
being heard.
HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATION
To violate is to disobey or fail to observe a law, regulation or terms of an agreement. Human rights
violations therefore, means failure to observe or going against human rights.
FACTORS THAT LEAD TO HUMAN RIGHT VIOLATIONS
There are a number of factors that lead to human rights violations and these are:
Lack of information
Some people do not have information on human rights. Because of this, when their violated, they do not
report the matter to the police because they think it’s normal. As a result, those who violate human rights
will keep doing so because they are not punished. Equally, some people violate human rights because they
do not know that what they do is against human rights.
Corruption
Corruption leads to violation of human rights. For example, some boys and girls are denied the right to
education because their parents are too poor to pay bribes. Even if they have passed exams, their school
places may be given to those who are able to pay bribes.
Poverty
Poor people are easily exploited. They are usually made to do jobs which endanger their health. At times
they are forced to sell their property such as land, cheaply to rich people. This denies them the right to
property.
194
Civil wars
When there is a civil war, human rights are not respected. Children cannot go to school, houses are
damaged and a lot of people are killed or injured. Many women and girls are kidnapped or raped. Boys are
used as child soldiers.
OBSTACLES TO REPORTING HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS
Fear of victimization
Many victims of human rights violations do not report these violations for fear of being victimized by the
perpetrators. For example, young girls and boys especially girls, when they are sexually abused do not
report to relevant authorities (the police) because they are threatened with beating if they do so. Married
women do not usually report to the police when their rights are violated by their husbands for fear of
being divorced, even married men do not usually report to the police when their rights are being violated
for fear of being laughed at or being embarrassed. Others, especially victims of rape fear that people might
start laughing at them. All these are obstacles to reporting human rights violations.
Lack of support
In some cases, victims of human rights violations are not supported by their families or the community.
They are laughed at or made the subject of discussion. Sometimes, even when they report these cases, they
are asked embarrassing questions.
Culture
Culture acts as a hindrance to reporting human rights violations. For example, in some cultures, it is a
taboo for a woman to report her husband who has been battering her.
Poverty
Poor people are reluctant to report human rights violations fearing that they might not be given a fair
hearing against the rich, or that the violators might bribe the police.
Limited or lack of education
People who lack education are not well informed about human rights. This lack of accurate information
makes it difficult for them to report human right violations.
195
Unfair justice system
If the abuser bribes the court official, court records may be destroyed and cases may be adjourned
unnecessarily. This makes the judgement of the case to delay. It helps the perpetrator to buy time and
becomes costly on the part of the victim which may force them to withdraw the case. This discourages to
report cases of violation.
INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANISATIONS THAT PROMOTE HUMAN RIGHTS IN ZAMBIA
Because of the importance of human rights, a number of institutions have been established to promote
human rights. Some are government institutions, while others are not. These are called non –
governmental organizations (NGOs).
Government Institutions Non – Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
Human Rights Commission Amnesty International
The Human Rights Commission established in 1977 It works to promote and protect human rights
to investigate human rights violations and bad throughout the world, campaigns for the release of
administration of justice. It proposes measures to those imprisoned because of their race, ethnicity,
prevent human rights abuses. sex, economic status, religion, or national origin, or
for peacefully expressing their political beliefs.
The Judiciary Zambia National Women’s Lobby Group

(ZNWLG)
It protects human rights through enforcing the Bill
of Rights. Anyone who feels that his or her human Zambia National Women’s Lobby advocates
rights have been violated can ask the High Court to increased women’s participation and representation
make things fair or equal. at all levels of decision – making.
The National Assembly Justice for Widows and Orphans Project

(JWOP)
Made up of elected and nominated members of
parliament, carries out a range of important public It promotes and protects property and inheritance
196
responsibilities to promote democratic governance rights of widows and orphans.
in Zambia
The Judicial Complaints Authority Young Women Christian Association (YWCA)
The Judicial Complaints Authority receives and It empowers girls and young women through skills
investigates allegations of misconduct against development, talent, promotion, provision of safe
judicial officers. places and advocacy.
The Police Public Complaints Authority Zambia Association for Research and
Development (ZARD)
The Police Public Complaints Authority was
established in 2002 to address public complaints Formed in 1984, it encourages research on the
against police misconduct in order to protect the position of women in Zambia, holds meetings to
rights of citizens. exchange ideas, organizes seminars.
Zambia Police Service Victim Support Unit The Zambia National Association for Disabled
(VSU) Women Organization (ZNADWO)
The unit mainly deals with cases of violence most It ensures that the rights of the disabled women are
of which affect women and children. protected and respected by all people in the country.
197
Factors that lead to
human rights
violation
Human rights violation are abuses of human rights by a person, group of people, organizations or the government.
The following are the factors that lead to human rights violation;
i. Lack of information; some people do not have information on

human rights ii. Corruption; it leads to violation of human rights in
the sense that some children are not able to access the education system
because the selection is not done on merit
iii. Poverty; the rich usually abuse the poor to their own benefit iv. Poor
governance; bad governance by those in power
v. Conflicts; misunderstandings by people can lead to fights vi.
Selfishness; greed and lack of generosity by those in power vii. Culture;
most cultures consider woman as second class in life viii. Religious belief;
some churches limit the behavior of its members
2. Obstacles to reporting human rights violation
These are things that discourage people from reporting human rights violation.
i. Fear of victimization ii. Lack of support iii. Corruption iv.

Long court proceedings
v. Lack of media freedom to express human rights abuses
Institutions or organizations that promote human rights in Zambia
a. Government
i. Human Rights Commission ii. Court system iii.
Parliament iv. Police service through the victim support unit
(VSU)
b. Non-government organizations (NGO)
i. Amnesty international ii. Law Association of Zambia
(LAZ) iii. Foundation for Democratic Process (FODEP) iv.
Zambia National Women Lobby Group (ZNWLG)
198
Topic two(2)
CORRUPTION
It is the giving of money, valuables or receiving of a service to someone in return for a favor.
It is the misuse of public office for personal or selfish gain.
What is gratification?
Any corrupt payment made whether in cash or kind as a result of abuse of public office or property
Forms of corruption
There are different forms of corruption however, the following are the most common;
i. Cash payment and receipt; this involves the giving or accepting money in return for a favor by a
public officer
ii. Kick back; the giving of a service to someone in return for a favor by a public officer
iii. Payment in kind; this is were someone demands for a favor for an action done iv. Commissions;
soliciting to be dubiously given a commission as an appreciation fee for awarding a contract
v. Nepotism; this is a form of corruption where a person in power decides to employ relatives in
certain positions of work
vi. Favoritism; this is the form of corruption where a person in power decides to employ friends,
tribesman and church mates in certain positions of work
Categories of corruption
a. Petty corruption; this is a type of corruption that is widely practiced in Zambia and usually involves
small amounts of money. The payments are called bribes.
b. Grand corruption; this type of corruption involves substantial amounts of money. It is usually
practiced by high-ranking officials in government in terms of awarding contracts
c. Political corruption; this type of corruption is associated with the electoral process. It is usually
practiced by those contesting political power.
199
1. Causes of corruption
The causes of corruption can be grouped in the following categories
a. Social causes
➢ Personal greed and dishonest
➢ Weak punishment for offends
➢ Weak enforcement or absence of code of conduct
➢ Leaders in key positions are not capable of inspiring and influencing conduct of the highest moral
standard
➢ Large numbers of people compete for insufficient services like few school places b. Economic
causes
➢ Poverty
➢ Shortage of goods and services
➢ Low salaries and wages in comparison to the cost of living
➢ Unequal distribution of wealth and resources
➢ Allocation of government loans and giving of tenders to some preferred individuals at the exclusion
of others.
c. Other causes
➢ Unnecessary long procedures (red-tape) in offices many encourage kick backs in order to have
things done fast
➢ Lack of political will, some government lack political will to deal with corrupt elements
➢ Abuse of power, if there is excess concentration in the hands of an individual, he or she many
hinder investigations of corrupt practices
➢ Lack of transparency and accountability, if a government lacks checks and balances there is
mismanagement and misuse of public funds
➢ Lack of independence of the judiciary, courts may not act independently on matters of corruption if
they are influenced by outside forces such as the executive
➢ Public reaction, if corruption is tolerated by members of the public as a normal practice due to
economic hardships it will surely continue
➢ Lack of press freedom, failure by the media to investigate and expose corruption
practices due to lack of media freedom in the country encourages corruption
200
1. Roles of individuals in the fight against corruption
➢ Changing attitudes from tolerance to total rejection of corruption
➢ Access information on procedures on how to deal with corruption cases
➢ Reporting corrupt officers to relevant authority
➢ Supporting organizations that fight corruption
➢ Taking responsibility for one‘s action
➢ Encouraging and supporting free press
➢ Knowing the procedures on how to acquire goods and services
➢ Not keeping quite when a corrupt act has been observed
➢ Demanding integrity and high sense of morality from public office bearers
2. Institutions involved in the fight against corruption
i. Government institutions;
These are institutions formed by government to fight corruption in the country
1. Anti- Corruption Commission (ACC)

1) Is the official government institutions established government to fight corruption
2) ACC‘s fight against corruption is enshrined in the slogan promote integrity, say no to corruption.
METHODS USED BY ACC TO FIGHT AGAINST CORRUPTION
1) Prevention – this is the undertaking of necessary and effective measures to prevent corruption in the public
and private sectors.
2) Community education – this is the educating of the community on matters relating to corruption.
3) Investigations and prosecutions – this involves receiving and investigation of complaints of suspected
corrupt practices and where evidence is established prosecution follows.
2. Zambia National Procurement Authority(ZNPA)
1) Formerly known as Zambia National Tender Board
2) Its object is to control and regulate the procurement of goods and services by government ministries and
departments and parastatal organisations.
3. Parliament
1) It fights corruption through the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) that scrutinizes the Auditor General’s
Report on misuse, misapplication and embezzlement of public funds.
4. Auditor General’s office

1) Its charged with the responsibility of ensuring that public funds allocated by parliament are used for intended
purpose.
5. Investigator General’s office

1) The Investigator General is also known as Ombudsman and he/she is the chairperson of the Commission
for Investigation.
201
2) Apart from protecting and investigating human rights violations it also investigates corruption complaints.
6. Anti- Money Laundering Unit
1) It is a department of the Drug Enforcement Commission (DEC)
2) Money laundering is the act of concealing, disguising, possessing receiving, disposing of or bringing into
the country any property (which includes money or any item) derived or realized directly or indirectly from
illegal or criminal activities.
7. Zambia Police Service
1) It investigates and arrest suspected corrupt officers and any suspected corrupt persons.
ii. CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATIONS

These are institutions formed by individuals and groups of people to fight against corruption in the country.
1. Foundation for Democratic Process (FODEP)

1) It conducts awareness programmes by educating the public on corruption in electoral process and need for
electoral reforms to enhance democracy and free and fair elections.
2. Transparency International Zambia (TIZ)

1) Undertaking research on various aspects of corruption, good governance and integrity
3. National Movement Against Corruption (NAMAC)

2) It demand high levels of integrity, transparency, accountability and sought genuine participation in the affairs
of Zambia.
4. The Media
1) The media includes print media (newspapers), electronic media (television and radio) and online media
(via internet).
2) The role of the media is to dig deeper and carry out research on any cases of corruption. This is called
investigative journalism
3) The media investigate and expose corrupt activities and in so doing it discourages people from engaging in
corrupt practices.
202
Three(3)
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Explain the concept conflict
It is the absence of peace
It is the misunderstanding between people or group more people
7. A. Levels of conflict
i. Individual conflicts, this is also known as personal conflict. It is a conflict between two or more
individuals
ii. Family conflict, this is a conflict between two or more individuals of the same family iii.
Community conflict, this is a conflict which involves the entire community or between two
communities
iv. National conflicts, this is the conflict which involves the entire nation or country
v. International conflict, this is a conflict among different nations or countries of the world
B. Types of conflict
1. Religious conflicts; this is the conflict between churches resulting from the ill talk about other churches
2. Class conflict; this is the conflict between the poor and rich
3. Gender conflict; this the conflict between men and women over resources and leadership dominance by men
4. Tribal conflict; this is the conflict between tribes resulting from the ill talk of others towards other people‘s
tribes
5. Inter-state conflict; this is the conflict between two or more countries due to various reasons
6. Intra conflict; this is the conflict that elapses within the country from problems such as unemployment, health
and politics
C. Causes of conflict
1. History – it is believed that if history is not properly explained to people it can bring conflict such as the
conflict between Muslims and Christians.
2. Ethnicity – ill feelings about people who do not belong to your own ethnicity (tribal) can bring conflict such as
calling Tongas tribal by others.
3. Imbalance of natural resources – failure to distribute the resources equally in the country can bring conflict.
4. Immigration – high influx of foreigners from different countries into a country brings about resentment by the
host people which result into xenophobia attack as the case of South Africa.
5. Genocide – the massive killing of a tribe or race by another can bring conflict
6. Poverty – high levels of illiteracy and unemployment can bring about conflict
7. Racial discrimination – treating of people different based on their skin colour can bring such as saying bad
things about Albino people
8. Racial segregation – to mean separate development in which people in the country choose to develop
according to their tribe, race and religion.
9. Corruption – winning favours through payment of money at the expense of others can cause conflict
203
10. Crime – high levels of criminal activities such as theft in the society can bring conflict.
11. Cultural differences – culture is a way of life of people, hence saying bad things about people‘s culture can
bring conflict. For example, talking ill about the Chinese people because they eat dog meat
12. Clash of interest – human needs sometimes may have same interest resulting into clashing with each other.
D. Explain the negative effects of conflict
The following are the results of conflict in a society.
1. Destruction of property such as buildings and vehicles get damaged

2. Forces people to run away from their homes and become refuges
3. Destroys the environment more especially use of bombs during conflict
4. Loss of many lives of innocent people
5. Increases the risk of anti-social behavior like stealing and prostitution as people tend to take
advantage of such situations
6. It paralyzes the economy activities of the country as most will report for work for fear of being
killed.
7. It promotes violence against each other in society

8. It promotes human suffering as the government will concentrate on buying more military
equipment at the expense of building schools and industries,
9. It leads to forcibly recruitment of young children as soldiers

10. It promotes disunity as people may never work together again after conflicts
204
Exercise
1.Explain the concept conflict
2.Describe the levels and types of conflict

3.Describe the causes of Conflict
4.Explain the negative effects of conflict

a) Describe the positive effects of conflict in society
1. The winning group of conflict may walk away with resources such as minerals
2. It promotes business for companies that make military attire such as guns, bullets, uniforms, boots and planes
3. It leads to expansion of the territory by the winning such as Israel expanded its territory Syria.
4. It leads to countries working together as allies (friends) and alliance of states to defeat enemies
5. The military officers involved with peace keeping mission gets rich once they finish serving their term in war
zone country from money paid to them.
b) Discuss the methods of resolving conflicts
Conflict resolution is the settlement of conflict through peaceful means such as counselling, negotiation,
mediation, arbitration and litigation.
1. Counselling – this is a method of resolving conflict through a counselor trusted by both

parties. This method suits individual conflict.
2. Negotiation – this is a method of resolving conflict between two groups of people through
a reliable and skilled negotiator. This methods suits conflicts between groups of people
such as workers and the company owner.
3. Mediation – this is a method of resolving conflict through a neutral third person who asks
the disputing parties to come up with solution that is fair to both. This method aim at
balancing the two sides and draw them closer to each other.
4. Arbitration – this is a method of resolving conflict through an arbitrator appointed by both
disputing parties. The decision made by the arbitrator is binding to both parties involved.
5. Litigation – this is a method of resolving conflict through taking each other before the
court of law.
c) Suggest methods of promoting peace in society
The following methods can promote peace in society thereby avoiding conflict.
1. Intermarriages – promoting intermarriages between tribes can reduce tribal talks in the society
that fuel conflict
2. Friendship – making friends lessens conflict with other as people would avoid quarreling with
friends
3. Reciprocity – this is where a person does good things to somebody who has been to him/her.
4. Mutual aid – this is where a person helps others who are in problems
5. Forgiveness – if we promote the culture of forgiving each other whenever we differ conflict will
reduce.
205
6. Tolerance – Accepting other people‘s opinions and views promote peace.
7. Respect – showing of respect towards one another promote peace in society.
8. Justice – being fair to everyone in society reduces conflict
d) What are the ways used by the United Nations to resolve conflicts in affected countries?
1. By setting up international tribunals to resolve conflicts
2. By settling of conflicts through courts of law
3. By sending peace keeping forces to areas of conflict
4. By promoting democratic elections
5. By imposing sanctions on erring countries
e) How has Zambia responded to refuges coming into the country due civil wars in their countries?
Zambia has opened up the following Refugee Camps supervised by the Ministry of Home Affairs
1. Maheba-North Western Province

2. Nyango, Mayukwayukwa and Nangweshi-Western Province
3. Chikumbi and Makeni –Lusaka Province
4. Ukwimi-Eastern Province
5. Mwange and Kala-Luapula Province
F Outline the African countries that have experienced
1. Sudan
2. Rwanda
3. Burundi
4. Ethiopia
5. Eritrea
6. Democratic Republic of Congo
7. Nigeria
8. South Africa
9. Ivory Coast
10. Libya
206
207
Topic four(4)
GENDER AND SEX ROLES
Definitions of terms
➢ Gender; is a social belief about sex and the expectations for females and males
➢ Gender roles; the values and behavior that society expect of a person based on the traditional views of
the biological sex of a person. For example, men are the leaders, hunters and herders while women care
and nurture the child at home.
➢ Sex roles; these are expectations that society have of how members should behave sexually. For
example, women are the only wants who can breastfeed while men are the only ones who can
impregnant a woman.
➢ Gender discrimination; this is the unfair or unequal treatment of people or an individual based on their
gender. For example, treating women and girls as less important than men and boys.
➢ GENDER EQUITY: It is the Process by which women and men are treated fairly in accordance to their
respective needs in society.
➢ GENDER EQUALITY; This is a concept states that all human beings that is, girls and boys, women
and men are free to develop their personal abilities without limitations set by society
1. Effects of Gender discrimination
➢ It leads to conflicts between men and women (gender-based violence)
➢ Men claim the rights to make decisions that affect women
➢ Women have less access to property ownership
➢ Women have less or no access to education
➢ Women are not given higher positions in companies or authority
➢ Women have less or no access to employment
➢ Women have less or no power in decision making
➢ Women participate less in political affairs
➢ Forced child marriage discriminates against young girls by taking away a human right
2. Institutions that promote Gender equality
Government organizations
i. Ministry of Gender ii. Women‘s Economic
Empower Fund of 2010 iii. The parliament iv.
Gender Equity and Equality Commission v.
Ministry of justice
Non-governmental organization
i. Non-Governmental Organization Coordinating Council (NGOCC) ii.
The United Nation Population Fund (UNFPA) iii. Women for Change
(WFC)
iv. Zambia Nation Women‘s Lobby Group (ZNWLG)
Topic five(5)
MONEY
A. What is money?
Is anything of value that is generally recognized in the exchange of goods and services? B. What are the
qualities or Characteristics of money?
1. Stable (Stability)
To mean money should remain in use for a long period of time without anyone rejecting from using it such as 5
ngwee and 10 ngwee where people reject to use them.
2. Acceptability ( Acceptability)
209
To mean for any object to be used as money, it must be generally accepted by every single person in the
community.
3. Durable (Durability)
To mean money must last for a long period of time before fading away or worn out.
4. Scarce ( Scarcity)
To mean money should be very difficult to find unless he/she works hard to find it.
5. Portable (Portability)
To mean money must be easily carried about by people in their business transactions from one point to another.
6. Easy to Recognize (Recognisability)

To mean bank notes and coins should have features that will make it easier for people to differentiate or recognise
each piece of money.
7. Non- Counterfeit (Counterfeitability)

To mean money should not be easily made or forged by anyone in society but only through the authorized
companies that make money.
8. Divisible (Divisibility)
To mean money should easily be divided into smaller qualities such as K100 changed into K50, K20, K10, K5 or
K2.
SUMMARY OF QUALITIES or CHARACTERISTICS OF MONEY

S _____________________ Stable (Stability)
A_____________________ Acceptability (Acceptability)
D ____________________ Durable (Durability)
S____________________ Scarce (Scarcity)
P____________________ Portable (Portability)
E____________________ Easy to Recognise (Recognisability)
N___________________ Non- Counterfeit (Counterfeitability)
D___________________ Divisible (Divisibility)
SAD SPEND!!! For sure if not careful money can bring about Sad Spend C. Name
the functions of money.
1. Medium of Exchange
210
To mean money is used in the exchange of goods and services. Eg. If you need books you pay money and get books
from the shop. In this example money is used as a medium of exchange between the shop owner and the person
need of books.
2. Store of value
To mean someone‘s wealth can be kept in form of money in the bank. For example, a cattle rich farmer can sale all
his cattle and keep the money in bank and still be rich in terms of money.
3. Measure of value
This function is also known as unit of account. This function allows the values of goods and services to compare to
the price we pay for them. For example, if a businessman is selling one pen at K10 very few or if none will agree to
buy those pens because the value of K10 is more than one pen.
4. Means of deferred payments

To mean an agreement can be easily be reached between two people to allow the buyer settle his/her credit in
future. This is why it is commonly referred to as ―BUY NOW PAY LATER”. This function allows people to get
things on credit and then pay later.
1. What is inflation
It is the rapid rise of prices
It is a situation where there is too much money in circulation chasing too few goods
2. Types of inflation
i. Cost push inflation; this is a rise in prices of raw materials used in the production of goods
ii. Demand inflation; this is the rising demand of certain products in the economy there by making
prices to be increased
iii. Creeping inflation; this is the type of inflation where there is moderate rise of prices of goods and
services yearly of about 1% to 6%
iv. Chronic; this is the type of inflation where there is highly monthly rise of prices of goods and
services of above 10%
v. Suppressed inflation; this is the type of inflation where even though the demand exceeds the supply
of goods and services, the inflation is controlled using measure such as price control of goods and
services
vi. Hyper inflation; this is the type of inflation where there is highly monthly rise of prices of goods
and services of about 50%
3. Causes
➢ High salaries and wages of workers
➢ Reduction of money supply in circulation
➢ Full employment- a situation that sees nearly everyone working
211
➢ Full export- where the country exports more of its locally made goods
➢ Expansion of non-market sectors such as constructions of roads
Effects
➢ It may reduce savings of money among people due fear of loss value
➢ It increases the cost of doing business hence disrupts normal economic activities.
➢ It discourages spending of money as people feel troubled carry bags on money around for shopping.
➢ It makes borrowing and lending of money to be valueless
➢ It may reduce foreign exchange as people will fear to do business with such a country.
Solutions
➢ By increasing the production goods and services
➢ By increasing taxation
➢ By increasing bank interest rates
➢ By reducing government expenditure in non-market sector. Eg roads.
➢ By using treasury bills- this is release of money such as dollars in the economy to stabilize the currency
212
1. What is Reflation?
It is the increase or expands of money supply in the economy. It is a situation where the government
pumps in new money in circulation. E.g sometimes we do see new money being used such as K10, K5
and K2.
What is Deflation?
It is the general decrease (reduction) in the prices of goods and services.
effects of deflation
1. It reduces profit in a business
2. It leads to business closing down
3. It leads to increase in unemployment levels
4. It leads to reduction of income of businessmen
5. It leads to people fail to pay back loans What is Revaluation
(Appreciation)?
It is the increase in the value of a currency in relation to other currencies.
What is Devaluation (Depreciation)?
It is the decrease in the value of a currency in relation to other currencies.
2. > What is Demand?

It is the amount goods and services a person is willing to buy at a given price at specific time.
What is Supply?
It is the amount goods and services a person is willing to sell at a given price at specific time.
What is Price?
It is the value of goods and services expressed in money.
Explain how Demand, Supply and Price affect each other.
i. High Demand + Low Supply = Low Price
To mean if there is high demand of goods and services but low supply the prices will go up (increase in
prices).
ii. Low Demand + High Supply = Low Price

To mean if there is low demand of goods and services but high supply the prices will go down (reduction
in prices). iii. High Demand + High Supply = High Price
To mean sometimes there are goods and services who are on high demand, High supply and High price.
This is due to high important and demand such as fuel and electricity. Therefore, no matter what people
have no choice but to buy them? iv. Moderate (Low) Demand + Moderate (Low) Supply = Fair
(Low) Price
To mean that the number of customers who are willing to buy goods and services at a given price are
equal to the sellers willing to sell the goods and services at given price.
MONEY LAUNDERING
What is money laundering?
213
It is where one acquires money through dirty activities such as selling drugs and stealing thereafter
tries to make it look as though the money in possession was acquired in a clean manner. The three
money laundering activities
1. Fraud
It is a dishonest way of tricking people or taking unfair advantage of someone over something. For
example, a person promises you that if you give them your money, they multiply it and give more but
immediately you give them they disappear for good with your money
Examples of Fraud
i. Collusion
This is where two people agree to trick or take unfair advantage of someone over something. For
example, two people agree to cheat parents that at school they need K50 for school tour when in fact it
is a lie. ii. Counterfeiting
This is where a person makes an imitation of an original thing. For example, a person makes a fake
K50 note.
iii. Forgery
This is where a person makes alteration on a written document in order to obtain something illegally.
For example, forging a person‘s signature to get money on his/her behalf.
2. False pretense
This is a deliberate misinterpretation of facts in order to obtain money or property from someone. For
example, during open day for Report forms a pupil picks someone from the street to act as parent when
getting results.
3. Deceit
This is a deliberate omission of information in a business transaction so as to mislead a person. For
example, a pupil about his/her parents that there are dead yet there are very much alive.
2. Effects of money laundering activities?

1. It leads to closure of business by those businesses involved
2. It leads to property or money acquired money laundering activities taken by the state
3. It encourages criminal activities among in society
4. It can discourage people from investing countries that tolerant money laundering activities
5. It can make you be imprisoned (jailed) for life
3. Institutions formed to fight money laundering activities in Zambia
1. Anti-Money Laundering Investigations Unit (AMLIU)
2. Drug Enforcement Commission of Zambia (DEC)
3. National Task Force on Anti-Money Laundering (NTFAML)
4. Anti-Corruption Commission (ACC)
214
5. Zambia Police Service.
Topic six(6)
BUDGET
1. What is a budget?
215
It is a plan on how to raise and spend money. A budget involves making estimates about how much
money one is likely to raise and spend.
2. Name the parts (features) of a budget.

There are two features or parts of a budget namely;
i. Income – which is money received from salaries, rent or business.

ii. Expenditure - which is money spent on various needs such as buying food, paying
school fees and transport for work/school.
3. Name the types of budget
There are three types of a budget namely;
i. Personal budget
It is a plan on how an individual going to raise and spend money. Therefore, when making a personal
budget expenditure should equal or less than income. For example, if you earn to k200 per month your
expenditure should be k200 or less. Below is an example. Given k100 show how you can spend it on
your school materials.
ii. Family budget

It is a plan on how a family is going to raise and spend money. Usually, our parent workout the budget
on how to raise and spend money on family needs such as education, medical services, clothes and
food. In most cases the family budget is made up of income, expenditure (fixed expenses such as rent
and flexible expenses such as buying TV) and saving money for investment. For example, given k200
prepare a budget for your family on the basic needs.
iii. National budget

It is a plan on how the government of the country is going to raise and spend money in a year.
(a) Parts of national budget
The national budget has three parts namely
(i). Recurrent Revenue (Income)

It is the money that government raises from taxes, loans and grants from donor and financial
institutions.
(ii). Recurrent Expenditure
It is the money that the government spends on paying salaries and wages of government workers.
Also, for maintenance of government equipment‘s, buildings and roads
(iii). Capital expenditure
It is the money that government spends on new planned projects such as construction of roads and
building of new schools and hospitals. (b) Ways of preparing a national budget
By the time the government presents its budget to the country most of its income and expenditure is in
proposal form. It outlines how its hopes to raise and spend money in that given year. Therefore, it can
either prepare a budget surplus, deficit or balanced budget. (i) Budget Surplus
It is when income is more than expenditure
216
(ii) Budget deficit
It is when expenditure is more than income.
(iii) Balanced budget

It is when income is equal to expenditure.
3. Outline the role of parliament in formulation and implementation of national budget (budget
process).
(i). Drafting
Individual members of parliament submit individual budgets of the constituency they represent to the
ministry of finance.
(ii). Legislative approval
Parliament approves the budget presented to parliament by the Minister of Finance.
(iii). Monitoring and implementation
Parliament through the Public Account Committee (PAC) monitors the implementation of the budget
country wide.
(iv). Audit
Parliament through the Public Account Committee (PAC) carryout audits of the money given to
various government departments in the budget country wide
1. Sources of revenue of for National budget
These areas where government expects to raise money for expenditure.
➢ Taxation: The Zambia Revenue Authority (ZRA) collects taxes on behalf of the
government from all business transactions in the country such as importation of vehicles
and selling goods in shops.
➢ Dividends: The government has shares in business companies such as ZANACO, Zambia
National Building Society (ZNBS) and Zambia National Provident Funds (ZNPF).
➢ Privatization: This is the selling of government owned companies to private individuals.
The government can decide to sell the whole company or sale some shares in that
government.
➢ Bilateral aid: This is assistance from one nation to another. Mostly the assistance that
Zambia receives comes from the PARIS CLUB (DONOR COMMUNITY) to mean rich
countries that help poor countries. The countries include among others Britain, USA,
Germany, France, Japan, Italy, Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland and China.
These countries usually give GRANTS to mean a gift that is not to be paid back.
➢ Multilateral aid: This is assistance from local or international financial institutions to a
country. The institutions include any local banks such as ZANACO or NATSAVE and
international banks include World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and African
Development Bank (ADB). Usually when these institutions give money to countries,
countries are expected to pay back with interest. Therefore, when a country fails to pay
back the money it owes financial institutions that will be called DEBT CRISIS.
217
➢ Government companies: The government is running some companies such as ZAMTEL
and tourism attractions center‘s where it makes money for itself.
➢ Fines: This is money raised government through forfeited assets to the state and money
paid people in courts.
➢ User fees: This is the money that the people pay to assess government services such as all
licenses, national registration document and toll gates.
2. Challenges associated with the implementation of national budget.
> Tax invasion: Some individuals or companies avoids paying taxes to the government by either
hiding true tax due or use other means to avoid paying tax.
> Smuggling: Some individuals or companies import or export goods to and from other countries
without necessarily passing through ZRA boarder points to pay tax
> Fraud: Sometimes government money is stolen by those entrusted to pay for government projects
through paying companies which does not exist.
> Theft: Some government officials steal money meant for government projects.
> Corruption: Some government officials connive with some companies to overcharge the
government and then share that extra money with that company.
> Donor dependency: Sometimes the donor community will promise to give Zambia the money but
due to unforeseen circumstances they fail to honor the promise.
3. Important of the budget

i. It helps a person, family or nation to give priority to basic needs such as food, health and
education
ii. It helps a person, family or nation to save money for future use iii. It is a control measure
to mean it helps a person, family or nation to cut down on wastages and make best use
of the money available.
iv. It promotes transparency in the handling of money in a family or nation as the budget
will be there to been by anyone.
v. It helps people to accountable as all they have raised and spent will be clearly written
down.
vi. It promotes equity in the sharing of resources more especially in a family and nation as
all need areas will be given a fair share of the money.
Topic seven(7)
TRADE
1. What is Trade?
It is the selling and buying of goods and services. For example, schools tuck shop selling biscuits to
pupils.
2. Types of trade
218
There are two types of trade namely;
i. Local/Home/Domestic/Internal Trade
It is the selling and buying of goods and services within the country. For example, a marketer goes to
buy Kapenta for sale in Siavonga.
Advantages of Local/Home/Domestic/Internal Trade
i. Promotes economic growth in the country ii. Encourages industrial development in
the country iii. Supplement the provision of goods and services in the country
iv. Promotes trade specialization of regions in the country
v. Creates employment for the local people in the country
Disadvantages of Local/Home/Domestic/Internal Trade
i. Limited market may lead to loss of business ii.
Limited raw materials may lead to closure of industries
iii. It may lead to monopolization of goods and
services
iv. Goods and services may be in short supply and fail to meet the needs of people v.
Locally produced goods and services may be of poor quality
ii. International/Foreign/Interstate/External trade
It is the selling and buying of goods and services among countries. For example, a Zambian business
lady goes to South Africa to buy clothes for sale in Zambia.
Advantages of International/Foreign/Interstate/External trade
i. It brings foreign exchange in the country
ii. It encourages countries to specialize. For example, Zambia produce copper while
Japan produces vehicles iii. It promotes a potential market of
goods and services from other countries iv. It improves economic
relations among countries
v. It supplements the provision of goods and services in less developed countries
Disadvantages of International/Foreign/Interstate/External trade
i. Less developed countries have become dumping grounds for second hand goods such as
Salaula and Vehicles
ii. It leads to moral decay in the country as goods such as tight clothes do not fit into
the expected Zambian attire.
iii. It can lead to less developed countries become dependent of goods from developed
countries
iv. It can lead to serious shortages of certain goods such as fuel if in the producing
country if there is a problem in the supply such goods.
v. It can lead to loss of market for locally produced goods as people may prefer
buying foreign goods.
219
CHAIN OF DISTRIBUTION
A. Describe the chain of distribution
It is the movement of goods and services from the producer to the consumer.
How goods move in the chain of distribution
The producer (manufacturer) produces the goods in bulk and sells them to the wholesaler who breaks
the bulk of goods and packs the goods in sizeable packs and then sells them to the retailer who also re-
packs the goods in sizeable packs and sells them individually to the consumer who finally consumes
the goods.
B. Describe the importance of producer, wholesaler, retailer and consumer in the chain of
distribution
A. Importance of the producer or manufacturer

i. They produce goods to be consumed by
consumers ii. They ensure availability of goods on
market
iii. They determine the price of goods in the chain of
distribution iv. They advertise the new products to potential
consumers v. They provide storage for goods for wholesaler
B. Importance of the wholesaler
i. They act as link between the producer and retailer ii. They
help the producer to distribute goods iii. They make it possible for the
retailer to buy goods in sizeable packs iv. They ensure a timely release of
goods on the market v. They provide storage of goods for retailers
C. Importance of the Retailer
i. They act as link between the wholesaler and consumer
ii. They receive feedback about products from the consumer iii. They
make it possible for the consumer to buy goods individually iv. They
are located near homes of people
v. They advertise goods on sale through brochures every week eg. Shoprite brochures
D. Importance of the Consumer

i. They give feedback on goods consumed ii. They provide markets for producer,
wholesaler and retailer iii. They encourage the producer to produce more goods iv. They
help to dispose off the litter such as plastics and tins used in packaging of goods.
v. The purchase of goods helps in sustaining and developing the country economically as
more shops and industries will be opened.
220
International Trade
1. Elements of International/Foreign/Interstate/External trade
i. Banks
The banks help in transfer of money from one country to another and also provide money exchange
services. ii. Advertising
This is the notice of something for sale or services offered. Therefore, most companies advertise their
products. iii. Transport
Goods and services are made available by moving them to areas of demand through air, water, road
and railway transport.
iv. Insurance
It provides a cover for goods in transit in case of damage or theft
v. Tariffs
These are taxes levied on goods brought into or taken out of the country. vi.
Quotas
It is the amount of goods allowed in and out of the country within a given period of time. vii.
Exchange controls (Restriction of trade)
The government may also impose a limit on trade with other countries on what to be imported and not.
viii. Debt crisis
It is a situation where by a country fails to pay back debts it owes other countries or financial
institutions.
Possible solutions to debt crisis
i. Increasing exports
ii. Putting a limit on
imports iii. Lowering
bank interest rates iv.
Expansion of agriculture
sector
v. Reduction of government expenditure in non-market

sector 2. Recording of transactions in International/Foreign/Interstate/ External
trade
Balance of trade
It is the difference between the value of imports and exports over a particular period.
Types of balance of trade
i. Trade is balanced
221
It is when the country‘s imports are equal to exports ii.
Trade surplus (Favorable balance of trade)
It is when the country‘s exports are more than imports iii.
Trade deficit (unfavorable balance of trade) It is
when the country‘s imports are more than exports
Balance of payments
It is the difference in spending (payments) and earnings from the imports and exports.
Types of balance of payments
i. Balance of payments surplus (Favorable balance of payment)
It is when a country receives more foreign currency from exports but pays less foreign currency on
imports. ii. Balance of payments deficit (unfavorable balance of payment)
It is when a country receives less foreign currency from exports but pays more foreign currency on
imports.
Invisible trade
It is the money paid in foreign currency for a service offered. E.g., paying for shipping of goods,
tourism and insurance services s
Types of invisible trade
i. Invisible exports
This is the money paid to an individual or company of a foreign country for the services offered. e.g.,
Paying a Japanese company to ship the vehicle from Japan to Zambia ii. Invisible imports
This is the money received from a foreigner for accessing a service in a foreign country. e.g., Money
received from an American who pays to see Victoria Falls in Zambia.
Topic eight(8)
Regional and international organizations
1. What are regional organizations
These are incorporate international membership and encompass geo-political boundaries of countries
that operate as a single state to promote the interest of their members. 2. Regional organizations to
which Zambia is a member 1)
1.SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY(SADC)

When was SADC formed?
1st April, 1980
1. SADC was formerly known as Southern African development co-ordination conference
(SADCC)
2. SADCC was changed to SADC on 17th August, 1992 in Windhoek, Namibia
222
3. The headquarters of SADC are in, Gaborone, Botswana
4. There are 15-member country of SADC which are, Angola, DRC, Botswana, Lesotho,
Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, south Africa, Swaziland,
Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe 6) The two main aims of SADC are?
(i) to promote national political liberation in southern Africa
(ii) to reduce interdependence on south Africa during the Apartheid era.
7) objectives of SADC?
i. to promote and defend peace and security.
ii. to create common political values system and institutions. iii. to
promote self- sustaining development.
8) Five functions of SADC
i. combating HIV and Aids. ii.
promote peace and security. iii. promote
quality standards of life. iv. promotes
economic and political development.
v. promotes self-sustainable development.
9) Organization structure of SADC

i. Summit of heads of state or government,
➢ it is the highest or supreme level of authority.
➢ it makes the policies of SADC.
➢ it meets once every year it is made up of heads of state.
ii. Organ and political, defense and security co-operation
➢ it is responsible for promoting peace and security in the SADC region.
➢ it is headed by a head of state elected every year.
iii. Council of ministers
➢ it is responsible for planning and supervising all activities of SADC it is made up of one
minister from each member of state.
➢ it advices the summit on SADC policies.
iv. Secretariat
➢ it plans and manages SADC programmes.
➢ it‘s headed by an executive secretary appointed every after four years.
v. Tribunal
➢ it is the legal advisory body of SADC.
➢ it is made up of 10 judges
223
➢ it deals with any disputes in SADC. vi. Troika ministerial committees
➢ it makes sure that development plans for SADC are implemented.
➢ it is made up of ministers from each SADC member state.
vii. Standing committee of officials
➢ it advices the council of ministers
➢ it is made up of officials that deals with economic planning of finance from each SADC
member state.
viii. National committee
➢ it helps to prepare SADC policies and strategies.
➢ it prepares new projects for SADC.
➢ it is made up of government, private and civil society officials for each SADC member state.
10) How does Zambia benefit from being a member of SADC?
➢ it is helped to achieve development and economic growth.
➢ it is helped to alleviate poverty.
➢ it is helped to improve the quality of standard of life.
➢ it is helped to promote and defend peace and security.
11) The two languages used in SADC are English and Portuguese
2. COMMON MARKET FOR EASTERN AND SOUTH AFRICA (COMESA)

1) When was COMESA formed? It was formed, 18th December, 1994
2) What is the former name for COMESA? Preferential trade area (PTA) for eastern and
southern.
3) Name the 20 member countries of COMESA; BURUNDI, COMORAS, DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC OF CONGO (DRC) LESOTHO, EGYPT, ERITREA, ETHOPIA, KENYA,
NAMIBIA, MADAGASCAR, MALAWI, MAURITIUS, RWANDA, SEYEHELLES,
SUDAN, SWAZILAND, TANZANIA, UGANDA, ZAMBIA AND ZIMBABWE
4) The two countries that pulled out of COMESA in 1997? Angola and Mozambique
5) The two countries that have joined COMESA recently? These are Libya and Djibouti
6) The headquarters of COMESA? Are in Lusaka- Zambia 7) Why was COMESA created?
i. to create a big economic environment within the region in order to attract and assure local
and foreign investors.
ii. to create a wider market for its members Africa.
224
8) When was the preferential trade area (PTA) for eastern and southern Africa formed? it
was formed in 1981
9) When did the preferential trade area (PTA) for eastern and southern Africa change its
name? it was changed on 8th December, 1994
10) Functions of COMESA
i. To attain sustainable growth and development of member countries ii. To promote joint
development in all fields of economic activities iii. To adopt economic policies and programs that
improves the welfare of the citizens and encourage close relations between member countries
11) Creating a suitable environment for domestic and foreign investment

12) Working together to strengthen the relations between COMESA and the world
13) Maintaining peace and security between member countries so that economic development ties
in the region are strengthened
14) Structure of COMESA
1. Authority it is the highest of supreme policy making organ
of COMESA. it is made up of heads of state. it directs and
controls all COMESA functions.
it meets once per year
2. Council of ministers it is the second highest or supreme policy
making organ of COMESA. it prepares the agenda for the
summit. it is made up of ministers from each country. it makes
decisions on administration and financial management.
3. Inter- government commission it is made up of experts or people
skilled in various jobs. the expert‘s co-ordinates with the council
of ministers on the activities of COMESA.
4. Secretariat it is responsible for the administration of COMESA.
it is headed by the secretary general
he/she tenure of office is 4 years.
5. Court of justice it is the judicial organ which handles all legal
matters of COMESA it is headed by a judge president. it
consists of 6 other judges.
6. Committee for the heads of central bank it makes financial and
budgeting decisions
7. Technical committees
There are about 12 different technical committees on agriculture legal affairs, tourism and wild life,
trade and monetary affairs.
These committees prepare programmes and make sure that they are implemented.
225
3. AFRICAN UNION (AU)
1) What is the former name of African union? organization of African unity (OAU)
2) When was the organization of African unity (OAU) formed? African Union (AU)
formed on 25th may, 1963
3) When did the organization of African unity OAU) change to African union (AU)? It
was changed 9th July, 2002.
4) The headquarters of African union (AU)? They are in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
5) Where was the idea of forming organization of African unity (OAU) copied from?
pan- African or pan- African movement
6) In which country was the summit to change OAU to AU held? In South Africa
7) Who was the chairperson of organization African unity (OAU) when it changed to
African union (AU) on 9th July 2002 in South Africa. Thabo Mbeki South African
president
8) Functions of AU
i. promoting unity and solidarity among the African
states. ii. coordinating efforts to achieve better life for
Africans.
iii. defending independence iv. getting rid of all
forms of colonialism from Africa v. promoting
international cooperation 9) Objectives of AU.
i. to unite African states.
ii. to promote co-operation among member states iii. promote sustainable
development iv. to promote and protect the rights of the people
v. to promote peace, security and stability on the continent
10) Structure of AU
i. Authority of heads of state and government
ii.Council of minister of foreign affairs iii. Inter-governmental
commission iv. Secretariat
v. Commission of mediation, conciliation and
arbitration vi. Specialized commissions
4. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)
1) When was NEPAD adopted? 11th July 2001- Lusaka Zambia
226
2) Why was NEPAD created? to promote economic development programmes of African union
3) The founding countries of NEPAD? Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, Senegal and south Africa
4) Members of NEPAD ARE, 50 countries
5) The headquarters of NEPAD? Midland- South Africa
6) Main functions of NEPAD
i. to eradicate poverty ii. to promote
sustainable growth and development iii. to
promote empowerment of women iv. to
integrate African into the global economy
7) The structure of NEPAD
i. Assembly of African Union ii. Heads of state and
Government implementation committee iii. Steering
committee iv. Secretariat
v. National NEPAD
structures vi. NEPAD
council
5. Benefits of Zambia membership of regional organization
a. Access to wider market
b. Infrastructure development
c. Employment opportunities
d. Attract investment
e. Access to technical assistance and expertise
f. Promote cross – border trade
g. Promote common traffics and policy trade
h. Promote studies of environmental problems
i. Promote research programmes on different diseases
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
It is an organization that has members from different parts of the world.
THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATIONS(UN)
1. When was the United Nations (UN) formed? 24th October, 1945
2. In which country was UN formed? san Francisco – USA
3. Which international organization was formed before UN? league of nations- 1918
4. Where are the headquarters of UN? New York – USA
227
5. Which international organization shares the same birthday with Zambia on 24th
October? United Nations (UN)
6. Why was the United Nations (UN) formed?

i. to promote peace in the
world ii. to prevent war in the
world
7. How many countries are members of the United Nations (UN?) 192 countries
8. The missions of The United Nations (UN) To maintain world peace
To develop good relation between countries
To encourage respect for human rights
9. Functions of United Nations (UN)
Maintaining international peace and security
Promote economic development

Promote human rights
10. Qualifications for United Nations membership
Peace, Loving Country
Self-Governing Country
The six organs of the United Nations (UN)

i. General
Assembly -made up
of 192 countries
-each country has one vote (single vote)
-meets once per year
-accept new
members to UN -
Act as parliament of
UN ii. Security
Council -made up
of 15 countries
-5 out of 15 countries are permanent members these are United States of America (USA), Britain,
France, China and Russia.
-10 out of 15 countries are Non-permanent members and are elected every after 2 years
-this organ is responsible for maintain peace and settle disputes worldwide iii.
Secretariat
228
-is headed by Secretary General
-he/she is the Chief Administration officer of UN
-he/she is appointed every after 5 years
-he/she act as spokesperson of UN
-this organ is responsible for administration various UN programs
-this organ acts as civil service of UN
-it provides people to translate the 6 official languages of UN and these are _English, French, Chinese,
Arabic, Spanish and Russian.
no Name Country of nationality Period
origin
1 Trygve Lie Norway Norwegian 2/02/1946 to 10/11/1952
2 Dag Hammarskjold Sweden Swedish 10/04/1953 to 18/09/1961
3 Myint-U- Thant Burma Burmese 30/11/1961 to 31/12/1971
4 Kurt Waldheim Austria Austrian 01/01/1972 to 31/12/1982
5 Javier Perez De Cuellar Peru Peruvian 01/01/1982 to 31/12/1991
6 Boutros Boutros –Ghali Egypt Egyptian 01/01/1992 to 31/12/1996
7 Kofi Annan Ghana Ghanaian 01/01/1997 to 31/12/2006
8 Ban Ki-Moon South Korea South Korean 01/01/2007 to 31/12/2016
9 Guterres Antonio Portugal Portuguese 01/01/2017 to date
iv. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

-made up of 54 countries elected every after 3 years
- Co-ordinates and supervises the UN specialized agencies
-meets 2 times in a year
-promotes human rights
-prepares draft convections
1. The World Health Organisation (WHO)
• Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland
• Works towards the highest level of health care for the greatest number of people.
• Coordinates research in fields such as drug and alcohol abuse, primary health care, and nutrition.
• Improves sanitation and hygiene in developing countries.
2. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
229
• Headquarters: Rome, Italy
• Inform, advises and promotes scientific research Assists agricultural development in
developing countries.
• Controls the flow of food aid to Asian and African countries.
• Raises nutritional levels and standards of living.
3. International Labour Organization (ILO)
• Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland
• Raises world standards of working conditions
• Creates greater employment opportunities for women and men
• Aims to get rid of social injustices for all working people.
4. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
• Assists developing nations with things such as vaccination programmes and relief services.
• Aims to decrease infant mortality by two thirds, and reduce the frequency of respiratory illnesses
and dysentery
• Runs campaigns to prevent child prostitution, trafficking in children, and illegal child labour
5. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
• Headquarters: Paris, France
• Aims to bring peace and security to the world
• Promotes peace and tolerance between different nations
• Strives to achieve access to quality education for all children
• Encouraging scientific cooperation between nations
6. International Monetary Fund (IMF)

• Headquarters: Washington DC
• Promotes international monetary cooperation and exchange rate stability
• Works to assist the growth of international trade, and to reduce poverty
• Lends money to members that have balance of payment difficulties v. Trusteeship Council
-protects countries that are not yet independent
-promotes independence of
countries vi. International Court
of Justice
-made up of 15 judges who serve for 1 year elected by General assembly and security council
230
11. Benefits of Zambia’s membership to United Nations (UN)
i. UN specialized agencies supports and promotes health programmes
ii. UN specialized agencies supports and promotes education, science and culture programmes
iii. UN specialized agencies give loans to Zambia iv. UN specialized agencies offers advice
on how to manage money related issues
v. UN specialized agencies increases food production in the country
vi. UN specialized agencies assists children in health, education and nutrition matters
COMMONWEALTH
It is a group of countries that were once colonized by Britain
1) A diplomat who represents the country in a former colony of Britain? High

Commissioner
2) A diplomat who represents the country in a non-former colony of Britain?
Ambassador
3) The head of the commonwealth? King or Queen of Britain
4) Major principle of the commonwealth? To promote co-operation and tolerance
5) The chief officer of the common wealth? Secretary General
6) The headquarters of the commonwealth? London
7) Aims of commonwealth
-to promote international peace and
security -to promote human equality and
dignity
8) Functions the Common Wealth
i. Alleviating poverty
ii. Promoting gender equality and empower women iii. Achieving a greater
respect for human rights iv. Ensuring a basic education for all
v. strengthening the delivery of health care in member countries
vi. Encouraging Common Wealth countries to work together to make their economy stronger and
improve their systems of government
9) The structures of commonwealth

1. Commonwealth Heads of States Conference
231
2. Finance Ministers’ Conference
3. Commonwealth Secretariat
4. Secretary General
5. High Commissioners
10) Benefits of Zambian’s membership to commonwealth
i. Political co-
operation ii.
Military co-
operation
iii. Commonwealth parliamentary association
iv. Economic co-operation
11) The organizations under the commonwealth
i. Commonwealth Development Corporation
ii. British Ministry of Overseas Development
iii. Education Co-operation iv. Medical Co-operation
v. Medical Equipment and Medicines
vi. Social and Cultural Co-operation
1. International voluntary organization and donor agencies

1) What is voluntary service?
It is an activity done without paying or reward and without being forced.
2) What is a voluntary organization?

It is a group of people who do activities without being paid or rewarded and without being forced.
3) Examples of international voluntary organization

i. Red cross
ii. Lions (Lion Club) iii. Rotary
international iv. Jaycees v. Oxfam
vi. Cheshire
4) Who is the founder of Red Cross? Jean Henry Dunant from Switzerland
5) When was the Red Cross formed? in 1859
6) The headquarters of Red Cross? Geneva-Switzerland
7) Services offered by the Red Cross
232
i. Primary
health care ii.
First aid iii.
Welfare
services iv.
Blood
donation
v. Disaster preparedness
8)Red cross in Muslim countries is called, Red crescent

9)Aid that is received by a poor country from a richer country? Bilateral aid
10) Examples of bilateral aid agencies from richer countries
i. Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) from Sweden ii.
Finnish International Development Agency (FINNIDA) from Finland iii.
United States Agency for International Development (USAID) from
United States of America iv. Japanese International Co-
operation Agency (JICA) from Japan
11) What do we call the aid received from an international financial institution such as
World Bank? Multilateral Aid
Examples of multilateral agencies
i. World bank
ii. African Development Bank (ADB) iii. International
Monetary Fund (IMF)
233

2023, Social Studies Notes Grade 8 - 9

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2023, Social Studies Notes Grade 8 - 9

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

SOCIAL SCIENCES TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION OF ZAMBIA

SOCIAL STUDIES NOTES, 2023

Central Province (Social Studies)

Central Province (Social Studies)

TOPIC ONE: MAN THE SOCIAL BEING

LEARNING ABOUT THE PAST

Importance of studying history

Central Province (Social Studies)

Limitations of Oral traditions

Limitations of Written records:

Central Province (Social Studies)

Methods of dating historical events and materials

Radio carbon dating

Relative Dating Method (Layer)

The Concept of Measuring Time

Central Province (Social Studies)

Calculation of years ago for A.D

B.C means “Before the birth of Jesus Christ”

How to calculate years ago for B.C

Converting years into centuries

Central Province (Social Studies)

ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF MAN

The scientific Version

Central Province (Social Studies)

Stages in the evolution of man

Central Province (Social Studies)

Stages in the evolution of man

Periods through which man has lived

The Iron Age

Central Province (Social Studies)

Early Stone Age

Middle Stone Age

Late Stone Age

Important stone age sites in Zambia

Central Province (Social Studies)

Iron Age period

PRE-COLONIAL SOCIETIES IN ZAMBIA

Origin of Bantu-Speaking People

Central Province (Social Studies)

Movements of the bantu-speaking people in Africa

Those who were there before the Bantu

Causes of the Bantu migration

Central Province (Social Studies)

Evidence of Bantu migrations

Results effects of Bantu migrations

Central Province (Social Studies)

MOVEMENTS OF THE BANTU-SPEAKING PEOPLE INTO ZAMBIA:

Central Province (Social Studies)

Central Province (Social Studies)

Causes of the Bantu migration

Central Province (Social Studies)

Central Province (Social Studies)

Central Province (Social Studies)

Central Province (Social Studies)

Central Province (Social Studies)

Central Province (Social Studies)

THE BEM BA KINGDOM

Central Province (Social Studies)

Central Province (Social Studies)

THE LUYI KINGDOMS (LOZI)

Central Province (Social Studies)

Central Province (Social Studies)

Central Province (Social Studies)